Greenberg & Baron:
Behavior In Organizations
Chapter Twelve
Influence, Power and Politics in Organizations
Chapter Summary
When someone attempts to affect another in a desired fashion, that person is said to be using
social influence. The concept of power refers to the capacity to change the behavior or attitudes of others
in a desired manner. Behaving in a manner that is not officially approved by an organization to meet one’s
own goals by influencing others is known as organizational politics.
Social influence may take the forms of rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, consultation,
ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, coalition building, legitimating, and pressure. Other techniques
derive from basic principles governing human relations (e.g., reciprocity, commitment, liking) and range
from ingratiation through playing hard to get and the door-in-the-face technique.
One major type of power, position power, resides within one’s formal organizational position. It
includes (1) reward power; (2) coercive power, the capacity to control valued rewards and punishments,
respectively; (3), legitimate power, the recognized authority that an individual has by virtue of his or her
organizational position; and (4) information power, the power that stems from having special data and
knowledge. Another major type of power, personal power, resides within an individual’s own unique
qualities or characteristics. It includes (1) rational persuasion, using logical arguments and factual
evidence to convince others that an idea is acceptable; (2) expert power, the power an individual has
because he or she is recognized as having some superior knowledge, skill, or expertise; (3) referent
power, influence based on the fact that an individual is admired by others; and (4) charisma, having an
engaging and magnetic personality.
The resource-dependency model asserts that power resides within the subunits that control the
greatest share of valued organizational resources. The strategic contingencies model explains power in
terms of a subunit’s capacity to control the activities of other subunits. Such power may be enhanced by
the capacity to reduce the level of uncertainty experienced by another unit, having a central position within
the organization, or performing functions that other units cannot perform.
Political behavior is likely to occur in situations where goals and roles are ambiguous, the
organization has a history or climate of political activity, and resources are scarce. In addition, politics are
also encouraged by a high level of centralization and when different individuals or units in the organization
have conflicting interests or goals. Politics often occur in connection with human resources issues and
tend to increase as organizations mature and increase in size. Political tactics vary greatly and include
blaming and attacking others, controlling access to information, and cultivating a favorable impression.
Political behavior may be considered ethical to the extent that it fosters organizational interests
over individual greed, respects the rights of individuals, and conforms to prevailing standards of justice
and fair play. The effects of organizational politics can be limited by practices such as clarifying job
expectations, opening the communication process, being a good role model, and not turning a blind eye to
game players.
Learning Objectives
A.
B.
C.
D.
Define the concepts of social influence, power, and organizational politics.
Describe the major varieties of social influence that exist.
Identify the major types of individual power in organizations.
Describe the two major approaches to the development of subunit power in organizations (the
resource-dependency model and the strategic contingencies model).
E. Describe when and where organizational politics occur and the forms such behavior takes.
F. Identify the major ethical issues surrounding the use of political behavior in organizations.
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I.
Behavior In Organizations
Chapter Twelve
SOCIAL INFLUENCE: A BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL
PROCESS
1. You are a supervisor heading a group of 12 staff members
working on an important new project for your company.
Tomorrow, you will make a big presentation to company
officials, but the report is not quite ready.
Notes
Figure 12.1
p.439
2. If several staff members would work a few extra hours, the
job would be clone on time. There’s a problem, however.
Tonight, the people in your department plan on going out,
so nobody wants to work late.
3. How can you persuade some of your staff to work late to
complete the job?
A. SOCIAL INFLUENCE, POWER AND POLITICS:
BASIC NATURE
THEIR
1. Using the example from the employee’s perspective. You
know of your boss’ predicament, but you do not want to
work overtime.
2. At the same time, however, you do not want to anger the
boss by rejecting his/her request.
3. When you see the boss approaching your desk, you run
away, avoid making eye contact, and walk briskly to the
restroom to avoid a confrontation.
4. Can we say the boss influenced you in this situation?
a. The boss has, in fact, influenced you.
5. Influence is a general process, power and politics are
narrower processes.
6. Power refers to the potential to influence another
successfully. It is the capacity to change the behavior or
attitudes of another in a desired fashion.
