Ref 4.03
Antecedents of extrinsic motivation to transfer training
Refereed paper
Andreas Gegenfurtner
University of Regensburg, Germany
Email: [email protected]
Hans Gruber
University of Regensburg, Germany
Email: [email protected]
Keywords: Motivation to transfer; organisational training; integrated regulation; external
regulation
Abstract:
Training aimed at raising employees’ skills and enhancing employability is an
important tool for human resource development practitioners. The transfer of trained contents
to the workplace is not trivial, however. Trainees’ motivation to apply newly acquired skills
and competencies on the job plays a central role in the transfer of training process. This paper
presents a study aimed at assessing antecedents of extrinsic motivation to transfer
immediately at the end of the training. Based on organismic integration theory and expectancy
theory, two types of extrinsic motivation to transfer training were distinguished: integrated
regulation of transfer motivation and external regulation of transfer motivation. To investigate
the research question “What predicts the two types of extrinsic motivation to transfer?”,
relations were examined with attitudes toward training content, relatedness and instructional
satisfaction. 445 subjects were trained in 23 occupational health and safety training sessions.
Immediately before and after the training session, the subjects completed multi-item
questionnaires. The non-normal missing data set was analysed using factor analysis and
structural equation modeling. The findings indicate that external regulation was predicted by
attitudes toward training content, and that integrated regulation was affected by attitudes,
relatedness, instructional satisfaction and external regulation. The initially hypothesised
structural equation model was post-hoc specified according to Lagrange Multiplier test
results. The final model showed considerably good fit, matching the proposed cutoff values
(χ2 = 3678.76, df = 253, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .04 with CI = .03 , .04) and was further
validated by comparing it to two equivalent alternative models. In concluding, the paper
discusses the findings with reference to methodological considerations, draws implications for
HRD practices in organisations and elaborates challenges for future research on motivation to
transfer training.
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Raising skills levels and enhancing employability are among human resource
development (HRD) missions in work organisations. These missions cover the design and
implemenation of training programmes. Factors affecting the effectiveness of training
programmes are widely studied in HRD literature (see, inter alia, Burke and Hutchins 2007;
Salas and Cannon-Bowers 2001); among these factors, trainees’ motivation to transfer the
training content to the workplace has a central role in the transfer of training process.
Research investigating motivational influences on training transfer only recently have
overcome the temptation to use just one single theory as fundament for examining motivation
to transfer. For example, Chiaburu and Lindsay (2008) used self-efficacy and instrumentality
to study trainees’ cognition and transfer motivation while Smith, Jayasuriya, Caputi and
Hammer (2008) employed goal theory to understand motivation for training and transfer. A
combination of different motivation theories, it is proposed, can take into consideration a
wider range of motivational forces influencing trainees’ transfer intentions than a single
theory alone (Kanfer 1990; Latham 2007). Therefore, in this paper, we present a study that
tested a combination of expectancy theory (Vroom 1964) and organismic integration theory
(Ryan and Deci 2000) to conceptualise motivation to transfer training. In the first part of the
paper, we delineate the theoretical basement needed to study extrinsic motivation to training.
In the second part, we identify and outline determinants of transfer motivation. In the third
part, we present the methods used to test our hypotheses. The fourth part reports the results
obtained. Finally, in the last part of the paper, we discuss the findings with reference to
methodological considerations, draw implications for HRD practices in organisations and
elaborate challenges for future research on motivation to transfer training.
Motivation to transfer training
Research on training and development has aimed for more than 30 years to identify
meaningful factors affecting the transfer of trained knowledge and skills to the workplace.
