EFFECTS OF ACCREDITATION ON THE MISSION AND VISION
OF THREE PRIVATE CHRISTIAN COLLEGES IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA:
PERCEPTIONS OF FACULTY AND ADMINISTRATORS
Richard A. Tevis
B.A., Southern California College, Costa Mesa, 1985
M.A., Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, Springfield, 2000
DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
in
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2013
Copyright © 2013
Richard A. Tevis
All rights reserved
ii
EFFECTS OF ACCREDITATION ON THE MISSION AND VISION
OF THREE PRIVATE CHRISTIAN COLLEGES IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA:
PERCEPTIONS OF FACULTY AND ADMINISTRATORS
A Dissertation
by
Richard A. Tevis
Approved by Dissertation Committee:
Caroline Sotello Viernes Turner, Ph.D., Chair
George T. McQueen, Ed.D.
Greg L. Hartley, Ed.D.
SPRING 2013
iii
EFFECTS OF ACCREDITATION ON THE MISSION AND VISION
OF THREE PRIVATE CHRISTIAN COLLEGES IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA:
PERCEPTIONS OF FACULTY AND ADMINISTRATORS
Student: Richard A. Tevis
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this dissertation is suitable for shelving in the library and credit is
to be awarded for the dissertation.
, Department Chair
Caroline Sotello Viernes Turner, Ph.D.
iv
Date
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to the glory of God and to my beloved wife Kelly.
God has given me the gifts and talents to succeed in this life, the desire to learn, and the
love of teaching.
My dear Kelly has always been my encourager. It has been my desire to pursue a
doctoral degree, but she challenged me to step out in faith and do it. Without her
unconditional love and support, I would not have been able to succeed.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is my privilege to acknowledge all of my wonderful teachers throughout my
life. They have inspired me to learn and to enjoy teaching others.
A special acknowledgement to my classmates and friends, Bal and Kathy: thanks
for helping me get through this wonderful process called a doctoral program. Next time,
let’s just go out to dinner, without having to write a paper.
I extend a special thank you to my incredible committee chairperson Dr. Caroline
Turner for her great insight, vast experience and encouragement and for my committee
members Dr. George McQueen and Dr. Greg Hartley for their wealth of knowledge in
this particular field.
vi
CURRICULUM VITAE
Education
M.A. Biblical Literature, Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, Springfield, 2000
B.A. Biblical Studies, Southern California College, Costa Mesa, 1985
Professional Employment
Administrator, Capital Christian School, 2010 – Present
Teacher, Capital Christian School, 2008 – 2010
Director of Development, Trinity Life Bible College, 2007-2008
International Consultant, AG World Missions, 1993 - 2004
Field of Study
Educational Leadership and Policy: Community College
vii
Abstract
of
EFFECTS OF ACCREDITATION ON THE MISSION AND VISION
OF THREE PRIVATE CHRISTIAN COLLEGES IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA:
PERCEPTIONS OF FACULTY AND ADMINISTRATORS
By
Richard A. Tevis
This qualitative phenomenological study examines the effects of accreditation on
the mission and vision of private Christian colleges from the perspective of faculty
members and administrators. Interviews were conducted with nine participants, one
administrator and two faculty members from three different private Christian colleges in
northern California: one college was regionally accredited; one was nationally accredited;
and, one was non-accredited, but authorized by the state of California to grant Bachelor’s
degrees. The three research questions were:
1. What value does accreditation bring to a private, Christian college?
2. To what extent does accreditation affect the mission and vision of such an
institution?
3. How does a lack of accreditation affect such an institution?
The researcher used systems theory (Bertalanffy, 1968) as the guiding framework
for this study to examine accreditation and mission statements as concepts within the
system of higher education. After examining participant interviews, a new model based
on the systems theory framework was derived using the emerging themes in the study
viii
findings. The themes of financial aid and outside accreditation agency are considered as
“inputs” from the external environment. Accountability and mission, especially mission
analysis, are considered part of the “transformation process” of the organization.
Collaboration between institutions and reputation are seen as “outputs” of the
organization back into the community. “Feedback” could be seen as responses from
constituents.
It appears that administrators understand the value of accreditation more than
faculty members. The administrators made many more positive comments about
accreditation. Even though faculty members also made positive comments, there were
also negative comments about the amount of extra work that it entailed. The participants
from the regionally accredited college did not feel that accreditation affected their
mission, but the participants from the other two colleges felt that the type of accreditation
or accreditation in general might affect the mission or purpose of a Christian college.
Based on participant responses, it would appear that it depends upon the mission of the
Christian college and the type of accreditation as to whether or not accreditation would
have positive or negative effects upon the mission of a private Christian college. There
are negative effects of non-accreditation, but there is a place for such non-accredited
Christian education, such as Sunday School, a school of the prophets, or a Bible institute.
Some of the positive effects of accreditation are that it allows for a college and its
students to receive financial aid, both federal and state. It also provides for outside
insight via peer-review from like-institutions and outside accountability. Furthermore, it
ix
enables the transferability of credit hours and the acceptance of accredited degrees from
institution to institution. Some of the negative effects mentioned by participants are that
accreditation can stifle the mission of a Christian institution by imposing criteria,
especially social norms, that are not acceptable to such institutions. Also, the time
constraints of accredited schools (quarters, semesters, credit hours) can hinder the
learning process for some learners who move at a slower pace.
Christian institutions of higher education must conduct a thorough mission
analysis in order to establish a definitive mission statement for their respective institution.
This will enable each institution to determine the need for accreditation and then, if
needed, to determine which type of accreditation aptly matches institutional mission.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments..............................................................................................................vi
Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................. vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xv
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
Why Accreditation? ......................................................................................... 5
Problem Statement ........................................................................................... 7
Nature of the Study .......................................................................................... 9
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 10
Operational Definitions ................................................................................... 16
Assumptions, Limitations, and Scope............................................................. 18
Significance of the Study ................................................................................ 19
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 20
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................... 22
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 24
Mission Statements ......................................................................................... 35
Effects of Accreditation on Private Christian Colleges .................................. 38
xi
Effects of Non-Accreditation .......................................................................... 47
Three Key Objectives of California State University, Sacramento
Ed.D. Program ................................................................................................ 48
Summary ......................................................................................................... 48
3. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 50
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 50
Research Design.............................................................................................. 50
Role of the Researcher .................................................................................... 52
Research Questions ......................................................................................... 52
Setting and Sample ......................................................................................... 52
Instrumentation and Materials ........................................................................ 54
Data Collection and Analysis.......................................................................... 55
Protection of Participants ................................................................................ 56
Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 57
4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ....................................................................................... 58
Profile of Participants ..................................................................................... 62
Discussion of Themes ..................................................................................... 73
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 98
Summary ........................................................................................................102
5. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................104
Overview of the Study ...................................................................................104
xii
Interpretation of Findings ..............................................................................108
Recommendations for Action ........................................................................114
Recommendations Based upon Key Objectives of Doctoral Program ..........116
Implications for Further Study .......................................................................121
Author’s Reflections ......................................................................................121
Conclusion .....................................................................................................122
6. APPENDICES
Appendix A. Interview Protocol ....................................................................126
Appendix B. Consent Form ...........................................................................127
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................129
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
Page
Three Most Common Elements among Mission Statements of
Baccalaureate Institutions (N=97) ........................................................................... 15
2.
Three Most Common Elements among Mission Statements of Master’s
Institutions (N=102) ................................................................................................. 15
3.
Three Most Common Elements among Mission Statements of
Doctoral/Research Institutions (N=100) .................................................................. 16
4.
A Chronology of Higher Education and Accreditation in the United States ........... 27
5.
Participant Demographics ........................................................................................ 62
6.
Alpha College (Liberal arts – Regional accreditation) ............................................ 93
7.
Beta College (Bible college – National accreditation) ............................................ 94
8.
Delta College (Bible college – Non-accredited) ...................................................... 96
9.
Comparison and Contrast of Responses .................................................................. 97
10.
Sample CAM analysis.............................................................................................120
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1.
Systems theory ......................................................................................................... 24
2.
Themes in mission statements ................................................................................. 37
3.
Basic model of systems theory ...............................................................................100
4.
Systems theory model of accreditation ...................................................................101
5.
Systems theory ........................................................................................................105
6.
Systems theory model of accreditation ...................................................................106
7.
Combined leadership approach ...............................................................................119
xv
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In the Western world, we tend to utilize accrediting bodies as self-regulatory
organizations (SROs) for our educational institutions. For Christian higher education
institutions, this creates a situation of dual accountability – to American higher education
accreditation and to faith communities. According to Anita Henck from the Department
of Leadership & College Student Development at Azusa Pacific University in Azusa,
California (a four-year, private Christian university):
Christian colleges and universities operate in a unique set of circumstances within
American higher education. They are deeply embedded in and accountable to two
worlds, each of which has a distinctive culture: the world of higher education and
the church world” (p. 196)
The challenge of US Christian college and university leaders is to honor both. US higher
education accrediting bodies have clearly defined expectations in regard to academic and
administrative performance. Faith-based communities – including pastors,
denominations, churches, parents, students, alumni, and donors – place other unique
standards upon their educational institutions (Henck, 2011).
As it is stated by the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools
(TRACS, 2012), a national accrediting body, accreditation is voluntarily sought by
institutions and is conferred by independent, autonomous bodies. It is uniquely indicative
of the American educational system, whereas other countries utilize government agencies
to develop, maintain, control and supervise educational standards (TRACS, 2012).
Although no American educational institution is required to seek accreditation, there are
2
benefits to doing so. One is that it provides self-improvement and self-enhancement
through the process of self-studies and peer-review. It also allows for a reciprocal
relationship of transferring credits from one accredited institution to another.
Furthermore, government agencies and other organizations depend upon accreditation
status or candidate status as a prerequisite for financial aid and grants for students, such
as federal PELL grants and California Cal Grants (TRACS, 2012).
Because it is a unique facet of American higher education, it is important to study
this policy of accreditation. Why do we Americans feel that accreditation by SROs is a
necessary part of education? Is it that we fear or mistrust governmental bodies? Is there
an inherent American ideology that our process of accreditation works better than the
processes of other countries? If this were the case, then why is our educational system so
far behind most European countries and some Asian countries? However, it is equally
true that some European countries are exploring the process of accreditation, and
American institutions are examining the European accountability process known as the
academic audit (Dill, 2000).
Data indicates that American students are falling behind their international peers.
For example, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) found US
students to be among the worst performers in the world. Of the 29 Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations participating in the PISA
2003, only three countries scored below the United States (Silva, 2008). A national
telephone survey of 1,200 17-year-olds found that on average they scored a C in history
3
and an F in literature (Hess, 2008). Many American students drop-out of high school, fail
placement exams for post-secondary institutions or need remediation after entering a
post-secondary institution (CPRE, 2000). Elementary schools have low achievement
scores in reading and math, which leads to failure in such subjects in middle school and
high school, and eventually in college (Schools, 2008).
In today’s competitive, international context of higher education, there is
conjecture that our traditional systems of academic quality assurance are inadequate.
David Dill, one of the seminal authors on accreditation, states that many policymakers
deem that accreditation and program review are ineffective and irrelevant in regards to
educational quality and student learning. Some feel that accreditation is too formulated
of a process and is too broad to examine the deficiencies of educational institutions in
depth. Institutional accreditation is also considered to be costly in time spent by
administration and faculty and provides little value in return. Furthermore, others feel
that accreditation is not fully incorporated into the fabric and life of the institution.
Finally, program reviews rarely appear to bring about improvements amongst faculty to
act and improve teaching and learning (Dill, 2000).
Another issue is with the concept of an SRO (self-regulating organization). Do
SROs serve the best interest of those who are being educated, not just the educational
institutions themselves? One possible example of the failure of SROs is that of the
financial industry in the United States. Although the federal government has an agency
known as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the real “accountability”
4
instrument is the SRO known as FINRA (Financial Industry Regulatory Authority).
There is a great deal of speculation that FINRA and other such SROs that are supposed to
regulate the financial industry have not succeeded in doing so. In fact, many speculate
that the recent recession in our country is largely due to a lack of accountability by such
SROs and the SEC (Bloomberg, 2009). Katz and Stempel stated that one such instance
of this is in regards to the Madoff family securities fraud or Ponzi scheme, which came to
light in 2009. Peter Madoff, Bernard Madoff’s brother, was the chief compliance officer
of the family investment firm. As such, he was responsible for maintaining and reporting
all financial dealings to FINRA and the SEC (Katz & Stempel, 2012). How did such a
massive scheme go unchecked by the SRO FINRA? This begs the question: Do SROs,
such as accrediting bodies, serve the best interest of those they are supposed to protect?