7. In contrast to social influence power is the capacity to have
a desired effect on others.
a. Based on one’s personal characteristics.
b. Based on one’s organizational position.
8. When people exercise their power, they often consider their
own individual interests.
9. Organizational politics, which refers to unauthorized uses of
power that enhance or protect one’s own (or a group’s)
interests, usually at the expense of organizational goals.
10. It is negative behavior as organizational politics technically
is illegitimate in both its means and its ends. It typically is a
source of conflict as well.
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Yourself From Unwanted
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Behavior In Organizations
B. TACTICS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE:
Chapter Twelve
GETTING TO “YES”
1. Researchers have identified several techniques that people
use to influence others in organizations.
a. Rational persuasion--using logical arguments and facts
to persuade another that a desired result will occur.
b. Inspirational appeal--arousing enthusiasm by appealing
to another’s values and ideals.
c. Consultation--asking for participation in decision
making or planning a change.
d. Ingratiation--involves getting someone to do what you
want by putting that person in a good mood or getting
him or her to like you.
e. Exchange--promising some benefits in exchange for
compliance with a request.
f. Personal appeal--appealing to another’s feelings of
loyalty and friendship before making a request.
g. Coalition-building--seeking the assistance of others, or
noting the support of others.
h. Legitimating--pointing out one’s authority to make a
request, or verifying it is consistent with prevailing
organizational policies and practices.
i. Pressure--seeking compliance by using demands,
threats, or intimidation.
2. These various tactics are used based on whether one is
attempting to influence someone at a higher, a lower, or an
equivalent organizational level.
a. Leaders often use inspirational appeals to influence
their subordinates and they also may use pressure,
when necessary.
b. Subordinates, rely on consultation or ingratiation.
c. Finally, when attempting to influence peers, both
exchange and personal appeal are among the most
popularly used.
3. As a general rule, open, consultative techniques are
believed to be more appropriate than coercive technology.
4. The most popular techniques used at all levels are
consultation, inspirational appeal, and rational persuasion.
In contrast, the less socially desirable forms of influence-that is, pressure and legitimating--are used much less
frequently.
5. Some techniques, such as ingratiation, coalition, personal
appeal, and exchange, are more likely to be used in
combination with others than to be used alone.
6. Underlying an individual’s choice of technique is that
person’s expectations of the effects it is likely to have, and
on the qualities of the individual being influenced.
C. OTHER TACTICS OF INFLUENCE
1. Additional research on influence has focused on
compliance—getting others to say yes. The basic
principles most relevant to organizational behavior are:
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Notes
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Influence in the World of
Work p.467
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Chapter Twelve
a. Friendship/liking: The more we like someone—them
more likely we are willing to comply with their request or
accept other forms of influence from them.
This principle is closely related to ingratiation and
impression management. First get others to like
you—once they do—ask them to do what you want.
Notes
Practicing OB:
Negotiation: A Setting for
Influence Tactics p.467
b. Commitment/consistency: Once one has committed
to a belief or action there is a strong wish to behave in
ways consistent with that belief. There is a strong
pressure to comply with requests consist with those
initial commitments.
This principle is related to several successful tactics.
The first, “get a foot in the door”—start with a small
request and once accepted—escalate to a larger one.
The second, the “lowball.” This is the attempt to
change a deal by making it less attractive after its been
negotiated.
c.
Scarcity: Opportunity that will soon no longer be
available is difficult to resist.
Tactics such as “playing hard to get” and “fastapproaching dead-line” use this principle. When a
sales person suggests products are in short supply
he/she is using the scarcity principle.
d. Reciprocity: Individuals generally experience powerful
pressures to reciprocate benefits that they have
received from others.
This is related to “door in the face” tactic. Individuals
start with a large request that they are sure will be
refused. Once refused they scale down their request
to a more acceptable one putting the other person
under pressure to accept this concession. The
concession is not a real one—it is often planned in
advance and he or she may even be willing to go
lower—but the tactic often works giving them the
advantage.
II. INDIVIDUAL POWER: A BASIS FOR INFLUENCE
A. POSITION POWER: INFLUENCE THAT COMES WITH THE
OFFICE
1. Much of the power people have in organizations comes
from the positions they hold. They can influence others
because of the formal power associated with their jobs.