Noe (1986) identified motivation to transfer as a key concept. He defined it as the “trainees’
desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job” (Noe
1986, 743). Since then many investigators emphasised the importance of transfer motivation
for successful transfer of training (e.g., Baldwin and Ford 1988; Burke and Hutchins 2007;
Holton, Bates and Ruona 2000; Latham 2007). Despite a broad consensus on the importance
of motivation for successful training transfer, few studies exist which explicitly analyse
motivation to transfer and its antecedents (Egan, Yang and Bartlett 2004; Rowold 2007;
Seyler, Holton, Bates, Burnett and Carvalho 1998). While some predictors are well specified
(e.g., self-efficacy: pre- and post-training effects, general and performance self-efficacy),
others remain compositive and chunky (e.g., satisfaction). Many existing studies conceive
transfer motivation as one-dimensional construct. Most of them refer to Vroom’s Valence ×
Instrumentality × Expectancy framework (VIE; 1964) as single theoretical base.
In this study, we combine VIE theory with organismic integration theory (OIT)
to develop a more robust theoretical base of transfer motivation. (a) Using OIT, motivation to
transfer can be measured not only according to its quantity (i.e., high and low transfer
motivation) but also according to its quality (i.e., different types of extrinsic motivation to
transfer). This differentiation builds a new dimension in studying transfer motivation. (b)
Using Vroom’s VIE theory, the components instrumentality and valence are added. Although
instrumentality also plays a part in OIT, valence is underrepresented and better defined in
VIE. The aspect of valence is seen as an important part for the transfer of training. For
example, only if a trainee considers the performance improvement that may result from
applying training content on the job (instrumentality) as useful and worthwhile (valence),
transfer of training will occur. This study employs definitions offered by Kanfer (1990) who
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described instrumentalities as perceived relationships between (transfer) performance and
second-level outcomes such as pay, promotion or praise. Valence is described as “the
anticipated attractiveness of each second-level outcome” (Kanfer 1990, 115). Together, the
different styles of motivational regulation in OIT complemented by the instrumentality and
valence concepts of the VIE build a solid framework for a transfer motivation theory.
The application of this eclectic approach was done by investigating two forms
of extrinsic motivation to transfer based upon the self-determination continuum (Deci & Ryan
2000; Ryan & Deci 2000): external regulation and integrated regulation. This selection was
made because the context of (profit and not-for-profit) work organisations is likely to create
extrinsic motivation (Baard 2002). Within extrinsic motivation, external regulation represents
the most controlled motivation, and integrated regulation reflects the most autonomous
motivation. Hence, these two concepts are regarded as suitable in best presenting the different
nature of controlled and autonomous motivation in transferring training content to the
workplace (Deci and Ryan 2000; Gagné and Deci 2005). Both types are specified in turn.
External regulation to transfer
The least autonomous and most controlled form of extrinsic motivation to transfer is
external regulation. This is the “classic” instance of being motivated for training transfer to
attain positive end states (rewards, money) or to avoid negative end states (sanctions). In
accord with OIT, external regulation to transfer is seen to have an external perceived locus of
causality (Ryan and Deci 2000). In this study, external regulation to transfer was
operationalised in terms of instrumentality and valence. (a) Two items assessed whether
trainees perceived that the successful application of training content was linked with approval
from their boss or with financial rewards. (b) Another two items measured the valence, i.e.,
the level of personal importance trainees associated with those instrumentalities. Together,
these two item pairs are proposed to be appropriate for examining the degree to which trainees
have controlled motivation for transferring training.
Integrated regulation to transfer
In contrast to external regulation, integrated regulation is the most autonomous and
least controlled form of extrinsic motivation to transfer. Integrated extrinsic motivation to
transfer shares many aspects with intrinsic motivation because behaviors (i.e., applying
training content on the job) are performed volitionally and have an internal perceived locus of
causality (Ryan and Deci 2000). However, integrated motivated behaviors are done due to the
expectation of personally important outcomes (instrumentalities) rather than due to inherent
interest or enjoyment. Again, two item pairs were used to operationalise integrated regulation
to transfer. (a) Two items measured the extent to which trainees perceive the application of
training content to be a personal challenge and to which the application was linked with the
possibility to learn much. (b) Another two items assessed the level of personal importance
associated with those instrumentalities. Together, these two item pairs are proposed to be
appropriate for examining the degree to which trainees are autonomously motivated for
transferring training.