In the case of accrediting bodies in the field of education, are students being well served?
This research sought to examine some of the most in-depth and current literature
regarding the subject of accreditation. The research was organized according to the value
of accreditation, the effects of accreditation, and the effects of non-accreditation on fouryear, private Christian colleges.
Some researchers focus on the value of accreditation for an educational
institution. Dill (1996) stated, “a well-established system of regional, voluntary selfregulation offers the best vehicle for correcting imbalance in educational quality
assurance” (p. 17). Schwarz and Westerheijden (2007) commented that evaluation and
approval are the two key elements that make up the policy instrument of accreditation,
5
although Schwarz and Westerheijden’s opinion, as a European, is not as strong as Dill’s
because accreditation is new and in its infancy in Europe. This author believes in the
necessity of an accountability process for educational institutions, but that accreditation
may not be the most appropriate means for all institutions. It is the goal of the author in
this study to gain understanding concerning the gap in relation to accountability and
accreditation.
Next, the researcher examines how accreditation affects an educational institution.
For one, it affects the financial situation of the institution and its students. TRACS states
that some of the reasons for seeking accreditation are that governmental and other
organizations depend upon accredited or candidate status as a prerequisite for financial
aid to students and that it ensures the transfer of credits between one accredited college or
university and another (TRACS, 2012).
The Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC, 2011b), the regional
accrediting body for California and Hawaii, states the importance of regional
accreditation in this manner:
Why Accreditation?

Certification to the public that the school is a trustworthy institution of
learning

Validates the integrity of a school’s program and student transcripts

Fosters improvement of the school’s programs and operations to support
student learning
6

Assures a school community that the school’s purposes are appropriate and
being accomplished through a viable educational program

A way to manage change through regular assessment, planning,
implementing, monitoring and reassessment

Assists a school/district in establishing its priority areas for improvement as a
result of the perpetual accreditation cycle that includes
o
School self-assessment of the current educational program for students
o
Insight and perspective from the visiting committee
o
Regular school staff assessment of progress through the intervening years
between full self-studies.(WASC, 2011a, para. 1)
Finally, the researcher deals with how a lack of accreditation can affect a fouryear, private Christian college. WASC lists these following detriments to nonaccreditation:
1) Accreditation is required with respect to the Cal Grants.
2) Colleges and universities examine transcripts to determine if the students have
attended accredited institutions.
3) Military recruiters expect the applicants to be from accredited schools.
4) Many districts have policies to accept credits only from WASC accredited schools
or schools accredited by other regional accrediting bodies that WASC has
reciprocal agreements with.(WASC, 2011a)
7
However, the eight regional accreditation commissions have some shared
concerns about accreditation and student learning:

Self-assessment is mechanistic and not part of the institutional curriculum;

Some wonder about the professional judgment of accreditation teams;

It’s not clear what evaluation teams should be looking for;

Accreditation does not warrant faculty engagement because it is not
sufficiently faculty-centered;

Statistics about retention and graduation rates are heavily politicized (Wergin,
2005b).
A more detailed and thorough examination of the existing literature regarding
regional accreditation, national accreditation and non-accreditation will be brought forth
in chapter two of this dissertation.
Problem Statement
An exploration into this practice of accreditation is worthwhile as a matter of
personal and corporate introspection. Is our process working? The author has had the
pleasure of teaching in regionally accredited, nationally accredited and non-accredited
private Christian colleges (that have been granted by the state department of education
the right to give degrees). The only real difference that I have noted is that accredited
colleges can receive financial aid, and non-accredited ones cannot. Also, students may
find it difficult to transfer credits from a non-accredited or nationally accredited college
to a regionally accredited college. For instance, as an academic advisor at a Sacramento-
8
based, nationally accredited four-year, private Christian college, one of my advisees had
his credits from our institution denied by a local two-year community college, which is
regionally accredited with WASC. Based upon my experiences, the quality of the
professors and their methods of teaching are not a deciding factor. At such institutions,
academic rigor is alive and well. If a college has established the right to grant degrees
with their respective state department of education, then why is accreditation necessary?
The purpose of this qualitative research study was to explore the effects of
accreditation on the mission and vision of four-year, private Christian colleges. This
focus on accreditation will be defined by the above noted definition of TRACS: a)
accreditation is voluntarily sought by institutions and is conferred by independent,
autonomous bodies; b) voluntary, non-governmental, institutional accreditation is
uniquely characteristic of American education; and, c) in most other countries (although
European nations are beginning to dabble with accreditation) (Schwarz & Westerheijden,
2007), the development, maintenance, control, and supervision of educational standards
is a governmental function (TRACS, 2012).
There is a great need for increased understanding about the effects of
accreditation on educational institutions, specifically private Christian institutions. Do
the mandates of the SRO affect the mission and vision of such institutions? If a private
Christian college becomes accredited and is able to offer federal and state financial aid,
do the requirements and/or restrictions of these government bodies affect the mission and
vision of such an institution?
9
Nature of the Study
At the core of this research will be questions pertaining to the perceived need and
value of accreditation. The author will ask three central questions in order to guide this
inquiry: 1) What value does accreditation bring to a private, Christian college? 2) To
what extent does accreditation affect the mission and vision of such an institution? 3)
How does a lack of accreditation affect such an institution? These questions will be
posed to faculty members and administrators at three four-year, private Christian
colleges. It is the author’s hope to gain an understanding of the effects of accreditation
on such institutions through the perceptions of those involved in four-year, private
Christian colleges.
The purpose of this study is to ascertain the effects of accreditation on the mission
and vision of four-year, private Christian colleges. This study will use a qualitative
phenomenological case study approach. In phenomenology, the researcher does not
employ any explicit theory, but, rather, attempts to build the essence of experience from
participants (Creswell, 2009). However, the very practice of accreditation displays an
overall organizational theory, such as systems theory. Accountability of higher education
institutions in the United States appears to be dependent upon such a system (Wergin,
2005b).
The potential participants in this study will be a total of nine administrators and
faculty members of three private Christian colleges: one administrator and two faculty
members at each site. The author hopes to gain access to a regionally accredited college,
10
a nationally accredited college, and a non-accredited college that has been granted the
right to grant degrees by the State of California Department of Education. The author
further hopes to gain access to the accreditation and/or accountability documents of said
institutions.
Theoretical Framework
I used the organizational theory known as systems theory to examine
accreditation and mission statements as concepts within the system of higher education.
Accreditation
Regional accreditation is often seen as the common form of institutional quality
assurance for higher education institutions. According to Judith Eaton (2000), there are
six core academic values that sustain regional accreditation: institutional autonomy;
collegiality and shared governance; faculty intellectual and academic authority; the
degree (whether associate, baccalaureate, professional, master’s degree, or doctorate);
general education; and site-based education and a community of learning. The
accreditation process allows leeway as to how these values are honored, but the higher
education community insists that each of the values is addressed. If an institution is
perceived as lacking in commitment to even one of these values, it may fall under
additional scrutiny from the regional accrediting body or even suffer the withdrawal of
accreditation (Eaton, 2000).
Accreditation is peer-review by faculty and administrative peers. It typically
begins with an institutional self-study that measures an institution by standards
11
established by the accrediting body. It is then followed by an evaluation performed by
educational peers from outside the institution. Both the self-study and peer review
examine the institution through the lens of its stated mission, its intended purpose and
scope of service. An accreditation review may lead to conferral or denial of accreditation
status for an institution (Eaton, 2001).
Accreditation is so valued that there are nearly 200,000 websites attached to
accreditation or student learning. Almost 215 articles have been published in the
Chronicle of Higher Education between 2002 and 2004. There are also more than 1,300
journal articles during that same time. It maintains such a valued place in American
society because it is the only organized means by which the academic community
provides substantiation of quality to the public at large (Wergin, 2005b).
Much of the debate concerning regional accreditation centers on funding. The
availability of receiving federal funds, and some state funds, is dependent upon the
accredited status of an institution. Also, many employers rely on accreditation as a
determining factor as to whether or not to reimburse employees for college classes taken
for career advancement (Eaton, 2001).
Regional accreditation does not address the concerns of non-degree and for-profit
educational institutions. It also is having difficulty dealing with the demand for online
education. Accreditation has done little to meet the needs of these other areas of
education (Eaton, 2001).
12
The other types of accreditation are national accreditors and specialized
accreditors. Nationally accredited institutions are typically career-based and singlepurpose. Specialized accreditation usually reviews professional programs and schools
related to, for example, art, music, architecture, law, medicine, and business (Eaton,
2001). Sometimes, regionally accredited colleges treat colleges with national and
specialized accreditation in a disparaging manner by not accepting credit hours in transfer
from them to a regionally accredited college (Howard, 2011).
Mission Statements
One of the key areas of research proposed in this dissertation will be the effect of
accreditation, or the lack thereof, upon the mission and vision of private Christian
colleges. Mission statements are commonplace in higher education. Virtually every part
of the higher education experience is dependent upon them. Accreditation commissions
require them. Strategic planning is dependent upon their formulation. Most colleges and
universities have one available for review. Institutions of higher education are constantly
revising them. In 1994, the Association of American Colleges stated that 80% of
universities and colleges were revising their mission statements, goals, curricula, and
general education courses. Why spend so much precious time on such a statement?
Some would say that a mission statement is the first step towards organizational success
(Morphew & Hartley, 2006).
Recent research on higher education mission statements suggests that such focus
upon an institution’s mission has two possible benefits. First, it allows the institutional
13
members to determine which activities comply with institutional demands and which do
not. Also, such a shared sense of purpose can help to inspire and motivate the members
of the institution and communicate the institution’s values, characteristics and history to
its constituents. For typically smaller institutions, such a process of developing a strong
mission statement can aid them in decision making concerning program creation or
termination. Therefore, the mission statement can correctly be understood as a
centerpiece regarding the overall purpose of an institution (Morphew & Hartley, 2006).
Findings about mission statements by Morphew and Hartley (2006) brought out
these three brief statements:
1) Institutional control (public vs. private) is more important in predicting mission
statement elements than is Carnegie Classification.
2) A few elements (e.g., the notion that the institution is committed to diversity or to
providing a liberal arts education) appear frequently across institutional types and
control groups.
3) There is a prevalence of elements related specifically to “service” either by the
institution or through the inculcation of civic values in students, although the
definition of “service differs somewhat between public and private institutions”
(p. 462).
The findings in Tables 1-3 are relevant to the research in this document because
they bring out some of the differences between public and private institutions, especially
in regards to their mission statements. It can be easily ascertained from this research that
14
there are significant differences in the most important elements of a mission statement
between public and private institutions, especially religious institutions. In the
Baccalaureate-General and Master’s I and II of private institutions, religious affiliation
was listed as the number one component of their mission statements. In the
Doctoral/Research Intensive private institutions, religious affiliation is listed as the
number two component. These findings help to guide the author in his research
regarding the effects of accreditation upon the mission and vision of private Christian
colleges.
15
Table 1
Three Most Common Elements among Mission Statements of Baccalaureate Institutions
(N=97)
Baccalaureate – General
Public (26 of 50)
1 Serves local area (18)
2
Commitment to
diversity (15)
3
Liberal Arts (14)
Baccalaureate – Liberal Arts
Private (16 of 271)
Public (20 of 25)
Religious
affiliation (14)
Liberal Arts (13)
Serves local area
(11)
Commitment to
diversity (11)
Prepare for world
(10)
Civic duty/service
(10)
Liberal Arts (11)
Private (35 of
98)
Liberal Arts
(27)
Student
development
(25)
Commitment to
diversity (21)
*Numbers in parentheses describe our sample size and total number of institutions within group.
For example, we examined mission statements for 26 of the 50 Public Baccalaureate – General
Institutions.