2. Legitimate power--the power people have because others
recognize and accept their authority. It covers a relatively
narrow range of influence, and it may be inappropriate to
overstep these bounds. Legitimate power applies only to
those behaviors that are recognized and accepted as being
appropriate by the parties and the institution involved.
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Figure 12.5
p.444
Best Practices: Joe Torre:
The Yankee’s Power Hitter
Without a Bat p.446
Individual Exercise:
What Kinds of Power Does
Your Supervisor Have?
p.465
Greenberg & Baron:
Behavior In Organizations
Chapter Twelve
3. Reward power--associated with holding certain jobs also
comes the power to control the rewards that others receive.
Rewards may be tangible or intangible.
Notes
4. Coercive power--results from the capacity to control
punishments. Often, people have power simply because
others know they have the opportunity to punish them.
5. Information power--is available by virtue of a person’s position is based on data and other knowledge. Traditionally,
people in top positions have unique sources of information
that are not available to others. Technology has made it
possible for more information to be available to more
people than ever before. As a result information no longer is
the unique property of a few people holding special
positions.
B. PERSONAL POWER: INFLUENCE THAT COMES FROM THE
INDIVIDUAL
1. Power also derives from an individual’s own unique
qualities or characteristics. This is known as personal
power: rational persuasion, expert power, referent power,
and charisma.
2. Rational persuasion--relies on logical arguments and
factual evidence to convince others that a certain idea is
acceptable. Rational persuasion is highly effective when the
parties involved are intelligent enough to make their cases
strongly and to understand them clearly. Based on clear
logic, good evidence, and the desire to help the company,
rational persuasion tends to be quite effective.
3. Expert power--is based on superior knowledge of a certain
field. People respect and want to follow those “in the know.”
People whose expertise is highly regarded, however are
among the most powerful people in organizations.
4. Referent power--Individuals who are liked and respected by
others can get those others to alter their actions, which is a
type of influence known as referent power. Senior
managers with desirable qualities and good reputations
may find they have referent power over younger managers
who identify with and wish to emulate them.
5. Charisma--an engaging and magnetic personality. Some
people also become highly influential because of their
charismatic ways.
a. Highly charismatic people have definite visions
regarding the future of their organizations and how to
get there.
b. They tend to be excellent communicators, relying on
colorful language and exciting metaphors to excite the
crowd.
c. Charismatic individuals inspire trust.
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Figure 12.6
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C. POWER: HOW IS IT USED?
Notes
1. OB scientists have found that the various power bases
relate closely to each other in how they are used.
a. The more someone uses coercive power the less that
person is liked and the lower his or her referent power
tends to be.
b. Managers with expert power also are likely to have
legitimate power, because people accept their expertise
as a basis for having power.
c. The higher someone’s organizational position, the more
legitimate power that person has, which usually is
accompanied in turn by greater opportunities to use
reward and coercion.
2. What bases of power do people prefer to use? The answer
is quite complex.
a. People generally prefer using expert power the most
and coercive power the least.
3. Top executives rely on a broad range of powers and many
forms of power tend to be used to influence subordinates.
a. Expert power is preferred to influence peers and
superiors.
b. Coercive tactics tend to be frowned on in general, and
they are especially inappropriate when attempting to
influence a higher-ranking person.
4. Influencing superiors is tricky because of the counterpower
they have. The situation is complicated by the fact that one
party may have higher power along one dimension but
lower power along another.
D. EMPOWERMENT: THE SHIFTING BASES OF POWER IN
TODAY’S ORGANIZATIONS
1. Power is shifting from managers to employees. Employees
are not being managed in the traditional sense. Power often
is shifted down the ladder to a team of workers, who are
allowed to make decisions themselves.
2. In one survey, when asked about how much power they
currently had compared with 10 years ago, the largest
group of responding CEOs, 42 percent--indicated they had
less power.
3. Empowerment is the passing of responsibility and authority
from managers to employees. It involves more than simply
giving employees leeway in determining how to carry out a
leader’s stated mission. It also involves sharing the appropriate information and knowledge that allows employees to
do what is needed to meet the organization’s goals.