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Figure 1. Hypothesized model and relationships.
Attitudes toward
training content
Integrated
regulation to
transfer
Instructional
satisfaction
Relatedness
External
regulation to
transfer
satisfaction
Antecedents of extrinsic motivation to transfer training
This study aims at investigating the following research question: What predicts the
two dimensions of extrinsic transfer motivation directly after training? To answer this
research question, a theoretical model was developed. The causal paths of the model are
illustrated in Figure 1. In the right part of the model, the two dimensions of extrinsic
motivation to transfer are presented, external regulation and integrated regulation to transfer.
The left part of Figure 1 displays the influence of three predictor variables. The two
dimensions of transfer motivation were described in the previous section. The predictor
variables are addressed in turn: attitudes toward training content, relatedness, instructional
satisfaction and demographic variables.
Attitudes toward training content
Traditionally, research on training and development examines trainees’ attitudes
toward training content as an outcome variable as many training programmes in different
domains intend to enhance trainees’ attitudes toward certain topics. For example, medical
training programmes aim at improving participants’ attitudes toward certain methods of
treatment. The only attitudes that have been investigated associated with transfer motivation
were attitudes toward training in general (Bates 2001; Naquin and Holton 2002; Rowold
2007; Seyler et al. 1998). The measure of attitudes toward training in these studies reflects
attitudes trainees have toward learning in training and toward training as an HRD tool in
general and not to attitudes toward the specific content of a single training programme.
Hence, the relationship between attitudes toward training content and motivation to transfer
training has not been examined so far.
For this study, we conceptualised attitudes toward training content, i.e., attitudes
toward occupational health and safety, with items measuring trainee’s (a) perceived personal
importance of the contents for daily work, (b) wish to contribute to enhance safety of the work
area, (c) knowledge of reasons to do so and (d) feelings of responsibility and moral
commitment toward occupational health and safety. It was hypothesised that positive attitudes
toward training content are substantial predictors of both external and integrated regulation of
transfer. More positive attitudes toward occupational health and safety should increase the
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motivation to transfer the contents to the workplace owing to the expectation of rewards
(external) and further learning possibilities (integrated).
H 1: Attitudes toward training content are positively related with external regulation to
transfer (1a) and integrated regulation to transfer (1b).
Attitudes toward training content were also assumed to be related with instructional
satisfaction and relatedness. (a) If trainees have positive attitudes toward occupational health
and safety, they enter occupational health and safety training with a positive mood and, thus,
are more open to instructional methods and activities during training. Accordingly, more
open-minded trainees are more satisfied with the training instruction methods which, in turn,
lead to positive attitudes toward occupational health and safety training content. (b) If safety
inspectors feel valued and accepted by their workplace colleagues, this feeling of relatedness
is linked to the job content, i.e., to occupational health and safety. In turn, more positive
attitudes yield better job performance as safety inspector which may then be more valued by
peers and supervisors.
H 2: Attitudes toward training content are positively related with instructional satisfaction
(2a) and relatedness (2b).
Relatedness
The satisfaction of basic needs is a central issue in self-determination theory and more
specifically addressed in basic needs theory (Ryan and Deci 2000). Deci and Ryan identified
three needs: the needs for autonomy, for competence and for relatedness. In training and
development, autonomy is the only need that has been studied so far in its relationship to
transfer motivation (Axtell, Maitlis and Yearta 1997; Leitl and Zempel-Dohmen 2006). An
investigation of the relationships between transfer motivation and the needs for competence
and relatedness is still lacking. Relatedness was included in this study because it was found to
be more central for the internalisation of extrinsic motivation than the two other basic needs
(Ryan and Deci 2000; Ryan, Stiller and Lynch 1994).