Table 2
Three Most Common Elements among Mission Statements of Master’s Institutions
(N=102)
Master’s I
Public (29 of 251)*
1 Serves local area (23)
2
3
Teaching-centered
(20)
Access (19)
Master’s II
Private (28 of 46)
Public (17 of 23)
Religious
affiliation (15)
Liberal Arts (15)
Liberal arts (12)
Sense of
community(13)
Prepare for world
(12)
Commitment to
diversity (10)
Private (28 of
83)
Religious
affiliation (23)
Liberal Arts
(16)
Values (10)
16
Table 3
Three Most Common Elements among Mission Statements of Doctoral/Research
Institutions (N=100)
Doctoral/Research Intensive
Public (42 of 64)
1
Civic duty/service
(33)
2 Serves local area (33)
3
Research (28)
Doctoral/Research Extensive
Private (21 of 44)
Public (24 of 102)
Student
development (12)
Religious
affiliation (8)
Service (8)
Research (19)
Serves local area
(17)
Commitment to
diversity (12)
Private (13 of
49)
Research (10)
Civic
duty/service (9)
Leadership (7)
Source: Morphew & Hartley (2006, p. 463)
Operational Definitions
Accreditation
Largely an American invention; the only organized means by which the academic
community provides quality assurance to the larger public (Wergin, 2005b). It is
a process that is carried out by faculty and administrative peers and usually begins
with an institutional self-study followed by a peer-review of the institution by
academic colleagues from outside of the institution. The study and the peerreview are typically based upon the mission of an institution – its stated purpose
and scope of service. It ends with either conferral or denial of accredited status.
It comes in three forms: regional accreditation by the eight regional accrediting
commissions, national accreditation and specialized accreditation (Eaton, 2001).
17
Cal Grant
Financial aid grant for college for California residents who are a graduating senior
or current high school graduate and who meet financial, academic and eligibility
requirements. Funds do not need to be repaid. They are free (California Student
Aid Commission [CSAC], 2012).
Carnegie Classification
The leading framework for recognizing and describing institutional diversity in
US higher education; the Carnegie Commission of Higher Education founded this
classification of colleges and universities in 1970 in order to support its program
of research and policy analysis (Carnegie, 2012).
Mission statement
Incorporates the elements commonly understood to form the basis for a higher
education mission (e.g., teaching, service to the community, and search for
knowledge) (Morphew & Hartley, 2006).
National accreditation
“Accreditors review institutions, many of which are career-based and singlepurpose” (Eaton, 2001, p. 40).
Phenomenology
Qualitative study in which the researcher attempts to build the inquiry from the
essence of human experience of the participants (Creswell, 2009); usually
involves studying a small number of subjects through thorough and extensive
18
involvement in order to ascertain patterns and understandings concerning
meanings (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher seeks to bracket or set aside his
own experience in order to understand those of the participants in the study
(Nieswiadomy, 1993).
Qualitative Research Design
Uses a constructivist or advocacy/participatory perspective, and the strategies of
inquiry include narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theory, and
case studies. It is typically exploratory, which means not much has been written
about the topic or the population under study (Creswell, 2009).
Regional accreditation
Accreditors for the eight regional accrediting commissions set standards regarding
an institution’s fiscal condition, check faculty credentials, ensure that academic
freedom is intact for faculty, ascertain whether or not curriculum is coherent, and
examine academic and student services (Wergin, 2005a).
Specialized accreditation
Typically involves professional programs and schools that offer, for example,
studies in art, music, architecture, law, medicine, and business (Eaton, 2001).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Scope
In regard to this study, the author assumes that accreditation has significant
effects upon the mission and vision of private Christian colleges and universities. It
19
warrants further research in order to ascertain what effects, if any, accreditation is having
upon private Christian colleges.
The author fully understands the limitations of such a study. It will, after all,
primarily be based upon the perceptions of the college administration and faculty of such
educational institutions, as well as any relevant published works. The author further
understands the limitation of his own perspective in relation to private Christian colleges,
having served in all three types of such educational institutions (i.e., non-accredited,
nationally accredited and regionally accredited).
Some may consider the scope of this research to be considerably narrow because
it only deals with three four-year, private Christian colleges in northern California, and
the author will not be able to generalize the findings to all private Christian colleges. A
plus for the researcher is proximity and access to these three institutions.
Significance of the Study
This study will provide valuable information regarding the effects of
accreditation, or lack thereof, on the mission and vision of four-year, private Christian
colleges. All colleges are not created equal, nor treated equal. Sometimes, one college
will not accept another college’s transfer units because it does not value the type of
accreditation of that particular college, such as national or specialized accreditation,
rather than regional accreditation. Hence, not only does accreditation create a barrier
between colleges, but even the type or quality of another college’s accreditation can be
treated disparagingly.
20
Valuing one form of academic evaluation over another has become a serious
problem between American institutions of education. As such, we seek to ascertain the
scope of such demeaning behavior within the academic community of higher education,
its ramifications for the college and its students, and what course or courses of action
need to be put in motion in order to establish accountability within the higher education
community without disparity.
Conclusion
This research dissertation contains five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces this study.
It describes the concept of accreditation as an American institution, the problem
statement of the effects of accreditation on the mission of private Christian colleges,
nature of the study, theoretical framework of accreditation and mission statements,
operational definitions in relation to this study, assumptions and limitations, and the
significance of this study.
Chapter 2 will provide a review of the extant peer-reviewed literature in relation
to accreditation. This will specifically be a review of the effects of accreditation, or the
lack thereof, upon private Christian colleges.
Chapter 3 will detail this study’s methodological approach, including specific
information regarding participants, sites, data collection, data analysis, and issues of
validity and reliability.
Chapter 4 will be a presentation of the research with interpretation and
explanation of the data with table and figures to illustrate relevant data points.
21
Chapter 5 summarizes the findings of the study and addresses implications for
future research and will make recommendations for action for educational leaders
regarding academic accountability for four-year, private Christian colleges in correlation
with the mission and vision of their respective institutions and constituencies.
22
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The purpose and intent of this dissertation is to examine the perceptions of faculty
members and administrators of four-year, private Christian colleges in northern
California regarding the effects, both positive and negative, of accreditation upon the
mission and vision of such institutions. The purpose of this chapter is to review the
literature that informs this dissertation. The first section discusses the theoretical
framework of this dissertation, systems theory. The next two sections are concerned with
accreditation and mission statements, the two concepts that guide this study. The second
section summarizes the definition, history (see Table 2), and value of accreditation. The
third section deals with the concept of mission statements and their purpose and
importance. The fourth section discusses the effects of regional accreditation upon the
mission and vision of private Christian colleges. The fifth section concerns itself with the
effects of non-accreditation upon such institutions of higher education.
Christian higher education institutions need to comply with the mandates of their
church constituencies and the requirements of the eight regional accrediting bodies. Such
a dual mandate places great constraints upon such institutions (Henck, 2011). The early
definition of the American Bible college was that of an institution for the training of men
and women for full-time vocational ministry. These Bible training institutes sought to
bridge the gap between the well-educated clergy and the laity, as well as stand in
contradiction to the liberalism of Harvard and Yale, which were founded for the same
23
purpose (Bethel, 1998). One of the great concerns for private Christian colleges and
universities is that they should not become secularized, and thus undermine their
Christian underpinnings. The history of such institutions has shown how Christian
churches have started colleges and universities and then the two gradually grew apart
from one another. Many religiously affiliated colleges have gone through periods of
reassessment in order to renew and redefine their identities because of such secularization
of their purpose and mission (Meyer, 2009). Henck (2011) stated, “the key issue is
providing exemplary academic and administrative oversight while maintaining
institutional missional values” (p. 197). This is especially important in regards to
independent, private Christian colleges that emphasize their unique calling and niche
within the broad world of American academia, as well as between one Christian college
and another (Henck, 2011). Many accrediting bodies still maintain a perception that
religious colleges and universities are somehow inferior to their secular and
predominantly public peers. They also place a undue burden upon Christian colleges by
challenging the congruence between their academic and faith missions (Donahoo & Lee,
2008).
As Bible colleges joined the mainstream of higher education, they struggled with
the issue of separation of church and state, government control and general education
requirements. Towards the end of the 20th century, they find themselves dealing with
regional accreditation, technology, curriculum development, program expansion, a
changing market, faculty credentials and presidential leadership (Bethel, 1998).
24
Theoretical Framework
The researcher will be using the organizational theory known as systems theory to
examine accreditation and mission statements as concepts within the system of higher
education. Systems theory is made up of a wide ranging conceptual framework that
allows the identification of key inputs, outputs and transformative processes in
organizations such as colleges and universities at the individual and institutional level
(Bess & Dee, 2008a).
The input set is the group of organizations that provides resources to the focal
organization…these include feeder high schools, financial contributors…The
output set consists of all organizations that receive goods and services from the
focal organization…these include employers of graduates, clients of institutional
services, recipients of research findings, and the external community at large”
(Bess & Dee, 2008a, p. 51)
Accreditation could be seen as one of these external, environmental inputs that shapes the
transformation of the higher education institution, thus affecting its mission and its
outputs (see Figure 1).
Inputs
Organization
Transformation
Process
Feedback
The External Environment
Accreditation
Figure 1. Systems theory.
Outputs
25
Definition of Accreditation
The website for TRACS (the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and
Schools) states that accreditation is voluntarily sought by institutions and is conferred by
independent, autonomous bodies. It is uniquely indicative of the American educational
system, whereas other countries utilize government agencies to develop, maintain,
control and supervise educational standards (TRACS, 2012). Whereas the French have
an education ministry and the English put their faculty in charge of higher education, the
Tenth Amendment of the US Constitution makes it clear that education is not under the
purview of the federal government. As such, it is left to the states and to the people to
govern education. Schools are typically protected against federal control by state
charters, and colleges and universities are usually run by lay boards of trustees (Neal,
2008b).
Under US law, only three sources of authority may grant permission for an
institution to issue college degrees: Congress, a sovereign Indian tribe or a state
government. Although accreditation is voluntary, approval from one of these sources is
mandatory. In fact, accreditors must first check to see if an educational institution has
been given approval by one of these government sources. A key question to ask in order
to ensure the validity of an educational institution is: What government authorized it to
issue degrees (Contreras & Gollin, 2009)? The basics of accreditation are well-known:
an accepted set of standards, self-study, peer-review, and approval or denial by a
commission (Brittingham, 2009).
26
Usually states are the entities that have given authorization for an institution to
grant degrees, and most states have laws against institutions operating without state
approval. One of the exceptions to this, and relevant to this dissertation, is that about half
of US states allow religious institutions to issue degrees that have religious titles usable
within their denomination. Another issue relevant to this dissertation is that the state of
California allows many unaccredited colleges to grant degrees, although such institutions
fall under the jurisdiction of a state department or organization (Contreras & Gollin,
2009). In the past, such institutions were placed under the auspices of the Department of
Consumer Affairs in the Bureau for Private Postsecondary and Vocational Education
(BPPVE). The bureau’s mandate was not continued under the government of Governor
Arnold Schwarzenegger, but authority still remains in the Department of Consumer
Affairs (see www.consumerservices.ca.gov/).
History of Accreditation
Accreditation is uniquely American. The decisions and structures of the US
government established conditions in which accreditation could develop. First of all, the
U.S. Constitution allowed for education to be under the auspices of the states and the
people by not regulating it to the federal government (Brittingham, 2009). The Supreme
Court decision in Dartmouth v. William H. Woodward in 1819 prevented states from
taking control of small, independent institutions and established the rights of private
organizations (Neal, 2008b). Congress ensured considerable autonomy in the
27
development of higher education institutions when it failed to advance legislation that
would have established a national university (Brittingham, 2009).
Table 4
A Chronology of Higher Education and Accreditation in the United States
Date
American and Higher Education
History
Accreditation History
Harvard College established by vote of
1636 the Great and General Court of
Massachusetts Bay Colony.
US Bill of Rights reserves powers not
1791 mentioned in the Constitution “to the
states respectively or to the people.”
Dartmouth College case decided by the
US Supreme Court, preserving the right
1819
to operate chartered private colleges
without state takeover
1839
First state normal school started in
Lexington, MA.
1847
American Medical Association founded
1862
Morrill Act creates land grant colleges.
1870
US Bureau of Education publishes an
official list of colleges.
1876
Johns Hopkins University founded.
Missionary Training Institute (Nyack
1882 College) was founded in New York
City.
1885
1886 Moody Bible Institute is founded.
New England Association of Schools
and Colleges (NEASC) founded.
28
Table 4 (continued)
Date
American and Higher Education
History
Accreditation History
1887
Middle States Association of
Colleges and Schools founded.