4. The key to empowering people successfully is the sharing
of expert information.
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Figure 12.7
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Low/High Power Distance
Cultures p.450
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5. Empowerment is a matter of degree. At one end of the
continuum are companies in which workers have no power
to determine how to do their jobs. At the opposite end are
companies in which employees have complete control over
what they do and how they do it.
Notes
6. When employees are empowered, their supervisors are
more likely to serve as teachers or facilitators who guide
their teams using knowledge and expertise--expert power.
a. Traditional managers tell people what to do, how to do
it, and when to do it.
b. Supervisors of empowered workers, however, are
more inclined to ask questions to get people to solve
problems and to allow them to make decisions on their
own.
c. This is done through training sessions for managers
and employees.
E. EMPLOYEE’S REACTIONS TO EMPOWERMENT:
POSITIVE?
ALWAYS
1. Employees, in general, respond favorably to empowerment.
They are free to take responsibility for their own jobs and to
solve problems.
2. Companies have reaped the benefits of these efforts—
saving money on shipping costs, trash removal, decreased
absenteeism, etc.
3. Empowerment strategies can be introduced in all types of
organizational structures and be effective.
III. GROUP OR SUBUNIT POWER: STRUCTURAL
DETERMINANTS
A. THE RESOURCE-DEPENDENCY MODEL: CONTROLLING
CRITICAL RESOURCES
1. An organization can be thought of as a complex set of
subunits that are constantly exchanging resources with
each other. The formal organizational departments may be
both giving to and receiving from other departments valued
commodities--money, personnel, equipment, supplies, and
information.
2. Various subunits often depend on others for such
resources.
3. Organizational subunits are involved in a complex set of
interrelationships. To the extent one subunit controls the
resources on which another subunit depends, the first
subunit may be said to have power over the second.
4. The resource-dependency model proposes that a subunit’s
power is based on the degree to which it controls those
resources required by other subunits. The most powerful
subunits are those that contribute the most important
resources.
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Figure 12.8
p.452
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5. Within organizations, the rich subunits get richer. In
contrast, the more a subunit depends on another—the less
power it has.
Notes
6. How do various organizational subunits become more
powerful in the first place. A fascinating study of the
semiconductor industry in California provides insight.
7. Two main factors account for an organizational subunit’s
power.
a. The period within which the company was founded.
b. The background of the entrepreneur who started the
company.
8. The most powerful organizational subunits also tended to
be those representing the founder’s area of expertise—and
applies to companies throughout the world.
9. The resource-dependency model suggests that a key
determinant of subunit power is the control of valued
resources. It is not only control over resources that dictates
organizational power, however. It also is control over the
activities of other sub-units.
B. THE STRATEGIC CONTINGENCIES MODEL: POWER
THROUGH DEPENDENCE
1. To the extent a department can control the relative power of
various organizational subunits by its actions, it is said to
have control over strategic contingencies.
2. Where do the strategic contingencies lie within
organizations?
a. In one classic study, researchers found that power was
distributed in different departments among different
industries.
b. Within successful firms strategic contingencies were
controlled by the departments most important for
organizational success.
3. The strategic contingency model suggests several key
considerations as to what factors give subunits control over
strategic contingencies.
a. The capacity to reduce the uncertainty faced by
others.
Any department that can shed light on the murky
situations organizations may face can be expected to
wield the most organizational power. Accordingly, the
balance of power may change as the organizational
conditions change.
b. Those with a high degree of centrality in the
organization.
Some organizational subunits perform functions that
are more central and others more peripheral. If a
department needs to be consulted by most other
departments before any action can be taken, that
department has a central position in their organization.
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Figure 12.9
p.453
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Centrality also is high when a subunit’s duties have an
immediate effect on an organization.
c.
Notes
When a subunit controls power when its activities are
nonsubsitutable and indisposable.
If any group or department can perform a function, the
subunit responsible for controlling that function may
not be particularly powerful.