Relatedness was conceptualised with items measuring the degree to which trainees (a)
feel appreciated by colleagues, (b) perceive the work climate to be helpful and cooperative
and (c) believe that their professional view and opinion on occupational health and safety
issues is considered important for peers and supervisors. Theoretical work suggested a
positive relationship between relatedness and integrated extrinsic motivation (Ryan et al.
1994). Because internalisation is more present in integrated regulation than in external
regulation, which is internalised only to a very low degree, it is assumed that relatedness is a
substantial predictor of integrated regulation to transfer.
H 3: Relatedness is positively related with integrated regulation to transfer.
Instructional satisfaction
Research on training and development has long been examining trainee satisfaction
with the training programme. For example, in Kirkpatrick’s four-level model, satisfaction
was, and still is, one element of training reactions that “must” be evaluated as an important
training criterion (Kirkpatrick 1959). In the meantime, Alliger and colleagues showed in two
meta-analyses that the proposed relationships in Kirkpatrick’s model do not receive sufficient
empirical support, which is why it is now widely seen as flawed (Alliger and Janak 1989;
Alliger, Tannenbaum, Bennett, Traver and Shotland 1997). Nevertheless, satisfaction is still
considered a relevant affective reaction measure and is regularly examined in training
5
evaluations; however, as compositive variable although prior research identified no less than
seven dimensions of trainee satisfaction: with topics and contents, with the instructor, with
instructional methods and activities, with learning objectives, with planned action and
transfer, with course materials and with logistical matters (Bassi & van Buren 1999; Lim &
Morris 2006)
Several researchers identified significant effects of overall training satisfaction to
transfer motivation (Burke 1997; Kuchinke 2000; Warr, Allan and Birdi 1999). These
findings indicate that trainees’ affective reactions toward the training programme have a
general impact on their motivational-volitional states to use the trained knowledge and skills
on the job. However, Lim and Morris (2006) note that overall training satisfaction is a rather
global construct in need of detailed specification. Therefore, this study specifically examines
satisfaction with instructional methods and activities (i.e., instructional satisfaction).
Instructional satisfaction was conceptualised as trainees’ affective reactions toward (a)
being motivated for active participation, (b) quality of examples provided by the instructor,
(c) possibilities to provide own examples, (d) consideration of trainees’ working experiences
and views and (e) an overall cooperative atmosphere in the training session. Trainees’
satisfaction with instructional methods and activities is suggested to promote the
internalisation of extrinsic motivation. Hence, it is assumed that instructional satisfaction
significantly predicts integrated extrinsic motivation because the level of satisfaction with the
instructions may promote the desire to learn more by applying the training content at work.
H 4: Instructional satisfaction is positively related with integrated regulation to transfer.
Demographic variables
Research suggests that individual trainee aspects might affect transfer motivation
although the effects are small in size: trainee age (Machin and Fogarty 1997; Tai 2006; Warr
et al. 1999) as well as organisational and job tenure (Machin and Fogarty 1997; Noe and Wilk
1993; Tziner and Falbe 1993; Warr et al. 1999). It was decided to exclude these variables
from the structural model in Figure 1. Trainees’ demographic and organisational membership
characteristics were measured, however, to establish nomological validity.
Methods
Sample and design
Subjects were 445 trainees who attended one of 23 five-day occupational health and
safety training programmes. They filled in multi-item questionnaires at two measurement
points, prior to and at end of training. 18.7% were younger than 30 years (n = 68), 30.0%
were between 31 and 40 years old (n = 109), 37.1% were between 41 and 50 years old (n =
135), 13.0% were between 51 and 60 years old (n = 47), 1.1% were elder than 60 years (n =
4). The average job tenure was 86.0 months (7 years and 2 months; SD = 81.3). The majority
of trainees had worked with their current employer for up to 5 years (n = 120; 33.1%). Eightytwo trainees had worked with their current employer for 6 to 10 years (22.6%), 60 trainees for
11 to 15 years (16.5%), 47 trainees for 16 to 20 years (13.0%), 54 trainees for 21 years or
longer (14.9%).
