Chapter 9
Practice Schedules
Key Talking Points
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When learners are first introduced to a new motor skill, they should engage in constant
practice, practicing only a single variation of the task. Once they have acquired the basic
movement pattern, they should engage in variable practice strategies, rehearsing multiple
variations of the task.
For open skills and closed skills that involve inter-trial variability, the practitioner should
systematically introduce variations in both regulatory and non-regulatory conditions that
could be present in an applied setting. For closed skills that do not involve inter-trial
variability, learners should be exposed to a variety of potential non-regulatory conditions,
while the regulatory conditions of the skill should remain constant.
Increasing contextual interference—the interference that results from switching from one
skill to another or changing the context in which a task is practiced from trial to trial—
has been shown to facilitate learning.
Low contextual interference occurs during blocked practice, when the learner practices
one skill or skill variation repeatedly before attempting another skill or skill variation,
whereas high contextual interference results when multiple tasks or task variations are
performed in random order.
Initial learning should be organized through blocked practice, and random practice should
follow once learners have acquired some degree of proficiency.
Repeated-blocked practice combines the advantages of blocked and random practice.
Learning is enhanced when practice sessions are shorter and more frequent.
Distributed practice is recommended for novel and complex skills, continuous tasks,
tasks that inherently have high-energy requirements, and tasks whose performance
involves some degree of risk. Massed practice can be effective for learners who have
acquired basic skills, are highly motivated, are in good physical condition, and have long
attention spans.
To maximize time on task, the practitioner should carefully consider rest intervals,
equipment substitutions, and drill design.
Short Answer / Essay Questions
1.
Explain why one must consider the interaction of the learner, the task, and the environment
when designing practice experiences.
2.
Compare and contrast variable and random practice.
3.
Define contextual interference.
4.
Design a drill for a skill of your choice that incorporates both variable and random
practice.
5.
Discuss the pros and cons of practicing under fatigued conditions.
Exploration Activities
Time on Task
Note: This activity lets students measure the participation of those involved in a game
and then asks them to consider strategies for increasing participation across the group.
(Page 222)
Equipment Needed:
10 people
Three soccer balls
Open area
Stopwatch
Procedure:
Form one large circle of nine people, with the tenth person standing in the middle. The person in
the middle is to try to get the ball while those forming the circle try to keep it away from him or
her by passing it around.
1. Perform the drill for 60 seconds, noting the number of ball contacts. How many times did
each individual touch the ball, on average? How motivated were the participants?
2. Have two additional people go into the middle. There should now be three people in the
middle and seven in the circle. Repeat the drill for 60 seconds. This time, how many
times did each person touch the ball, on average? How motivated were the participants?
How did the intensity of the drill change?
3. Add two balls to the drill. Again, perform for a 60-second period. How many times did
each person touch the ball? How motivated were the participants? How did the intensity
of the drill change?
4. Can you suggest other strategies that could be implemented to increase time on task?
Answers to selected Cerebral Challenges
DISCLAIMER
Because all learning situations involve a dynamic relationship among the learner, the task, and
the environment, many responses will depend on the assumptions the respondent made when
answering the question. Consequently, the answers provided are merely examples of possible
responses and do not necessarily reflect all possibilities.
Cerebral Challenge 9.1
An argument sometimes made for the use of variable practice is that in an actual performance
context, the same movement is never performed twice. Do you agree or disagree with this
statement? Develop an argument to support your position.
Answer
Two attempts at the same movement may appear similar but they are never identical. Neither the
initial conditions nor the constraints of a given situation will ever be exactly the same for each
performance attempt.
Cerebral Challenge 9.2
1. Your patient is Mr. Green, the gentleman in the opening story who is re-learning how to walk
after hip replacement surgery. His goal, you will recall, is to dance with his granddaughter at
her wedding. Explain how you will incorporate variable practice into his therapeutic
program. Describe the variables that you will manipulate and give your reasons for doing so.