4. The strategic contingencies model has been tested in and
supported by several organizational studies. One study
found that a subunit’s power was greater when it could
reduce uncertainty in a work process or could perform a
function other subunits could not perform.
IV. ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION
Figure 12.11
1. Organizational politics is all about--actions not officially
approved by an organization that are taken to influence
others to meet one’s personal goals.
2. Organizational politics does involve placing one’s selfinterest above the interests of the organization. Indeed, this
element of using power to foster one’s own interests
distinguishes organizational politics from uses of power that
are approved and accepted by organizations.
3. Not surprisingly, business people often look down on those
who engage in organizational polities.
A. THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS: WHY AND WHEN IT
OCCURS
1. Individuals who engage in politics tend to have one or more
of the following characteristics:
a. High Machiavellianism (discussed in chapter 3).
b. High self-monitoring behavior.
c. Often described as social adept, popular, extroverted,
self-confident, aggressive, ambitious, intelligent, etc.
2. Organizational factors also contribute to organizational
politics:
a. Ambiguous goals
b. History or climate of political activity
c. Scare resources
3. Human resource management activities can also contribute
to organizational politics.
a. Ambiguity exists when evaluating another’s
performance. Sometimes more a reflection of the
rater’s interest in promoting a certain image of him or
herself.
b. People are concerned about the implications of new
hires and how it will reflect on them.
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One study found that the highest raises went to
employees who would complain—particularly if they
were well connected in the organization.
Notes
4. The occurrence of political behavior also varies with the
organization’s stage of development.
a. When new—it is guided by the philosophy of the
founder.
b. When mature—with departmentalization—different
groups come into conflict.
c. When declining—a period of great uncertainty—
political activity is quite intense.
B. POLITICAL TACTICS: WHAT FORMS DO THEY TAKE?
1. Gaining control over and selective use of information.
Controlling who knows--and who does not know--certain
things is one of the most important ways to exercise power
in organizations.
a. You might withhold information that makes you look
bad.
b. Avoid contact with those who may ask for information
you prefer not to disclose.
c. Be selective in the information you disclose
d. Overwhelm others with information that may not be
completely relevant.
2. Cultivating a favorable impression.
a. People who are interested in enhancing their
organizational control commonly engage in some
degree of image building to enhance their impressions
on others.
3. Building powerful coalitions.
a. Managers often lobby their ideas prior to meetings and
gaining support before presenting them at meetings
thereby saving the embarrassment of pure rejection.
4. Blaming and attacking others.
a. One of the most popular tactics of organizational politics.
b. A common tactic is finding a scapegoat, a person who
is given the blame for someone else’s failure or
wrongdoing.
c. Finding a scapegoat can allow the politically astute
individual to minimize his/her association with the
negative situation.
5. Associating with powerful others.
There are several ways to accomplish this.
a. Find a very powerful mentor.
b. Alternatively, people may agree in advance to form
coalitions, groups that band together to achieve some
common goal.
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Recognizing Organizational
Politics p.466
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c.
Behavior In Organizations
Chapter Twelve
People also may align themselves with more powerful
others by giving them “positive strokes” in the hope of
getting those more powerful people to like and to help
them, which is the process referred to earlier as
ingratiation.
Notes
6. Creating obligations and using reciprocity
a. Gather lots of obligations—IOUs—to be paid back
later.
b. People do this by doing favors for others and
expecting a lot in return.
C. ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: ITS EFFECTS
1. When people engage in politics they do so for personal
gain—raises, promotions, etc.
Table 12.1
2. The effects on the organization are not so positive.
Research has shown that this type of environment creates
lower job satisfaction and commitment among its
employees.
Web Surfing Exercise:
Organizational Politics
p.467
p.462
3. Employees perceive a lower level of organizational
support—lowering motivation.
4. Not everyone reacts to politics the same way in
organizations. Those high in conscientiousness on the Big
Five scale tend not to be bothered by it. Those who are
low in conscientiousness tend to be the most affected.
V. THE ETHICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
1. One of the most important effects of organizational power is
that it invites corruption. Unfortunately, the potential to
behave unethically all too frequently is realized.
A. WHAT, IF ANYTHING, IS UNETHICAL ABOUT
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS?