Instruments
Multi-item questionnaires were used to assess the constructs. Prior to training,
demographic and organisational membership characteristics were measured. At the end of
training, all other constructs were measured. Unless otherwise indicated, a 5-point response
6
scale was used for all items, with 1 = do not agree, 2 = do rather not agree, 3 = do partly
agree, 4 = do rather agree and 5 = do agree.
One item each was used to assess organisational tenure (“How long have you worked
with your current employer?”), job tenure (“How long have you been working already in your
current position?”) and the subjects’ age range (up to 30 years old, 31-40 years old, 41-50
years old, 51-60 years old, more than 60 years old).
Six items were used to assess participants’ attitudes toward training content (e.g., “I
consider it important that occupational health and safety procedures are systematically
implemented in my work area”). Cronbach’s alpha was .82.
Six items were included to assess respondents’ satisfaction with instructional methods
and activities (e.g., “I had sufficient possibilities to play a part in the training, e.g., through my
own examples”). A 6-point response scale was provided, with 1 = do not agree at all, 2 = do
predominantly not agree, 3 = do not agree somewhat, 4 = agree somewhat, 5 = predominantly
agree and 6 = agree completely. Cronbach’s alpha was .83.
Four items were used to assess trainees’ feelings of relatedness in their specific
workplace (e.g., “I feel appreciated by my colleagues”). Cronbach’s alpha was .82.
Four items were included to assess trainees’ external regulation to transfer (e.g.,
“Successful application of training content is presumably linked with material rewards, such
as a financial bonus”). Cronbach’s alpha was .74. Four items were used to assess trainees’
integrated regulation to transfer (e.g., “I regard the successful application of the training
content as an interesting challenge”). Cronbach’s alpha was .84.
Analysis
The dimensional structure of the variables included was investigated in a two-step
approach combining exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA). In the first step, we employed maximum likelihood (ML) as EFA extraction method,
OBLIMIN as rotation method and a combination of Kaiser’s rule of eigenvalues larger than
one, Cattell’s scree test and variance proportion of at least 60% as criteria for determining the
number of factors. In the second step, CFA was used to evaluate and validate the fit of the
measurement models extracted, following cutoff criteria recommended by Hu and Bentler
(1999; CFI<.95, RMSEA>.06). With a KMO coefficient = .88, the 23 variables used in the
factor analysis were found to represent five underlying factors. Structural equation modeling
(SEM) was used to assess the relationships between the five extracted constructs. In SEM, we
first specified and validated each measurement model by screening the data for multivariate
outliers, normality and multicollinearity as well as by testing construct validity. Second, we
specified and validated the structural model by assessing model fit in EQS as well as by
comparing the structural model to two alternative equivalent models (Bentler 2005; Lee and
Hershberger 1990). Third, while missing data were handled using the direct ML approach,
analyses were conducted based on the covariance matrix.
Results
Preliminary data analysis, descriptive statistics and construct validity
Table 1 presents means, standard deviations and inter-correlations of all constructs. In
testing for multivariate outlying cases, one multivariate outlier was removed from the sample
owing to substantial different contribution to normalised multivariate kurtosis. In testing for
multivariate normality, Yuan, Lambert and Fouladi’s (2004) normalised estimate = 42.60 is
7
highly suggestive of multivariate non-normality in the sample. In testing for multicollinearity,
collinearity analysis revealed tolerance values (0.38–0.71) larger than .10 and variance
inflation factors (1.41–2.65) less than 10, hence indicating no evidence for multicollinearity
among the data. Construct validity of each measurement model was established assessing
convergent, discriminant, nomological and face validity.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics, reliability estimates and intercorrelations of all factors
included in the study.