Answer
Examples of variables to consider:
 Speed
 Direction
 Slope
 Surface (e.g. carpet, wood floor)
 Shoes
2. For a skill of your choice, explain how you would implement variable practice.
Answer
Example skill: Jump shot
Examples of variables to be manipulated:
 Speed of shot
 Angle to the basket
 Distance to the basket
 Shooting off a dribble vs. pass
 With a defender vs. without a defender
Cerebral Challenge 9.3
A practitioner may decide to continue to use constant practice rather than switch to variable
practice once the learner develops an understanding of the basic movement pattern because the
learner will experience greater success during practice. You learned earlier that experiencing
success in practice leads to greater motivation. What strategies might you employ to maintain a
learner’s motivation while incorporating a variable practice schedule?
Answer
Examples of responses:
 Provide opportunities for success each session
 Remind learners to strive for goals
 Establish positive practice environment
Cerebral Challenge 9.4
1. How could you combine random and variable practice for the racquetball drive serve, lob
serve, and z serve?
Answer
Have the learner perform the three types of serves in random order while manipulating variables
such as:
 Location in service box
 Location of receiver
 Speed of serve
 Target location of serve
 Height
 Backhand vs. forehand of receiver
 Depth
 Rebound angle
 Location of bounce on court
2. How could you use random and variable practice to help Mr. Green re-learn to walk?
Answer:
Randomly walk forward, backward, up and down stairs, and so forth while manipulating speed,
direction, slope, surface, shoes, and the like.
3. How would you change your answers to questions #1 and #2 to implement a repeated-blocked
practice schedule in each situation?
Answer
Rather than performing each skill and skill variation in random order, perform each for three to
five successive attempts before moving to a new skill and/or skill variation.
Cerebral Challenge 9.5
Station work is an excellent way to implement repeated-blocked or random practice. For
example, in soccer, six stations could be set up around the field to practice the instep kick,
trapping, dribbling, volleying, throw-ins, and heading the ball. At each station, a task card, like
the example provided below, would describe the activity to be performed and the number of
trials to be taken before the learner rotates to the next station.
Station 1
Starting on the inside of the first cone, dribble the
ball through the cones, using the inside of your
foot going up and the outside of your foot coming
back. Repeat 10 times and then move to Station 2
1. Using a skill or skills of your choice, design a station practice. For each station, specify the
rotation to be used, equipment needed, how you will label the station for easy visibility, and
what the task card will say.
Answer
An example of a lesson can be found at
http://www.pecentral.org/lessonideas/ViewLesson.asp?ID=4965
2. Speculate as to the potential weaknesses of this particular type of practice.
Answer
Example of response:
One weakness of stations is that it can be harder to provide feedback to students. It is also
important to design stations that allow students to adjust the activity according to individual
ability levels.
Cerebral Challenge 9.6
Determine whether you would use massed or distributed practice for the following skills. Justify
your answer.
a. Gymnastics vault
b. Free throw
c. Butterfly stroke
d. A dance routine
e. A specific massage technique
f. Maintaining balance with an injured
leg while standing on a trampoline
(e.g., ankle rehabilitation)
Answer
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Massed
Massed
Distributed
Distributed
Massed
Distributed
Cerebral Challenge 9.7
For a skill of your choice, suggest possible activities that could fill the rest intervals during
practice and maximize practice effectiveness.
Answer
Example of responses:
 Perform mental imagery
 Conduct video analysis of own performance
 Observe a learning model
Cerebral Challenge 9.8
For a skill of your choice, list possible alternatives that you could use when an insufficient
amount of equipment is available.
Answer
For an extensive list go to:
http://www.pecentral.org/preschool/prekhomemadeequipmentmenu.html
Cerebral Challenge 9.10
1. Redesign the volleyball drill presented in the section titled “Drill Design” (page 221).
Explain why your drill would be more effective.
Answer
A variety of responses are possible. A partner passing drill would provide the most touches. It
could be structured with a number of challenges to increase motivation and focus such as the
number and sequence of passes (forearm and overhead) to be executed as well as target locations
for movement to the ball.
2. What is the purpose of learning the weave in basketball? Do you think this is an effective
drill? Justify your answer.
Answer
The objectives often cited of the basketball weave drill are to improve passing and dribbling
skills and improve communication between teammates. Some variables to consider when
evaluating the effectiveness of a drill include how well the drill transfers to the criterion
condition or in this case, a game situation, the amount of individual practice it provides, the
amount of wait time for one’s turn, etc. and whether the goal of the learner matches what is
intended for the drill.