1. A 1,000 human resource professionals were surveyed
concerning their feelings about the ethics of various
managerial practices. Among the ethical situations
considered to be most serious were several practices
dealing with political activities reflecting abuse of power.
a. Making personnel decisions based on favoritism.
b. Basing differences in pay on friendship.
2. Another type of unethical political behavior was making
arrangements with vendors or consulting agencies leading
to personal gain.
3. Only about half the managers surveyed reported any
success in minimizing a problem such as hiring based on
favoritism because such behavior benefit the one doing
them.
4. In contrast, unethical behaviors based on insensitivity are
easier to combat, because these serve no beneficial
functions for the person doing the violating.
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Figure 12.14
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5. Managers tend to be relatively unaware of the political
biases underlying their unethical actions, however. Instead,
they attribute their actions to the attitudes and behaviors of
senior management.
a. Only l 0% of the participants attributed unethical
behaviors to political pressures, but 56% attributed
these to the attitudes and behaviors of senior
management.
6. Ethics goes well beyond mere compliance with the law,
however, and society expects companies to go well beyond
the ethical minimums.
B. ASSESSING THE ETHICS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
1. The first consideration is to ask: “Will the political tactics
promote purely selfish interest or will they also help to meet
organizational goals?” If only one’s personal, selfish
interest, are nurtured, political action may be unethical.
2. A second question is: “Are privacy rights respected?”
a. Does the political activity respect the fights of the individuals who are affected? Generally, actions that
violate basic human rights are, of course, unethical. It
is not easy to weigh the relative benefits of an
individual’s right to privacy against the greater societal
good.
3. Next ask: “Is it fair?”
a. Does the activity conform to standards of equity and
justice? Any political behavior that unfairly benefits one
party over another may be unethical.
4. Sometimes, however, we must consider instances in which
violating standards of justice may be appropriate. For
example, managers may give poorly performing employees
higher pay than they deserve in the hope of stimulating
them to work at higher levels.
5. Most matters involving moral and ethical issues are quite
complex. When a strategy is considered, its potential
effects should be evaluated.
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Chapter Twelve
Summary and Review of Learning
1. Define the concepts of social influence, power, and organizational politics.
When someone attempts to affect another in a desired fashion, that person is said to be using social
influence. The concept of power refers to the capacity to change the behavior or attitudes of others in
a desired manner. Behaving in a manner that is not officially approved by an organization to meet
one’s own goals by influencing others is known as organizational politics.
2. Describe the major varieties of social influence that exist.
Social influence may take the forms of rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, consultation,
ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, coalition building, legitimating, and pressure. Other
techniques derive from basic principles governing human relations (e.g., reciprocity, commitment,
liking) and range from ingratiation through playing hard to get and the door-in-the-face technique.
3. Identify the major types of individual power in organizations.
One major type of power, position power, resides within one’s formal organizational position. It
includes (1) reward power; (2) coercive power, the capacity to control valued rewards and
punishments, respectively; (3), legitimate power, the recognized authority that an individual has by
virtue of his or her organizational position; and (4) information power, the power that stems from
having special data and knowledge. Another major type of power, personal power, resides within an
individual’s own unique qualities or characteristics. It includes (1) rational persuasion, using logical
arguments and factual evidence to convince others that an idea is acceptable; (2) expert power, the
power an individual has because he or she is recognized as having some superior knowledge, skill, or
expertise; (3) referent power, influence based on the fact that an individual is admired by others; and
(4) charisma, having an engaging and magnetic personality.
4. Describe the two major approaches to the development of subunit power in organizations (the
resource-dependency model and the strategic contingencies model).
The resource-dependency model asserts that power resides within the subunits that control the
greatest share of valued organizational resources. The strategic contingencies model explains power
in terms of a subunit’s capacity to control the activities of other subunits. Such power may be
enhanced by the capacity to reduce the level of uncertainty experienced by another unit, having a
central position within the organization, or performing functions that other units cannot perform.