1 Age
2 OT
3 JT
4 AT
5 RE
6 SA
7 EX
8 IN
M
2.50
2.58
88.60
4.36
4.22
4.94
3.14
4.15
SD
.98
1.42
81.62
.84
.79
.87
1.21
.77
VE
.53
.65
.60
.58
.68
1
.50*
.37*
.15*
.16*
.14*
.05*
.08*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
.60*
.03*
.08*
.08*
.02*
.06*
.03*
.02*
.06*
.07*
.05*
(.82)
.60*
.50*
.24*
.65*
(.82)
.33*
.16*
.37*
(.83)
.32*
.57*
(.74)
.28*
(.84)
Note: Cronbach’s alpha values listed in parentheses. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; VE
= variance extracted; OT = organisational tenure; JT = job tenure; AT = attitudes toward
training content; RE = relatedness; SA = instructional satisfaction; EX = external regulation to
transfer; IN = integrated regulation to transfer. *: p < .01; N = 363.
Validation of structural model
The Yuan-Bentler scaled independence chi-square test for the model resulted in a chisquare score of 3678.8 (df = 253) with CFI = .93 and RMSEA = .05 with confidence interval
CI = .04 , .06. Although the model had an acceptable fit, it was not as good as expected (i.e.,
CFI). In addition, Lagrange Multiplier (LM) test results indicated (a) substantial covariance
between two factor pairs, i.e., between relatedness and satisfaction as well as between external
regulation and integrated regulation to transfer, and (b) substantial covariance among a
magnitude of error terms. Thus, post-hoc model fitting was done by re-specifying the factorial
covariance with external regulation affecting integrated regulation as well as by respecting
two error co-variances between EX3,EX4 and IN3,IN4. All re-specifications were based upon
theoretical considerations. In comparison to the initial model, the final model showed a
slightly better model fit with respect to all indicators, matching the proposed cut-off values
(CFI = .96 and RMSEA = .04 with CI = .03 , .04). LM test and Wald test (WTest) were
conducted to analyse if re-specification was required. While WTest indicated that the relation
between relatedness and integrated regulation to transfer was of low statistical importance for
the model and could be dropped, further re-specification was not made for two reasons. First,
the to-be-dropped relation was of theoretical importance for the model. Second, the model
showed already considerably good model fit. To avoid over-parameterising the model, it was
considered inappropriate to continue fitting the model beyond this level. Hence, the model in
Figure 2 displays the final model presenting the parameter estimates of both measurement
models and structural model.
In sum, external regulation to transfer was found to be affected by attitudes toward
training content (β = .44); integrated regulation to transfer was affected by attitudes (β = .43),
relatedness (β = .01), instructional satisfaction (β = .35) and external regulation (β = .15).
Finally, to avoid confirmation bias and to provide stronger support for the final model, two
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alternative equivalent models were generated and evaluated. This was done using the
replacing rule offered by Lee and Hershberger (1990). While both equivalent models revealed
identical goodness-of-fit statistics compared with the final model, the equivalent models were
nevertheless perceived as less meaningful in theory. The final model indicated stronger
theoretical support and was, therefore, corroborated and confirmed.
Figure 2. Final model parameter estimates.
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Discussion
The main objective of this study was to test a model that included antecedents of
extrinsic motivation to transfer. Using structural equation modeling to analyse data collected
in 23 training programmes, the results revealed that trainees’ motivation (i.e., external
regulation and integrated regulation) to use what was learned in a training programme on the
job was affected by their attitudes toward the trained contents (hypothesis 1), on their feelings
of relatedness in the workplace (hypothesis 3) and on their satisfaction with instructional
methods and activities in the training session (hypothesis 4). In addition, attitudes toward
training content were found to be positively related with relatedness and instructional
satisfaction (hypothesis 2). To summarise, the research question asking for predictors of the
two dimensions of extrinsic transfer motivation directly after training could be answered by
the study findings.