1895
North Central Association of
Schools and Colleges and Southern
Association of Colleges and Schools
(SACS) founded.
1900
College Entrance Examination Board
founded.
Joliet Junior College, first two-year
1901 institution, founded by president of
University of Chicago.
Carnegie Foundation for Higher
1905 Education publishes list of recognized
colleges.
1906
Carnegie Unit developed.
Flexner report on medical education,
raising standards and leading to closure
1910
of nearly half of the medical colleges.
1913
North Central Association
establishes criteria for collegiate
eligibility.
1917
Northwest Association of Colleges
and Universities founded.
1918
Association of Theological Schools
(ATS) was founded.
1922
American Council on Education holds
“standardizing” conference.
29
Table 4 (continued)
Date
American and Higher Education
History
Western Association of Schools and
Colleges (WASC) founded.
1924
1925
Accreditation History
American Library Association
publishes list of accredited schools.
1926
National Home Study Council,
predecessor to Distance Education
and Training Council formed.
1934
North Central Association adopts
mission-oriented approach to
accreditation
American Association of University
1940 Professors statement on academic
freedom.
1944
GI bill provides direct funding to
college students.
Truman Commission promotes
1947 network of community colleges,
primarily for returning GIs.
The Accrediting Association of Bible
Institutes and Bible Colleges was
founded
1949
National Commission on
Accrediting (NCA) founded by
higher education associations to
reduce duplication and burden in
accreditation.
1950s
Accreditation develops missioncentered standards, self-study, team
visit, commission decision, and
periodic review.
1951
NEASC gets permanent office and
staff.
30
Table 4 (continued)
Date
American and Higher Education
History
Accreditation History
Veterans Readjustment Act ties
1952 financial aid to institutional
accreditation.
1953
Black colleges accepted as full
members of SACS.
1964
Federation of Regional Accrediting
Commissions of Higher Education
(FRACHE) established.
Higher Education Act (HEA) first
1965 passed, greatly expanding financial aid
to students.
1968
Formal process for federal recognition
of accreditors established.
HEA reauthorization opens door to
1972 for-profit school participation in
financial aid.
1975
NCA and FRACHE merge to form
Council on Postsecondary
Accreditation (COPA).
1976
Coalition for Christian Colleges and
Universities (CCCU) is founded.
1979
Transnational Association of
Christian Colleges and Schools
(TRACS) was founded.
1980
US Department of Education started.
Involvement in Learning (National
Institute of Education) calls for judging
1984
institutions by effectiveness in
educating students.
SACS adopts Institutional
Effectiveness standard.
31
Table 4 (continued)
Date
American and Higher Education
History
Accreditation History
HEA reauthorization nearly breaks the
link between financial aid and
accreditors; creates National Advisory
Committee for Institutional Quality and
1992
Integrity; authorizes state postsecondary
review entities (SPREs) to review
institutions with high default rates.
COPA dissolved by its board;
Council on Recognition of Higher
Education formed to take over
recognition function.
1993
1994
SPREs defunded by Republican
Congress.
1998
No mention of SPREs in HEA
reauthorization
2004
Council on Higher Education
Accreditation founded.
The Accrediting Association of Bible
Institutes and Bible Colleges changed
its name to the Association for
Biblical Higher Education (ABHE).
Secretary of Education Margaret
2006 Spellings’ Commission on the Future of
Higher Education publishes its report.
HEA reauthorized. Accountability for
accreditation retained; secretary of
education cannot regulate how
2008 accreditors judge student learning;
advisory committee appointments to
come from Secretary plus House and
Senate.
(Bloland, 2001)(Ewell, 2008)(TRACS, 2012)(Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, 2012) (The
Association for Biblical Higher Education, 2012)
32
Some of the key points of this chronology are that Harvard College was the first
college to be established in the American colonies (1636). The U.S. Bill of Rights
(1791), by not delegating education to the authority of the federal government, left
education to the states and the people. In 1870, the U.S. Bureau of Education published
an official list of colleges. The first accrediting body, the New England Association of
Schools and Colleges (NEASC) was founded in 1885. Joliet Junior College (1901), the
first two-year institution, was founded (Bloland, 2001; Ewell, 2008). The Association of
Theological Schools (ATS) was founded in 1918 (The Association of Theological
Schools, 2007). The GI Bill (1944) provided direct funding to college students. In 1952,
the Veterans Readjustment Act tied financial aid to accreditation (Bloland, 2001). Other
dates and data were included in this table in order to show the progression of education,
accreditation and financial aid.
Accreditation became a factor in federal financial aid after June 22, 1944, when
then President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, often
known as the GI Bill of Rights. This act was designed to help veterans from World War
II to transition back into civilian life after the war. Its purpose was to invest federal funds
into the education of veterans in institutions of higher education. Because some were
concerned that veterans might lower the standard of education and/or that veterans would
receive a substandard education, it was decided that federal funds would only go to
institutions or programs that were accredited. When the federal government expanded its
assistance to students to include those who were of a lower socio-economic status (Title
33
IV students), accreditation gained further inroads as the criteria for the receipt of federal
student aid (Adrian, 2004).
Value of Accreditation
Accreditation serves both the private function of institutional quality
improvement among its members and the public role of quality assurance. Quality
improvement has been a part of accreditation from the beginning, but quality assurance
for the public has only really been vital since the 1950s when the US federal government
started recognizing accreditors as reliable authorities on the quality of education provided
by the higher education institutions that they accredit (U.S. Department of Education
[DOE], 2013). This places accreditors in the role of gatekeepers for federal funds. It also
challenges accreditors to meet the expectations of the public (Brittingham, 2008).
According to the U.S. Department of Education (USDE), the goal of accreditation is to
ensure that programs meet “acceptable levels of quality” (Adrian, 2004, p. 46).
According to the New Mexico Higher Education Department (NMHED),
accreditation can aid a student in receiving financial aid from the federal government,
such as grants or subsidized loans. It may also be relevant in the transfer of credits from
one college to another. Furthermore, prospective employers may require a degree from
an accredited institution, especially state and federal governments and the public
education sector. A database of accredited postsecondary institutions and programs can
be found at http://www.ope.ed.gov/accreditation/ or at http://www.chea.org/search
(NMHED, 2012).
34
Accreditation also aids a student in the transfer of credit hours, which exemplifies
its value as a “stamp of approval” on a particular institution or program. Credits taken at
an accredited institution or program can aid in the transfer of credit hours, especially
internationally (Boraiko, Zey, & Greife, 2010). Also, accreditation helps employers
recruit graduates whom they feel are well-prepared because of the accredited institution
that they have come from. Registration, licensure and certification boards utilize
accreditation status to screen applicants. In fact, certifications and licensure often require
that one graduate from an accredited program or institution (Boraiko et al., 2010).
Accreditation became valuable to religious institutions during the 1970s. First of
all, a landmark Supreme Court decision in Tilton v. Richardson allowed religious
postsecondary schools to receive public funds for secular educational activities (Donahoo
& Lee, 2008). Accreditation also became more attractive as such institutions sought to
dispel ideas that they were somehow academically inferior to secular institutions
(McMurtrie, 2003). Accreditation further became desirous of religious institutions
because it safeguarded their students’ credits and degrees (Donahoo & Lee, 2008).
The internal value of accreditation for an educational institution is that it provides
the faculty, administrators, staff and trustees the opportunity to examine their mission and
purpose and whether or not they are fulfilling it as an institution. Although institutions
regularly examine such things as retention, recruitment, endowments, etc., the
accreditation process provides an institution with the opportunity to examine all of these
parts together, all at once (Oden, 2009).
35
Mission Statements
As Velcoff and Ferrari (2006) stated, “a mission statement is the foundation upon
which the vision and the strategic plans of an institution rest” (p. 329). Historically,
mission statements have reflected each organization’s strategic planning process. This
may occur across a vast array of institutions: for example, nonprofits (Busch & Folaron,
2005), professional practices (Kenyon & Brown, 2007), secondary schools (Doolittle,
Horner, Bradley, Sugai, & Vincent, 2007), for-profit corporations (Williams, 2008),
university schools or departments (Stearns & Borna, 1998), etc. According to Frank
(2007), “any entity that shares common objectives, such as a family unit, can successfully
generate and utilize a mission statement” (p. 60).
Employees may be prevented from developing competing missions or utilizing
resources in manners that are not in line with the organization’s mission by having a
clearly defined mission statement (Emery, 1996). Key stakeholders (such as faculty,
staff, and administrators) can be inspired by a sound mission statement (Sevier, 2003).
Furthermore, an effective mission statement can clarify to employees how to function
within the interests and objectives of the organization. Such clarification can help
employees to be more successfully in the organization. It enables the development of a
community atmosphere that integrates all internal stakeholders (Emery, 1996) (Berg,
Csikszentmihalyi, & Nakamura, 2003).
A mission statement helps a college or university keep a sharp focus on its
priorities, especially if it is vigorously implemented (Sevier, 2003). Senior administrators
36
or leaders (i.e., deans and vice-presidents) are usually the persons responsible for the
development of mission statements, visions and goals and then safeguarding the
achievement of those goals (Gayle, Tewarie, & White, 2003). However, little is known
about the perceptions of senior administrators in regards to their institution’s mission
statement. The perceived role of senior administrators is that of balancing faculty
demands and public expectations (Dressel, 1987). This is one of the major reasons for
the research of this dissertation.
The mission statement of a religious institution should aid in the implementation
of the practical reflection of religion to the institution (Wilson, 1996). American Catholic
colleges and universities have changed their mission statements and become more
intentional and deliberate regarding their Catholic identities, especially since Pope John
Paul II’s Ex Corde Ecclesiae, translated as From the Heart of the Church (Dosen, 2012),
was issued in 1990 (Estanek, James, & Norton, 2006). This document was an Apostolic
Constitution on Catholic Universities and called for the Catholic colleges of the world to
examine their religious and Catholic foundations. The overall theme was that of
“witness” (Dosen, 2012). Jose Morales Marin shares with us the ideas of Newman who
was a Catholic clergyman who wrote “The Idea of a University.” He says that Newman
understood education to be an assimilation of knowledge and wisdom, not merely an
accumulation of information. Marin (2003) stated that Newman is relevant for today
because of his attempt to reconcile the religious and secular spheres in education.
37
In regard to evangelical Christian higher education, there is a paucity of research
data regarding mission statements, even though mission statements are prevalent in
Christian higher education (Morphew & Hartley, 2006). The mission statements of
colleges associated with the Coalition of Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU) use
the following words most frequently: education (70%), Christian (68%), service (61%),
society (55%), life (45%), and academics (44%). A surprising result from recent research
is that Christian distinctives were not given as much attention in CCCU mission
statements, such as Christ (43%), faith (31%), church-related concepts like kingdom
(27%), God (26%), Bible (23%), Christ-centered (16%) or truth (10%) (Firmin & Gilson,
2010) (see Figure 2).
80
70
60
50
Frequent
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 2. Themes in mission statements.
Lesser
Used
38
Effects of Accreditation on Private Christian Colleges
History of Christian Colleges and Universities
The true beginnings of Christian colleges and universities can be traced to
medieval Paris and Bologna. These institutions were instruments of the Catholic Church
and were deeply tied to their Christian faith. The University of Paris developed out of the
Cathedral School of Notre Dame. It was given a royal charter in 1200 A.D. A revival of
education, especially of the Greeks and Romans, was brought to Western Europe by Arab
scholars from Spain. The scholars who taught each field of study were considered to be
in the service of the Catholic Church. During the Middle Ages, Christian scholars
serving the church placed faith above reasoning and the natural order (Adrian, 2003).
These scholars believed, “Faith precedes science, fixes its boundaries, and prescribes its
conditions” (Haskins, 1957, p. 51).
A real split came in 1517 with the outbreak of the Reformation. The catalyst for
this split occurred when Martin Luther, a priest and theologian, nailed his 95 theses to the
door of the Wittenberg church in what is now Germany. The followers of Luther and
another reformer known as John Calvin were strong proponents of the authority of the
Bible. The Calvinist group in England became known as the Puritans, the group that first
settled in the American colonies. Lutherans and Calvinists held education in high regard
and founded schools where the Bible was the foundation of education (Adrian, 2003).