5. Describe when and where organizational politics occur and the forms such behavior takes.
Political behavior is likely to occur in situations where goals and roles are ambiguous, the organization
has a history or climate of political activity, and resources are scarce. In addition, politics are also
encouraged by a high level of centralization and when different individuals or units in the organization
have conflicting interests or goals. Politics often occur in connection with human resources issues and
tend to increase as organizations mature and increase in size. Political tactics vary greatly and include
blaming and attacking others, controlling access to information, and cultivating a favorable
impression.
6. Identify the major ethical issues surrounding the use of political behavior in organizations.
Political behavior may be considered ethical to the extent that it fosters organizational interests over
individual greed, respects the rights of individuals, and conforms to prevailing standards of justice and
fair play. The effects of organizational politics can be limited by practices such as clarifying job
expectations, opening the communication process, being a good role model, and not turning a blind
eye to game players.
Questions for Review
1. How is social influence different from power and from organizational politics?
Answer: When someone attempts to affect another in a desired fashion, that person is said to be
using social influence. The concept of power refers to the capacity to change the behavior or attitudes
of others in a desired manner. Behaving in a manner that is not officially approved by an organization
to meet one’s own goals by influencing others is known as organizational politics.
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2. What are the tactics of influence used most frequently in organizations?
Answer: Social influence may take the forms of rational persuasion, inspirational appeal,
consultation, ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, coalition building, legitimating, and pressure.
Other techniques derive from basic principles governing human relations (e.g., reciprocity,
commitment, liking) and range from ingratiation through playing hard to get and the door-in-the-face
technique.
3. What forms of power may be found in organizations?
Answer: One major type of power, position power, resides within one’s formal organizational
position. It includes (1) reward power; (2) coercive power, the capacity to control valued rewards and
punishments, respectively; (3), legitimate power, the recognized authority that an individual has by
virtue of his or her organizational position; and (4) information power, the power that stems from
having special data and knowledge. Another major type of power, personal power, resides within an
individual’s own unique qualities or characteristics. It includes (1) rational persuasion, using logical
arguments and factual evidence to convince others that an idea is acceptable; (2) expert power, the
power an individual has because he or she is recognized as having some superior knowledge, skill, or
expertise; (3) referent power, influence based on the fact that an individual is admired by others; and
(4) charisma, having an engaging and magnetic personality.
4. According to the resource-dependency model of subunit power, what are the most important bases of
subunit power in an organization?
Answer: The Resource-Dependency Model: Controlling Critical Resources
An organization can be thought of as a complex set of subunits that are constantly exchanging
resources with each other. The formal organizational departments may be both giving to and receiving
from other departments valued commodities--money, personnel, equipment, supplies, and
information. Organizational subunits are involved in a complex set of interrelationships. To the extent
one subunit controls the resources on which another subunit depends, the first subunit may be said to
have power over the second. The resource-dependency model proposes that a subunit’s power is
based on the degree to which it controls those resources required by other subunits. The most
powerful subunits are those that contribute the most important resources.
5. According to the strategic contingencies model, what is the basis of subunit power in an organization?
Answer: The Strategic Contingencies Model: Power through Dependence
To the extent a department can control the relative power of various organizational subunits by its
actions, it is said to have control over strategic contingencies.
 The capacity to reduce the uncertainty faced by others.
 Those with a high degree of centrality in the organization.
In addition, a subunit controls power when its activities are nonsubsitutable and indisposable.
6. What are some of the most important antecedents and consequences of organizational politics?
Answer - Political tactics can take several forms.
 Controlling access to information. Controlling who knows--and who does not know--certain things
is one of the most important ways to exercise power in organizations.
 Cultivating a favorable impression. People who are interested in enhancing their organizational
control commonly engage in some degree of image building to enhance their impressions on
others.
 Developing a base of support. To influence people successfully, gaining the support of others
within the organization often is useful.
 Blaming and attacking others. One of the most popular tactics of organizational politics. One such
common tactic is finding a scapegoat, a person who is given the blame for someone else’s failure
or wrongdoing.
 Aligning oneself with more powerful others.
 Playing political games. One expert in the field of organizational power and polities has likened
political behavior in organizations to a collection of sets in a multi-ring circus in that many people
or groups may be trying to influence many other people or groups simultaneously.