The results regarding demographic and organisational membership characteristics also
deserve a brief discussion. Regarding the small and non-significant relations of organisational
membership and job tenure to both types of transfer motivation, the findings of previous
studies were confirmed (Machin and Fogarty 1997; Noe and Wilk 1993; Tziner and Falbe
1993). In contrast to some of these findings, however, the relations were positive in the
present study. Regarding the small and non-significant relationship of trainee age to transfer
motivation, prior findings were confirmed (Machin and Fogarty 1997; Tai 2006; Warr et al.
1999). Although measured in two separate dimensions, motivation to transfer was not affected
by organisational and job tenure and trainee age. Further, the results suggest that the older the
trainees, (a) the more positive their attitudes toward training content, (b) the more related they
feel in the workplace and (c) the more satisfied they are with the training methods. Further
studies may use these findings to test systematically whether trainee age moderates the
relationship between these predictors and transfer motivation. In concluding the paper, we
outline methodological limitations, lessons learned for HRD managers and training instructors
and challenges for future research.
Methodological limitations
Besides positive aspects arising from the use of structural equation modeling and
large-sample data (Bentler 2005; Cheng 2001), the study has methodological limitations.
First, data on motivation to transfer were studied at only one point in time (directly after
training), thus referring to a static perspective. This was appropriate for the study’s main goal
of examining predictors affecting two types of transfer motivation immediately after training.
However, studies have suggested that transfer motivation is not a static construct but a
dynamic construct changing over time (Leitl and Zempel-Dohmen 2006). Therefore, this
study could offer just one snapshot of trainees’ motivation at immediate end of training. For
instance, the influence of instructional satisfaction may be an important predictor of transfer
motivation directly after training, but the influence of instructional satisfaction might decrease
in time and, three months later, other factors not investigated in the study may gain stronger
effects on transfer motivation. The explanatory power of the results, thus, is limited to the
time immediately at the end of the training.
Second, this study adapted only two types of the self-determination continuum:
external regulation and integrated regulation (Gagné and Deci 2005; Ryan and Deci 2000).
The chosen types seemed to be adequate because they are seen to represent best controlled
and autonomous motivation with its external and internal locus of causality. However,
research on self-determination theory and organismic integration theory identified several
other types along a continuum. It is unclear if the revealed relationship of external regulation
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affecting integrated regulation can be validated when all types of the self-determination
continuum are examined simultaneously. Hence, this analysed relationship needs to be seen
with respect to this limitation.
Finally, the third methodological limitation reflects the use of self-report data. Given
the fact that trainees can estimate their own attitudinal and motivational states best by
themselves, examination of self-reports seemed to be appropriate in this case. However,
research is aware of several biases connected with the use of self-reported data: leniency,
social desirability and self-serving bias can harm the objectivity of the self-assessments.
Therefore, all data used in this study are seen critically and not expected to be free of
distortions.
Lessons learned for HRD managers and training instructors
If we summarise the results of this study in terms of practical relevance, then two
aspects can be highlighted: one for HRD managers and one for training instructors. First, for
HRD managers, this study found attitudes toward training content to have large beta weights
on external regulation to transfer (β = .44) and integrated regulation to transfer (β = .43). This
indicates that the specific attitudes trainees have toward the content of the training programme
have a rather strong effect on whether or whether not they are motivated to apply the new
knowledge and skills to the workplace. This means that if trainees have more positive
attitudes toward the content they are going to be trained in, then they are more likely to
transfer the content to the workplace. The transfer of training, then, leads to performance
improvement, which in turn leads to better organisational outputs and return of investment
(Kearns 2005; Kraiger 2002).
Second, for training instructors, this study found that instructional satisfaction have
moderate beta weights on integrated regulation to transfer (β = .35). This finding highlights
the importance of using adequate instructional methods and activities. For instance, feedback
and practice were shown to facilitate learning and transfer (Burke and Hutchins 2007;
Kuchinke 2000). The satisfaction with these interventions leads to transfer motivation, as
shown in this study, and to better application outcomes (Lim and Morris 2006). One major
aspect in designing organisational training programmes, thus, is not only to focus on relevant
content but also to provide various and diversified instructional techniques and methods.