The first real challenge to Christian education was the Enlightenment in the 17th
century. It emphasized natural order and human reason and eroded the power of the
39
church over the colleges and universities of Europe. The effects of the Enlightenment
continue to present a challenge to traditional Christian thought. The founding of colleges
in the colonies of America was influenced by both the Reformation and the
Enlightenment (Adrian, 2003).
As North America was being colonized in the 17th and 18th centuries, colleges and
universities were founded with a thoroughly Christian or theistic worldview. In order
that their graduates would influence society, their purpose was markedly religious
(Lawrence, 2007). Some of the first and more well-known American, Christian colleges
were Harvard, Yale, Amherst, Boston University and Boston College. Harvard was
founded by the Puritans in order to escape Anglican Oxford and Cambridge. In 1701,
Yale was created by a group of New Haven, Connecticut ministers who were leery of the
liberal heresies that were being propagated at Harvard. In the early 19th century, the
Congregationalists founded Amherst because of the prevalence of Harvard’s teaching of
Unitarianism. Yankee Methodists established Boston University near the time of the
Civil War as a response to the classical curriculum of Harvard and its aristocratic values.
At this same time, the Jesuits in the Catholic Church founded Boston College in order to
help the new Boston-Irish immigrants maintain a Catholic perspective in a predominantly
Protestant society (Sanford, 1962).
All of the earliest colleges that were started by Protestant churches soon
abandoned their religious mission and severed ties with their establishing churches.
Harvard did so soon after its founding (Adrian, 2003). According to Hofstadter (1955),
40
there were two major factors in the 18th century that affected the religious nature of the
early American colleges: 1) theological liberalism and 2) secularization. Theological
liberalism was evident at Harvard with the teachings of Unitarianism and deism. Deism
spread amongst the leadership of colleges and the colonies. Yale and Princeton stood in
opposition to this liberalism, and their missionary zeal led to the founding of most new
colleges in the Midwest. Many college presidents and most of the faculty of these
colleges were graduates of Yale and Princeton until the time of the Civil War (Adrian,
2003). In the early part of the nineteenth century, the best American intellectualism was
posited in and grew in the seminaries and graduate schools of theology. For almost fifty
years, these institutions were the centers and providers of American intellectual life,
discussion and publication (Noll, 1987).
Secularization defines the process of the early colleges’ abandonment of their
religious foundations. As Marsden has noted, it can also be defined as “nonreligious” or
“antireligious.” Marsden further clarified this term as, “Our subject is the transformation
from an era when organized Christianity and explicitly Christian ideals had a major role
in the leading institutions of higher education to an era when they have almost none”
(Marsden & Bradley,1992, p. 5). Secularization is one of the great fears of Christian
institutions of higher education today.
There was a drastic shift in higher education from 1870 to 1930 in which
Christian leadership and influence were eliminated (Lawrence, 2007). Marsden, a
University of Notre Dame professor of American religious and intellectual history,
41
attributes this to the move to specialized research universities, the secularization of
American society, and the controversies between Protestant denominations (Marsden,
1987). Noll (1987) believed that it was because Christian educators failed to realize that
scientists work within a moral context and that theologians removed themselves from
interaction with their academic peers of other fields of study. Hays (2006) stated,
whatever the cause, it took less than 80 years for Duke University to abandon one of its
explicit founding Christian bylaws in order to become a premier research institution that
was considered to be “pluralistic and secular” (p. 20).
By the late 19th century, the model of the German university, the elective system
at Harvard and the American land-grant movement changed the scope of American
higher education (Adrian, 2003). The German university model had a strong orientation
towards research (Noll, 1987). This “new university” model became the dominant force
behind American higher education and assumed a leading role in the propagation of
science as the new faith (Sloan, 1994). The land-grant movement was started by the
Morill Act of 1862, or the Land Grant College Act. This act allowed states to sell land
that had been granted to them by the federal government and use the proceeds to build
public colleges and universities (Mannoia, 2000). The university changed into a
multiversity. It no longer had a unified institutional purpose. In so doing, references to
Christian character disappeared from American colleges and universities. Christian faith
and activity was relegated to departments of religion and seminaries. Past attempts to
42
integrate faith and learning were replaced by the idea of the dignity of man as the overall
purpose and manifesto of the university (Adrian, 2003).
Many college administrators unwittingly accepted this change to secular
perspectives because they did not possess a strong motivation for Christian integrity
(Claerbaut, 2004). Burtchaell (1998), the chair of the University of Notre Dame’s
Theology Department, found that college presidents during this era stated that they had a
commitment to faith in God, but felt that their academic endeavors were stifled by their
sponsoring religious bodies. Because of their lack of spiritual leadership, others later
rejected a Christian connection (Burtchaell, 1998). According to Benne (2001), the
director of the Center for Religion and Society at Roanoke College, many individuals
justified what they were doing by calling it “natural theology” (p. 25). With the arrival of
the 20th century, “an essentially secular ethos prevailed” (Marsden, 1997, p. 22).
In response to the secularization of higher education in the United States in the
20th century, a small number of colleges and universities have maintained and reinforced
their traditional and historic faith missions. A number of these have shown a renewed
interest in the amalgamation of learning and faith: these include mainline Protestant
institutions, Catholic institutions, and a large number of Evangelical schools (Adrian,
2003). Some smaller colleges resisted by becoming Bible colleges or Bible institutes.
Many of these colleges maintained their Christian character by incorporating chapel
services (religious services) and religion classes into the schedule and curriculum
43
(Lawrence, 2007). Evangelical institutions comprise the fastest growing area in
American higher education today (Adrian, 2003).
Many of these Evangelical colleges and universities belong to the Council for
Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU), which in 1999 included 90 institutions with
a combined enrollment of 130,000 students. Most of these colleges come from the
Protestant religious traditions of the Reformed, Mennonite, Wesleyan, Assemblies of
God, Nazarene, Baptist, and several fundamentalist groups. The CCCU represents
institutions of higher education with a strong Christian foundation that uphold the Bible
as the basis of authority in religion. These colleges are known for academic rigor while
combining faith with learning (Adrian, 2003). A professor of history at Johns Hopkins
University, Timothy Smith, states that the faculty of such Christian institutions holds
strong commitments to a vision of a Bible-centered culture (Carpenter & Shipps, 1987).
Today, the CCCU website states that there are 111 member institutions that are affiliated
with its organization. Most of these institutions have enrollments under 6,000 students
(Dosen, 2012).
These institutions are known for possessing a strong missionary passion, which is
evident in their interaction with missionary enterprises and international service. The
missionary spirit has been a standard of Christian colleges and has grown increasingly in
the latter part of the 20th century. Many of them are involved with such groups as World
Vision, Food for the Hungry, World Gospel Mission, Wycliffe Bible Translators,
Evangelicals for Social Action, and other such entities (Adrian, 2003).
44
James Burtchaell (1987), former Provost of Notre Dame and a preeminent author
on the secularization of Christian colleges and universities, displays a markedly
conservative and pessimistic perspective on the changing religious nature of Catholic
institutions of higher education and other church-related colleges. In a thorough study of
17 such institutions (including Congregational, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist,
Lutheran, Evangelical, and Catholic), Burtchaell (1987) concluded that each of them
were succumbing to secularism and were not only disengaging from their respective
churches, but also from any remnant of Christian character. He has carefully documented
the secularization of Protestant institutions historically and the more recent pattern of
Catholic colleges since 1967 with the disintegration of relations between Webster
College in St. Louis and the Sisters of Loretto (Burtchaell, 1987).
Burtchaell’s (1987) research came to two important conclusions: 1) Protestant and
Catholic institutions have issues with secularization of their respective institutions; and,
2) despite their differences, the intense issues of faith and learning are similar. Another
point of Burtchaell’s is that as Christian institutions of higher education enter the secular
academy of American education in order to be accepted and respected by their academic
peers, there is intense pressure to surrender piety and religious character. He states that
there is a presumption in the higher education world that Christian faith has no legitimate
role in American higher education (Burtchaell, 1987).
Such statements lead us to the next section on regional accreditation’s effects on
such colleges and universities. Because regional accreditation is the academic standard
45
for higher education institutions in the United States, it is imperative that one examine
how it influences or hampers the development and sustainability of private Christian
colleges.
Effects of Accreditation
Accreditation affects the ability of private Christian colleges to receive federal,
and possibly state, funds because it is usually tied to the receipt of such funds. In an
effort to keep tuition costs down, private Christian colleges are pressed to accept
conditions for receiving federal funds, which typically restrict the Christian perspective
of such institutions (Benne, 2001). Schwenn states that it is inevitable for colleges and
universities to break historical ties with their founding churches as they accept
government and other funds. He further states that religious institutions should clearly
state their missions (Oliver, 2004). Federal funding opportunities still require that
eligible institutions must maintain accreditation in order to receive federal grants (Eaton,
2003).
Education schools and departments of private Christian colleges are pressured to
conform to the outside review of state and professional accrediting agencies, from
NCATE to the advisory groups in specific academic fields of study. Those who have
worked in these departments know well how state mandates, accrediting agencies,
textbook publishers and foundations and other funding institutions have centralized and
neutralized such departments. These external influences often marginalize individuals
46
with convictions and interests that are outside the mainstream of American society and
culture (Vryhof, 2004).
It is difficult in today’s higher education climate to function successfully without
accreditation. Many religious institutions suffer from identity issues in respect to
accreditation. The pressures and requirements of accrediting bodies cause religious
institutions to struggle with their faith mission and their academic mission. The practical
application of such accreditation standards places a special burden on such institutions of
higher education (Donahoo & Lee, 2008).
A study published in 2008 by Donahoo and Lee examines publicly reported
accreditation decisions made by the regional accrediting bodies that received media
coverage, as published in articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education from 1996 to
May 2005. The Chronicle was used because it serves as a key publication in higher
education (Stepp, 2003). Although there are other accrediting bodies, specifically
national and specialized bodies, the real power in accreditation lies with the regional
accrediting bodies. As such, decisions rendered by regional associations can create a
scenario where a loss of accreditation from one body leads to revocation by others
(McMurtrie, 2003).
The Donahoo and Lee (2008) study utilized 126 Chronicle documents that
reported 284 accreditation decisions and status decisions. Based on these reports, it
appears that religious colleges and universities received more attention from the regional
accrediting bodies than their numbers merit. Furthermore, Christian institutions, which
47
account for 60% of all religious schools, faced more issues with accreditors than other
religious schools. Fifty-six of the 73 sectarian colleges and universities that received
changes in accreditation were Christian affiliated. Of these decisions involving religious
institutions, most resulted in penalties (Donahoo & Lee, 2008).
Some of the difficulty with accreditation teams, “peer-review” teams, is that their
perspective is generally and predominantly secular. They do not always understand the
faith-based institutional values and creeds of Christian colleges (Henck, 2011). However,
the effects of non-accreditation can be equally devastating, especially since accreditation
is really not voluntary anymore if an institution wants to receive federal and state
financial aid for its students.
Effects of Non-Accreditation
Although an unaccredited degree may be useful for some purposes, such as selfsatisfaction or a marketing edge, it will typically be called into question by other
academic institutions or employers. The unaccredited degree may hurt your chances of
getting a job in ministry, especially a teaching ministry in a private Christian college, or
elsewhere in academia. Secondly, it will definitely prevent you from pursuing a masters
or doctoral degree (Moore, 2012). A lack of oversight by an accrediting body may
provide a lack of transparency and responsibility, especially in regard to finances and
records. Also, such lack of outside accountability may result in identity theft or
carelessness with your personal information (Moore, 2012). However, lack of
accreditation does not mean a lack of academic rigor. For instance, graduates of non-
48
NCATE-accredited education programs do as well as those taught by graduates of
accredited ones (Neal, 2008a). NCATE is the National Council for Accreditation of
Teacher Education. One may look at a complete list of unaccredited colleges and
universities by referring http://www.foreigncredits.com/Resources/UnaccreditedUniversities/.
Three Key Objectives of California State University, Sacramento Ed.D. Program
The three key objectives of the Ed.D. program at CSU Sacramento are listed as
Transformational leadership, Educational Policy and practice, and Data-driven decisionmaking. Transformation leadership analyzes and evaluates the role of the strategic leader
in planning and guiding the change process. Educational policy and practice identifies
the major policy issues impacting education today and develops and defends positions on
these issues using a theoretical framework. Data-driven decision-making critically
analyzes data to identify trends, problems, implications and validity of data (California
State University, Sacramento, 2013). These objectives are relevant for this study, and the
findings will be interpreted in light of them in Chapter 5.