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Consequences of political activity can include lower job satisfaction and organizational commitment,
which can result in higher turnover and absenteeism. Additionally, members may feel the
organization does not support them resulting in lower motivation levels.
Experiential Questions
1. Which of the tactics of influence described in this chapter have you personally encountered? Were
they effective when used on you by other persons? What techniques do you use to influence others?
Answer: Point out to students that their choices may say something about them. Their choices
should come from the following. Researchers have identified several techniques that people use to
influence others in organizations.
 Rational persuasion--using logical arguments and facts to persuade another that a desired result
will occur.
 Inspirational appeal--arousing enthusiasm by appealing to another’s values and ideals.
 Consultation--asking for participation in decision making or planning a change.
 Ingratiation--involves getting someone to do what you want by putting that person in a good mood
or getting him or her to like you.
 Exchange--promising some benefits in exchange for compliance with a request.
 Personal appeal--appealing to another’s feelings of loyalty and friendship before making a
request.
 Coalition building--seeking the assistance of others, or noting the support of others.
 Legitimating--pointing out one’s authority to make a request, or verifying it is consistent with
prevailing organizational policies and practices.
 Pressure--seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation.
2. If you hold power in an organization, what is its basis? How do you prefer to exert power over others?
Answer: Students’ answers will vary depending on their experiences.
3. Have you ever felt empowered in an organization? If so, why? What effects, if any, did such feelings of
empowerment have on your performance?
Answer: Students’ answers will vary depending on their experiences. Encourage students to
discuss how the message they were empowered was communicated and what the consequences
were (positive and negative) when they did make decisions.
4. What is your own experience with organizational politics? Have you been on the receiving end of such
tactics? Have you used them yourself? Do you think that engaging in politics is essential to success in
most organizations?
Answer: Students’ answers will vary depending on their experiences.
Questions to Analyze
1. Everyone wants to get his or her own way, and this is as true in organizations as elsewhere. How
would you prefer to reach this goal in your own working life— through the use of social influence,
power, or organizational politics?
Answer: Students’ answers will vary depending on their experiences.
2. As an increasing number of organizations empower their employees, what will happen to the job of
manager? How will it change? Will these changes make it more desirable or less desirable than it is
today?
Answer: Already there are fewer middle management jobs than there were just 15 years ago.
More organizations than ever are “flatter” spreading the base of power throughout its ranks.
Managers, more than ever, need to be effective communicators and be working at a higher level than
the day to day decision making they were involved in in the past.
3. Do you believe that organizational politics is inevitable or that it can be curtailed? Explain your answer.
Answer: Many students accept the inevitability of organizational politics. The probability of
political activities depends on a number of conditions:
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The situation is fraught with uncertainty.
Groups have conflicting goals and interests.
Competition for scarce resources.
When the different groups are approximately equal in power.
Conditions leading to political activities are likely to differ as a function of an organization’s life. When
an organization is new, it may have little or no structure and be guided by the philosophy of the
founder. Political activity is not particularly likely during this stage. As organizations mature and grow
more complex, however, they tend to departmentalize, thus creating conditions in which the vested
interests of different groups are likely to conflict. Political means may be used to gain advantage in
such situations. When organizations begin to decline subunits may be quite insecure and the need for
political action may be great as people and groups compete for the power to control--and, perhaps, to
turn around--the organization.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What bases of personal power contribute to the Smith brothers’ success?
Answer: Much of their personal power comes from their charisma and their concern for others in
the organization. However, they no doubt have expert power as well.
2. What specific characteristics do you believe contributed to the Smith brothers’ outstanding careers?
Answer: Their interest in the business and hard work. Additionally, they focused on others in the
organization garnering loyalty. They are down to earth, yet have inspiring qualities that have made
them leaders without having to exert position power to be successful.
3. If we studied the Smith brothers’ family background closely, do you think we could identify specific
factors (e.g., in the way their parents raised them) that played a role in their successful rise to
corporate power?
Answer: They stated they were from a businesses oriented family and as children played board
games like Monopoly—money was always interesting to them. They liked business as children and
this was reinforced in their home.
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