Based upon the items used in this study, such aspects include the following:
• encouraging active participation
• providing vivid and demonstrative examples
• giving trainees the possibility of providing their own examples
• taking into account trainees’ working experiences and views
• creating a helpful and cooperative atmosphere
These aspects can help to enhance trainees’ instructional satisfaction and, in turn,
enhance the motivation to apply training content in the workplace.
Challenges for future research
Finally, we discuss two challenges for future research on transfer motivation: (a) the
development and validation of a multidimensional scale for measuring transfer motivation and
(b) the use of longitudinal study designs for assessing this multidimensional construct and its
predictors. Both challenges are described below.
First, this study tried to provide a first step in the direction of examining a priori a
multidimensional construct of transfer motivation. Based upon organismic integration theory
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and expectancy theory, external regulation to transfer and integrated regulation to transfer
could be identified and validated as distinct factors. To date, motivation to transfer was
investigated as a one-dimensional construct and the focus was primarily on determining the
mere extent of it, the quantity. In contrast, this study investigated the nature of trainees’
transfer motivation, the quality. The objective was not to assess the question, “How much are
the trainees motivated to transfer?,” but the question, “Of what kind is that transfer
motivation?”. Hence, this study tried to step beyond the borders of conventional transfer
motivation research in broadening current understanding. However, it was just one step. Both
scales of integrated regulation and external regulation to transfer clearly show room for
improvement. If we look at the validation of the measurement models, we see that the model
fit estimates were not as good as expected, especially regarding RMSEA. And although the
internal reliability estimates were acceptable (alphas of .75 and .84, respectively), further
improvements could raise measure adequacy. Thus, what is needed is, on the one hand, crossvalidation of the two existing scales. On the other hand, the development of more scales
regarding the remaining types of the self-determination continuum can help to fully catch the
complexity of transfer motivation. As noted, only integrated regulation and external
regulation to transfer were measured. What still remains unstudied are introjected regulation,
identified regulation and intrinsic regulation to transfer. That is, efforts are needed for the next
step, from a two-dimensional to a multidimensional construct of motivation to transfer. The
development and validation of a transfer motivation inventory could provide answers for
training professionals and for researchers who are interested in the interplay of motivation and
transfer of training/learning.
The second challenge for future transfer motivation research reflects the dynamic
nature of motivation. Leitl and Zempel-Dohmen (2006) have already shown the dynamic
change of a one-dimensional transfer motivation construct over time. A longitudinal
investigation is interesting for two reasons: (a) to measure the change of multidimensional
transfer motivation but also (b) to measure changing levels of the predictive variables
affecting multidimensional transfer motivation. For instance, the present study identified
instructional satisfaction as an important predictor of integrated regulation to transfer directly
after training. Interestingly, this training reaction measure was not shown to affect external
regulation directly after training. But what remains unstudied is the impact of affective
training reaction measures on transfer motivation in varying degrees of time after training.
Thus, longitudinal study designs with three or more measurement intervals could examine the
stability over time of multidimensional transfer motivation and identify important predictors
for each type at different points of time. For example, relatedness was shown to have only
light effects on integrated regulation to transfer directly after training. This relationship might
be a completely different one if measured three months after training: then, trainees may have
already made considerable efforts in applying the training content on the job and may have
had experiences with colleagues. Did the trainees’ feelings of relatedness help to maintain
transfer motivation? And, three months after training, does it more strongly affect internal or
external motivation?
In summary, a process-oriented investigation of the multidimensional construct of
transfer motivation with longitudinal study designs could clarify the complexity and the
dynamics of motivation to transfer training and its predictors. Hence, a process-oriented
multidimensional investigation could meet the challenges of future transfer motivation
research.
12
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