Summary
Although there are advantages to pursuing accreditation as an institution of higher
education, it can be a challenge for private Christian colleges. The author found that
although there were many authors and researchers who stated that there is a struggle
between academic standards and Christian values and beliefs, it was difficult to find
articles that specify what areas are adversely affected by accrediting bodies, directly or
49
indirectly. Also, it appears that the perceptions of administrators and faculty as to their
role in Christian education and the mission of their respective institutions have not been
thoroughly researched.
50
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter details the methodological approach used by the researcher,
beginning with the research design, with the rationale behind the choice of qualitative
research as the approach to this study, and the role of the researcher. It addresses the
research questions that guided this study, setting and sample, instrumentation and
materials, data collection and analysis, and the protection of participants’ rights and
ethical considerations. This qualitative, phenomenological study examines the
perceptions of faculty and administrators of four-year, private Christian colleges
regarding the effects of accreditation on the mission and vision of such institutions of
higher education.
Research Design
This dissertation employs a phenomenological, qualitative research design. A
qualitative research design uses a constructivist or advocacy/participatory perspective,
and the strategies of inquiry include narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies,
grounded theory, and case studies. It is typically exploratory, which means not much has
been written about the topic or the population under study (Creswell, 2009).
Phenomenology is a qualitative study in which the researcher attempts to build the
inquiry from the essence of human experience of the participants (Creswell, 2009). It
usually involves studying a small number of subjects through thorough and extensive
51
involvement in order to ascertain patterns and understandings concerning meanings
(Moustakas, 1994). The researcher seeks to bracket or set aside his own experience in
order to understand those of the participants in the study (Nieswiadomy, 1993).
This dissertation documents the perception of faculty and administrators of three
four-year, private Christian colleges regarding the effects of accreditation on the mission
and vision of such institutions of higher education. Using one-hour, one-on-one
interviews, participants shared their experience within three private Christian colleges in
northern California concerning regional accreditation, national accreditation, nonaccreditation and the effects of each upon the mission and vision of such institutions.
The interview for each participant included semi-structured, open-ended questions
designed to draw out the personal perceptions and experiences of each participant in
regards to the aforementioned issues. The researcher hopes that at the end of this study
the reader will come away from the phenomenological experience with a better
understanding of how accreditation affects four-year, private Christian colleges.
In the literature review, it was a bit difficult to find some of the previous research
concerning accreditation and private Christian colleges because the CSUS library did not
contain some relevant literature. The researcher had to utilize interlibrary loans from
other institutions to gain access to the journal Christian Higher Education. There were
limited existing dissertations available on this topic as well.
52
Role of the Researcher
The researcher has served as a professor and/or administrator at four different
private Christian colleges: three in the United States and one in India. Of the three
colleges in the United States, two were non-accredited and one was nationally accredited.
The college in India fell under the jurisdiction of their church denomination, since such a
college could not be under the auspices of the ministry of education of the Indian
government as most colleges in India. He holds a B.A. in Biblical Studies from a
regionally accredited private, liberal arts Christian college in southern California, and an
M.A. in Biblical Literature from a nationally accredited private Christian seminary in
Missouri.
Research Questions
The principal research questions of this dissertation are:
1. What value does accreditation bring to a four-year, private Christian college?
2. To what extent does accreditation affect the mission and vision of such an
institution?
3. How does a lack of accreditation affect such an institution?
Setting and Sample
This study was conducted during the fall 2012 semester. The participants in this
study were faculty members and administrators of three 4-year, private Christian colleges
in northern California that offer a Bachelor of Arts degree. One college was a mediumsized, Christian liberal arts college that was regionally accredited with WASC (Western
53
Association of Schools and Colleges), hereafter to be known as Alpha College; one was a
small Bible college that was nationally accredited with TRACS (Transnational
Association of Christian Colleges and Schools), hereafter to be known as Beta College;
and, one was a small church-based, non-accredited Bible college, but was authorized by
the state of California Department of Education to grant a Bachelor of Arts degree under
the auspices of the Bureau of Private Postsecondary Education, hereafter to be known as
Delta College.
The researcher interviewed one administrator and two faculty members from each
college for a total of nine participants, most of these are involved with the accreditation
and/or accountability processes of their respective institutions. According to Creswell
(2007), an appropriate sample size for a phenomenological study ranges from three to ten
participants. The reason for this sampling is that such participants hopefully possess a
greater understanding and experience with accreditation and its implications for their
college. Participants were drawn from recommendations by colleagues and
administrators in their respective institutions.
For the purpose of anonymity, each participant will be designated by college,
position and number [i.e., Alpha A (Alpha College, Administrator); Beta F1 (Beta
College Faculty Member #1)]. Because there was only one administrator from each
college, there will not be a number for administrators just the letter A.
54
Instrumentation and Materials
The researcher gathered data through one-on-one, open-ended interviews with
each participant at a neutral location of their choosing (see Appendix A). The interviews
ranged from 30-48 minutes in length. The researcher gained access for said interviews
via permission from the college presidents to interview their administrators and faculty
members (confidential), and via consent forms signed by each individual participant (see
Appendix B). The researcher took careful notes and utilized a digital recording
application known as Evernote on an iPad in order to record the interviews and
transcribed said interviews on his laptop using the same application synced to his
computer for coding purposes. Each interview was recorded in its entirety and
transcribed verbatim by the researcher.
An iPad is a familiar computer tablet device to many people in this day and age.
However, for those not acquainted with it, it is a tablet version of an Apple computer. It
is more portable and, therefore, easier to travel with and use in an interview than a laptop.
Evernote is a free application that can be downloaded to an iPad. One can then set up an
account and download it to a laptop and/or desktop. By doing this, all work can be saved
online and synced to each device, so that one can work from the recordings and transcribe
the recordings at the same time. The researcher was able to digitally record all interviews
by opening the Evernote application on the iPad and pressing the record symbol. Later,
the researcher opened Evernote on his laptop and synced the recordings to his laptop. He
was then able to listen to the recordings on Evernote while transcribing the recordings
55
into Word documents on his laptop. He then copied the Word document to Evernote, so
the recordings and transcriptions would be accessible online through his Evernote
account. For more information, one can go to http://www.evernote.com. All nine
interviews were transcribed by the researcher himself so that he might be even more
familiar with the data. The transcriptions ranged in length from 4 to 15 pages. Each
transcript was reviewed for accuracy.
The researcher used accreditation requirements as a guideline for data collection
and analysis. For example, the institution must have a clear statement of purpose, its
mission, and the governing authority must adopt policies that are aligned with this
purpose (WASC, 2011a). This specifically relates to the research question asked of
participants concerning how does accreditation affect the mission of private Christian
colleges.
Data Collection and Analysis
Data for each research question were analyzed and coded in regard to recurring
themes. The researcher began by identifying segments in the data set responsive to each
research question. Words, phrases, and concepts that recur throughout the data were
highlighted and color-coded into classification schemes or thematic threads. The data
were then divided into general themes related to the literature and qualitative framework,
a method of research that allows for investigation of phenomena within real-life, natural
contexts (Merriam, 2009). Sub-themes were then classified under each of the main
themes that were found throughout the relevant text of the nine interview transcriptions.
56
Special attention was given to ideas that were repeated by multiple participants. In such a
manner, large amounts of data in the form of text were reduced into recurrent patterns
and themes (Creswell, 2009).
Protection of Participants
This proposal was approved by the Institutional Review Board of California State
University, Sacramento, in the fall of 2012 and was identified to be exempt of risk to the
participants. A semi-structured interview protocol was used to provide consistency
among the interviews and to ensure that student privacy and confidentiality were
protected (see Appendix A). The identities of the participants and their institutions were
kept in strict confidence and actual names were changed. To further ensure the
anonymity of the participants, only the researcher and the dissertation chair had access to
the data. All permission forms from the respective institutions and consent forms from
participants were kept in a secure location. All consent forms, recordings, and further
data collected will be destroyed six months after the completion of this dissertation, to be
attested to by a signed affidavit of a witness.
Voluntary participation of interviewees was ensured through individual consent
forms. The consent information was provided to participants in written form before the
interview. It explained the details of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation
and the measures taken to protect their identity (see Appendix B). Furthermore, each
participant was verbally informed of their rights and the voluntary nature of their
participation before signing the consent form. After the reading of the consent form, all
57
participants were asked if they had any questions or concerns. Participants’ permission to
audio record the interview was requested and secured on the same document. Each
participant was asked to sign the consent form before proceeding and was asked if they
would like a copy of the consent form for their records.
Conclusion
This dissertation documents the perceptions of faculty and administrators of
private Christian colleges concerning the effects of accreditation on the mission of their
institutions. It is the hope of the researcher that such institutions will be better served and
informed about accreditation in order to help their students fulfill their goals in Christian
higher education.
58
Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
In the United States, accrediting bodies are used as self-regulating organizations
(SROs) for educational institutions. Because it is a unique facet of American higher
education (TRACS, 2012), it is important to study this policy and practice of
accreditation. For Christian higher education institutions, accreditation has created a
situation of dual accountability – to American higher education and to faith communities.
The challenge of US Christian college and university leaders is to honor both (Henck,
2011). Anita Henck from Azusa Pacific University in southern California, a Christian
liberal arts university, said:
Christian colleges and universities operate in a unique set of circumstances within
American higher education. They are deeply embedded in and accountable to two
worlds, each of which has a distinctive culture: the world of higher education and
the church world. (p. 196)
It is helpful to examine the original purpose of Christian institutions in order to ascertain
how this divergence has taken place between secular and Christian institutions.
The early definition of a Bible college was that of an institution for the training of
men and women for full-time vocational ministry (Bethel, 1998). One of the great
concerns for private Christian colleges and universities is that they should not become
secularized, and thus undermine their Christian heritage (Meyer, 2009).
Secularization is the term generally used to describe the early colleges’ move
away from their religious orientation…the term has been interpreted to mean
“nonreligious” or even “antireligious” when applied to colleges and universities
that are no longer affiliated with Christian churches or institutionally identified as
Christian. (Adrian, 2003, p. 20)
59
As Bible colleges joined the mainstream of higher education, they struggled with the
issue of separation of church and state, government control and general education
requirements.
The president of Antietam Bible College, testifying before the Maryland State
Board for Higher Education in 1985, opposed his college’s subjection to the
state’s approval process with these words: “We believe in strict church-state
separation, and do not believe the Government may determine who shall teach in
our institutions, what shall be taught, whether we are carrying out our religious
purposes, how we shall allocate the funds held in our stewardship, or who shall
merit a diploma.” (Freed, 1985, p. 1)
Today, they are dealing with regional accreditation, technology, curriculum
development, program expansion, a changing market, faculty credentials and presidential
leadership (Bethel, 1998). Many of the interviewees in this dissertation mentioned the
costs of accreditation, maintaining the necessary resources, expanding programs in order
to keep pace with the changing economy, and finding faculty with the necessary degrees
from accredited institutions. These are all relevant concerns for private institutions.
Senior administrators or leaders (i.e., deans and vice-presidents) are usually the
persons responsible for the development of mission statements, visions and goals and
then safeguarding the achievement of those goals (Gayle, 2003). However, little is
known about the perceptions of these administrators in regards to their institution’s
mission statement. The role of senior administrators is that of balancing faculty demands
and public expectations. Internally, they are responsible for communicating the interests
of university faculty (Dressel, 1987). Externally, they oversee communications between
the institution and the community (McDade, 1988). This is one of the major reasons
60
driving the research reflected in this dissertation. Understanding how senior
administrators of Christian higher education institutions embrace their school’s mission is
very important to understanding how that institution meets its goals, especially in relation
to the effects of accreditation (Velcoff & Ferrari, 2006).
This dissertation examines the perceptions of faculty members and administrators
of four-year, private Christian colleges in northern California regarding the effects, both
positive and negative, of accreditation upon the mission and vision of such institutions.
Christian higher education institutions need to comply with the mandates of church
constituencies and the requirements of the eight regional accrediting bodies. Such a dual
mandate places great constraints upon such institutions (Henck, 2011). “Although
accreditation standards seek to assess all institutions equally, the practical application of
these standards places a special burden on religious colleges and universities, which must
often choose between prioritizing either their faith or their academic missions” (Donahoo
& Lee, 2008, p. 322). To find out more about how these potentially conflicting missions
are experienced in the lives of those in Christian higher education, each study participant
was asked the following research questions: a) What value does accreditation bring to a
four-year, private Christian college? b) To what extent does accreditation affect the
mission and vision of such an institution? c) How does a lack of accreditation affect such
an institution?
The researcher interviewed one administrator and two faculty members from three
four-year, private Christian colleges in northern California that offer a Bachelor of Arts
61
degree and differ by their accreditation status. One college was a medium-sized Christian
liberal arts college and was regionally accredited with WASC (Western Association of
Schools and Colleges), hereafter to be known as Alpha College; one was a small Bible
college and was nationally accredited with TRACS (Transnational Association of
Christian Colleges and Schools), hereafter to be known as Beta College; and, one was a
small church-based Bible college and was non-accredited, but was authorized by the state
of California Department of Education through the Bureau of Private Postsecondary
Education to grant a Bachelor of Arts degree, hereafter to be known as Delta College.
Each participant did so voluntarily. The participants shared their experiences
within private Christian colleges concerning regional accreditation, national accreditation
and/or non-accreditation and the effects of each upon the mission and vision of such
institutions. For the purpose of anonymity, each participant will be designated by
college, position and number [i.e., Alpha A (Alpha College, Administrator); Beta F1
(Beta College Faculty Member #1)]. Because there was only one administrator from
each college, there will not be a number for administrators, just the letter A.
In order to gain a better understanding of the perspective of each participant, two
preliminary questions were asked regarding what led them into Christian higher
education and what other experiences they had had in Christian higher education other
than their present institution (see Table 5). Most of the columns in the table are selfexplanatory. However, some need introductory comments. The “non-accredited”
column refers to whether or not that person has served in a non-accredited institution at
62
some time. The “other institutions” column refers to whether or not that person has ever
worked at an institution other than their present institution.
Table 5
Participant Demographics
Participants
Gender
Degree
Level
Degree
Emphasis
Pastor/
Minister
Education
Worked at
Non-accredited
Institution
No
No
Worked at
Other
Institutions
No
Alpha A
F
Doctorate
Alpha F1
M
Doctorate
Bible
No
Yes
Yes
Alpha F2
M
Doctorate
Psychology
Yes
Yes
Yes
Beta A
M
Master’s
Bible
Yes
Yes
Yes
Beta F1
M
Master’s
Bible
Yes
Yes
Yes
Beta F2
M
Master’s
Education
Yes
Yes
No
Delta A
M
Doctorate
Yes
Yes
Yes
Delta F1
M
Master’s
Cross-Cultural
Communications and
Cultural
Anthropology
Bible
Yes
Yes
Yes
Master’s
Bible
Yes
Yes
Yes
of
Divinity*
* A Master’s of Divinity (78 credit hours beyond a B.A.) is a theological degree between a
Master of Arts (48 credit hours beyond a B.A.) and a Doctorate (108 credit hours beyond a B.A.)
(www.agts.edu). This is not to be confused with a Doctor of Divinity, which is an honorary
degree (“Academic Honors for ‘America’ Writers,” 2007, p. 7).
Delta F2
M
Profile of Participants
In addition to sharing the common characteristics of serving as an educator in
Christian higher education, other commonalities emerged from the participant sample.
63
All nine participants are Christians and most attended a Christian institution for their
undergraduate, graduate and/or post-graduate studies. Eight of the participants were
male. Alpha A is the only female. Seven are licensed or ordained ministers with a
church denomination. About half of the participants have also served as pastors of
churches, as well as Christian educators. One of the participants, Alpha F2, has actually
taught at all three college sites at one time or another.
Alpha A
Alpha A went to college for two years right out of high school to study to be a
teacher, but dropped out of college for nine years when she learned that there were no
teaching jobs available at that time. During that time she became a Christian and went to
her present institution, Alpha College, when it was a Bible college, not the liberal arts
college that it is today. Also, at that time Alpha College was nationally accredited, not
regionally accredited, as it is today. The change in Alpha College’s mission from that of
a Bible college to that of a Christian liberal arts college necessitated the change from
national accreditation to regional accreditation, as national accreditations are specialized.
They are meant for only one field of study, which would not be conducive for a liberal
arts curriculum. For instance, Alpha College now has a psychology degree, which would
not have been covered under the previous Bible college curriculum, nor the national
accreditation of the ABHE (Association of Biblical Higher Education) that Alpha College
used to have. After graduation, she served as the library director and earned her M.L.S.
degree. After five years, she was asked to chair Alpha College’s Christian education
64
program. Since 1990, she has chaired the Christian education and administration
program.
Alpha A has never worked at any other Christian higher education institution, but
she has served as a consultant on accreditation teams visiting other colleges and in
helping other schools through the accreditation process. She obtained her master’s
degree at San Jose State and her doctorate at the University of San Francisco, a Jesuit
school. She has also taken some classes at Fuller Theological Seminary, an evangelical
institution in southern California that has a campus here in Sacramento. It is obvious that
she has an eclectic perspective due to the diversity of her learning environments from
these various institutions of higher education. She is a member of the North American
Professors for Christian Education. Alpha College and its administrators and faculty are
members of the CCCU (Council of Christian Colleges and Universities). Her
accreditation work with WASC is usually with small, faith-based institutions, usually at
the initial stages of accreditation.
Alpha F1
Alpha F1 served in pastoral ministry for 15 years before becoming involved in
Christian higher education. It was during his graduate work that he began to feel the
desire to become a teacher in higher education. Other than teaching for a short time as an
adjunct professor at Pacific Christian College in southern California, Alpha F1 has only
taught at Alpha College, both as a Bible college and now as a liberal arts college.
Although he has agreed with the transition of the institution, there have been some
65
changes that have been harder for his department, due to the fact that he is a Bible
professor. Where Bible and ministry used to be the only focus of Alpha College, now it
is one of many foci. It is quite possible that this transition has been especially difficult
for the Bible department because of this change in focus. His only other involvement in
Christian higher education has been as an undergraduate, graduate and doctoral student.
Alpha F2
Alpha F2 became a Christian in college and got involved with Inter-Varsity
Christian Fellowship at the university. He worked with youth groups and overseas
missions. Because of the issues that he ran into ministering to youth, he decided to
pursue a graduate degree in psychology and counseling. This developed into a desire to
become a professional Christian clinician and led him into the idea of academia. His
instructors also inspired him to think more about the possibility of inspiring others
through a ministerial avenue in teaching.
All of this is what led him into a strong interest in terms of Bible college teaching,
student counseling skills, how to help people, and how to understand brokenness and
depravity from psychological and theological perspectives at the same time. Christian
higher education evolved out of all of these experiences along the way. Alpha F2 said
that the transformative forms of education that he has seen in Christian higher education
has resonated more with his counselor’s heart than other settings that he has been in. He
likes “observing other people’s transformations and so Christian higher education is a
great place to do that.”
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His understanding of transformation stems from his ministerial background in
Christian missions and youth pastoring. His concept of the brokenness of people’s lives
due to the ravages of sin by others and by themselves comes from the biblical teachings
on sin. Alpha F2 believes that transformative education is about teaching others that faith
in Jesus Christ the Son of God is the only way for the brokenness of sin to be healed.
This takes place by an individual confessing his sin to God and accepting Christ as his
Savior and Lord. According to the apostle Paul in Romans 10:9-10, transformation
requires belief that God raised Jesus from the dead. True transformation takes place as
the Spirit of God continues to work in the life of the new believer as he reads his Bible,
prays to God, has fellowship with other believers and worships God.
Alpha F2 taught at Delta College, the non-accredited college, years ago. He was
asked to develop a counseling certificate program for people interested in learning to be
biblical counselors, lay counselors, and pastoral counselors. He has also taught
counseling classes at Beta College in the past. For one and a half years he was a full-time
professor at Bethany University in Scotts Valley near Santa Cruz, CA. Since then, he has
been full-time at Alpha College. The fact that Alpha F2 has taught at all three of the
college sites of this research study was one reason that the researcher was glad that he
was recommended as a potential interviewee and agreed to be interviewed. He has also
done student teaching for clinical programs at CSU Sacramento in his graduate program.
He served as a graduate assistant or a graduate instructor during his doctoral program at
Alliant University.
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Beta A
Beta A has always had a love for education. He won awards for academics and
loved the process. He desired to teach nuclear physics and do research. He loves to
examine things carefully and search out the details. After he became a Christian, Beta A
felt God calling him to study and teach the Bible. He did his undergraduate and graduate
work in Biblical Studies. He believes that the purpose of education should be to produce
a change in life for the better.
After serving on staff at a church for some time, there were some people in the
church who wanted advanced training beyond Sunday School, so the senior pastor asked
Beta A to start a Bible institute. He was the sole teacher. It was a non-accredited,
church-based Bible institute, much like his present institution originally was. Beta A has
been at Beta College for thirty years. He first served there as a professor and the Dean of
Students. He has served as the president of Beta College since 1988. Having personally
known Beta A, many would consider him to be a charismatic leader who has been the
driving force for the development of Beta College. Beta F1 and Beta F2 made comments
to that effect in their interviews.
Beta F1
Beta F1 graduated from CSU Sacramento and started out as a founding teacher at
a Christian school in the greater Sacramento area. He then became a youth pastor at the
church that sponsored the Christian school. He was then asked to teach a class at the
Bible institute that the church had, what would eventually become Beta College. He
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went on to graduate from this Bible institute himself and go into ministry. After four
years of teaching at the Bible institute and youth pastoring at the church, he was asked to
go to Novato in Marin County to begin another Bible college. He started a college there
and was there for two years. Beta F1 received a call from the president of Beta College
and was asked to come back. He returned and became the vice-president of the college.
He stayed there for six years, while Beta A was serving as the Dean of Students. He left
in 1988 to start a new church.
Beta A invited Beta F1 to return to the college and share a class with him in 2006
or 2007. By this time, Beta F1 had received his master’s degree, and Beta College had
become nationally accredited with TRACS. Before 1999, Beta College was like Delta
College and was under the auspices of the BPPVE (Bureau of Private Post-Secondary
Vocational Education) of the State of California. This bureau is now the BPPE and is
under the Department of Consumer Affairs. In 2007, the word “vocational” was taken
out of this bureau’s name. Beta F1 currently carries a 12 unit teaching load and is one of
the academic advisors at Beta College. He is also the Dean of Men and has recently
become the chairperson of the Biblical Studies department.
Beta F2
Beta F2 says that he has been a teacher most of his life. His undergraduate degree
is in American History from the University of Michigan with a minor in social studies
and English, and his master’s degree is in Education from Chapman University. He has
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taken over twenty hours of graduate studies at Fuller Theological Seminary. He also has
minister’s credentials with the General Council of the Assemblies of God.
He planned on being a school teacher, but then the Vietnam War began, so he
went into the Air Force instead. He spent most of his career in the Air Force as an
instructor at one place or another. He was even a flight instructor here at Mather Air
Force base in Sacramento. He served for three years at the officer training school and
was a flight instructor at another Air Force base in Little Rock, Arkansas. He taught
Sunday School classes at many churches located in the various places where he was
stationed throughout this time. When he became licensed with the Assemblies of God
church denomination in the mid-1990s, his pastor suggested that he apply to be a parttime professor at Beta College. He started with one class and then started teaching more
and more. Beta F2 has now been at Beta College for 18 years. Beta College is the only
Christian college in which Beta F2 has taught.
Delta A
Delta A is the oldest participant in this research study and has probably the most
diverse and rich experience of all the participants. He was raised in a pastor’s home and
felt a calling from God at a young age to be a missionary to Africa. Growing up, he
carefully observed his father’s ministry. When he began to study cross-cultural
missionary work, he realized that the real need was not for missionaries to become
pastors overseas, but for them to train indigenous pastors and evangelists and
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missionaries in their own countries. He set about to bring people to Christ and then
encourage those who had an aptitude to be leaders and ministers.
His introduction to Christian higher education began with attending North Central
Bible Institute in Minnesota, now North Central University of the Assemblies of God.
He has since gone on to establish a number of pastor training schools in Burkina Faso and
Togo, both West African countries. The first was the Nagabageri Institute Biblique.
Nagabageri means “cow’s udder” in the native language, and Institute Biblique is French
for Bible institute. This is important because the very name of the institute displays how
education was to be communicated. Just as the name was in two languages, so teaching
was conducted in two languages: the Mori language, which is the lingua franca of the
region; and the French language, which is the language of the former colonial power over
that area. Due to working in this part of the world for over twenty years, Delta A is a
multi-lingual individual. He is the only participant in this study who is.
Delta A went on to complete a master’s degree at the University of Minnesota.
After that, he co-founded the West Africa Advanced School of Theology in the country
of Lome, Togo. It is a bilingual school of French and English. He and his wife have
worked over 30 years in Africa over different periods. His church denomination, the
Assemblies of God, decided to form its first seminary in Springfield, Missouri. He was
asked to leave Africa and help form the seminary. He completed his Ph. D. in CrossCultural Communications and Cultural Anthropology, a dual emphasis, at the University
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of Minnesota. He was then hired as one of the first faculty members of the Assemblies of
God Graduate School.
Delta A and his wife went to the Philippines for one year as missionaries. He
worked at FEAST, the Far East Advanced School of Theology. It is now called Asia
Pacific Theological Seminary. He and his wife returned to the United States and helped
found a seminary in conjunction with a church in Fresno, California. It received
California certification under the Bureau of Private Postsecondary Vocational Education
(BPPVE). This seminary had this type of certification for nine years. It then arrived at
the first level of accreditation with WASC. However, due to financial difficulties of the
sponsoring church, the seminary was disestablished. Delta A then went to be the
president of his denomination’s seminary in Springfield, where he had served on the
faculty several years before. He was there for nine years and was one of this researcher’s
professors for his master’s degree.
He has been helping at Delta College for the last decade, which for most of its
history has been under the auspices of the BPPVE, now the BPPE. Under the guidance
and advice of Delta A, Delta College and its leaders are actively engaging in
collaboration with a regionally accredited university in Washington that is interested in
setting up Delta College as a Sacramento campus of the university. This university is
accredited with the Northwest Regional Accrediting Association. It is hoped that
everything will be set in motion for the fall of 2013.
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Delta F1
Delta F1 stated that his first experience with Christian higher education came as a
student in a Bible college where he developed a love for learning. His early years of
pastoral experience enhanced his desire for learning. Both of these experiences whetted
his desire for Bible knowledge. He began as a student at Holmes Bible College, which
was founded in 1898 in Greenville, South Carolina. It was and still is an unaccredited
college, but has a high level of intellectual requirements. For example, every student was
expected to spend one hour in the morning studying the Old Testament and one hour in
the afternoon studying the New Testament. Delta F1 stated that these rigorous studies
served him well when he later applied to Southern Wesleyan College, a Christian liberal
arts college, for his bachelor’s program and Regent University, a Christian liberal arts
university, in Virginia for his master’s program. Although he started out on a
probationary basis in both programs, it became apparent that he was well grounded in the
Scriptures because of his studies at Holmes Bible College. Delta F1 stated that this is one
instance that shows that academic rigor can be present without accreditation. In fact, as
stated previously in the literature review, graduates of non-NCATE-accredited education
programs do as well as those taught by graduates of accredited ones (Neal, 2008a).
NCATE is the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
(www.google.com). Delta F1 served as a professor for a time at Heritage Bible College
in Dunn, North Carolina while pastoring a church nearby. When he moved to California,
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he started teaching at another small Bible college. He was then asked to come and teach
at Delta College.
Delta F2
Delta F2 loves learning and loves teaching. He received his bachelor’s degree in
Christian Education from Biola University and his Master’s of Divinity at Talbot
Theological Seminary, both in La Mirada in southern California. In a non-accredited
setting, he has taught what’s called TEE, Theological Education by Extension, and has
used it to train pastors within his own denominational association. He has served as a
substitute teacher for a couple classes at Biola University and been a guest lecturer in
their School of Intercultural Studies. His church of thirty years in Sacramento has three
language services: Mienh (a Southeast Asian language from Laos and Cambodia),
Spanish and English. The English service is totally mixed and represents over ten
different languages of first generation Americans.
Discussion of Themes
The process of data analysis began by identifying segments in the narrative data
set that were responsive to the research questions. This was done rather easily due to the
fact that questions three, four and five in the Interview Protocol (see Appendix A) were
the researcher’s three research questions: a) What value does accreditation bring to a
four-year, private Christian college? b) To what extent does accreditation affect the
mission and vision of such an institution? c) How does a lack of accreditation affect such
an institution? This process was further clarified by each respondent being allowed to
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provide an example for research questions two and three in the Interview Protocol
questions six and seven. The data was divided into general themes and then into subthemes. There are a total of six major themes, with relevant sub-themes, presented in this
section of Chapter 4.
1. Financial Aid
This theme is probably one of the most well known concerning accreditation
because the federal government has connected financial aid and accreditation ever since
the end of World War II. With the return of soldiers from the war and the
implementation of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill of Rights) in 1944, the
federal government provided direct funding to college students. However, in 1952, the
Veterans Readjustment Act tied financial aid to institutional accreditation. Since then,
most federal aid is tied to accreditation (Brittingham, 2008). When the federal
government expanded its assistance to students to include those who were of a lower
socio-economic status (Title IV students), accreditation gained further inroads as the
criteria for the receipt of federal student aid (Adrian, 2004). Most states have followed
suit in regards to state student aid, as well. For the purpose of this study, the policies of
the state of California were examined. Overall, participants have had both positive and
negative experiences in relation to accreditation, or the lack thereof, and its affect upon
financial aid.
In response to research question #1, concerning the value of accreditation, here
are some responses:
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With accreditation, students can receive financial aid. For us, one of our primary
motivators twenty years ago was that. They’re real because without that it’s
sometimes difficult to attract students. And certainly the accredited schools
would use that against you in recruiting efforts. Well, we have accreditation, you
know.
Alpha A
So accreditation, a second value of it is in the United States of America, if it’s real
accreditation, then that means you have financial aid that’s available for students.
Beta A
Versatility in a financial respect because accreditation allows for financial aid to
the students – Delta F1
In response to research question #2, how can accreditation affect a Christian
institution, here is a response:
Delta College will be a Sacramento campus, fully accredited with the Northwest
Regional Accrediting Association. Our students will now be able to get grants
and loans. – Delta A
Here are some responses in regards to research question #3, how does a lack of
accreditation affect a private Christian college:
It affects your ability to survive because students, for economical reasons, are
forced to make other choices. I remember the chapel where we announced to the
students that we had received initial accreditation. And I remember this one gal
coming up to me with tears in her eyes and she said, ‘I’m so glad because
otherwise my dad would have made me transfer to another institution at the end of
the year.’ I mean that’s reality. – Alpha A
I’ve worked at institutions where they hadn’t had accreditation or they lost
accreditation. Course the obvious thing includes things with financial aid and
getting fiscal support for students. That’s a rough one I think. See now the
dependence on federal aid for students is huge, and if you don’t have that you’re
not going to be able to service as many students. You’re gonna have to have that
accreditation be a part of what’s going on. – Alpha F2
I think it can limit a college for how it can serve its students with the aspects of
financial aid, transferability and development of the program. – Beta A
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Take away our financial aid, and we close the doors. – Beta F1
I think the primary one’s financial aid. Before financial aid, before we were
accredited, financial aid was rare and scarce. I mean, it was just tough for
students. They had V. A. stuff, but Pell grants and Cal grants weren’t available.
College was expensive. And we’re way cheaper than most colleges, Bible
colleges. – Beta F2
2. Outside Agency
The federal government of the United States of America chose to not impose its
direct governance over education. The Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution makes
it clear that education is not under the purview of the federal government. As such, it is
left to the states and to the people to govern education (Neal, 2008b). As stated above,
however, with the implementation of the GI Bill, the federal government began to align
receipt of federal funds with accreditation in order to insure “quality education.” Some
were concerned that veterans might lower the standard of education and/or that veterans
would receive a substandard education (Adrian, 2004).
Whereas almost all nine of the interviewees made comments concerning financial
aid and accreditation, only the three interviewees from Alpha College and two of the
interviewees from Beta College made comments about the concept of an “outside
agency” or “outside voice.” Alpha A had a rather poignant way of stating the value of
accreditation in regards to this “outside agency” coming into an educational institution,
especially a private Christian institution. She said:
Accreditation in higher education is sort of…it’s really sort of the safeguard
against direct federal intervention in what we do because so far the federal
government is working through the regional accrediting associations to monitor
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the academy, and so they’ve taken that very seriously because it’s the only way
that you can have the kinds of peer review that I was describing where a small
Christian college gets evaluators from Christian colleges, larger Christian
colleges. There may be someone else on the team from some other aspect of the
education environment. I’m not sure we’d get that if we had direct oversight from
the federal government, kind of like the K-12. Sounds like the Obama
administration is trying to do with higher education what the Bush administration
did with K-12.
By this, Alpha A is referring to the No Child Left Behind implementation of the
Bush administration, which has tied federal aid to public schools and their performance
levels. In regards to the value of accreditation, research question #1, here are some other
relevant comments:
There’s something about having outside institutions, outside peers speak into our
lives, whether that’s our organizational life or our personal life. That allows us to
see things that we need to address so that we wouldn’t normally see. I think it
helps with blind spots that we may have, and that’s always good…We have an
outside system kind of coming in and speaking into the institution and that can be
a good thing. – Alpha F2
Probably one of the first things, it’s really the biblical premise, the Bible says it’s
better when others speak well of you…But accreditation in and of itself is
valuable because you’re going through an audit process. So for me, the value of
accreditation draws back to others speaking well of you. – Beta A
Some of the inter-related comments that came out of the interviews were subthemes, such as “outside voice,” peer review and like-institutions. There were also
distinctions made between regional accreditation and national accreditation. Alpha
College is regionally accredited with WASC, a secular accrediting body, and is a
Christian liberal arts institution. Beta College is nationally accredited with TRACS, a
Christian accrediting body, and is a Bible college. Although both are Christian
institutions, there is a difference between an institution that prepares students for multiple
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disciplines and careers and an institution that focuses solely on preparing students for
Christian ministry. This can also affect the type of accreditation that is necessary.
Outside voice.
I think it brings the value of outside voices to your institution and to the work that
you’re doing to affirm that you’re doing what you’ve set out to do, and if not you
are to make those kinds of changes to do better what you’re doing. You can
always improve what you’re doing. You get voices from other institutions that
are doing similar things that you want to see are we as good or on the same level
as they. Are we doing something better or some things not so well? – Alpha F1
Peer review.
It’s like bringing in a team of consultants, peers who understand the process, and
they act like peers. And they give you all kinds of good feedback. – Alpha A
The folks that end up there doing the evaluation, they were peers from like
institutions. They were folks from other Christian universities who were a part of
WASC. This last one we did, we had three provosts from three different Christian
institutions and it was awesome, some of the things they had to say…And the
folks who were there at this last visit that we had, we were, I mean, they were
talking about God, and we were talking about other institution struggles and some
of the issues that ours isn’t and lots of transparency. It felt like integration with
other colleagues was going on at other like institutions even more so than the
WASC accreditation process, course that was going on too, but it was a lot more
relational than I think people were anticipating. I think WASC is making some
changes to make sure that’s going on. It’s definitely not a secular control on a
Christian organization that you may hear about from some folks. It’s not like that
at all. That’s never been my experience. – Alpha F2
Like-institutions.
And WASC does a good job of putting together teams, and it’s supposed to be a
peer-review process, so they actually look for like-institutions, most of the time.
Our team for our initial accreditation, the chair was from Point Loma, one person
was from Azusa, one from Biola, Concordia. The chair of our team has always
been from a Christian liberal arts institution…so they are very conscientious of
the peer-review process. And so they look for institutions that are in your genre,
further down the line, more developed, but not bringing in people from CSUs or
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UCs or something, or who have a completely different mission: the scope and size
of their institution. They don’t do that. – Alpha A
And the idea of a like-institution, too, maybe folks that share your faith, but there
are also folks that come from institutions that are similar in nature or they are like
the institution you are striving to become like. So, I think one of our provosts that
was with us the last visit was somebody who was from an institution that is kind
of a model institution we are shooting to be more like. So we got information
from a point of reference from that perspective, that paradigm, and so that was
incredibly helpful cause we got to learn from where they’re coming from. That’s
important to know what they’re valuing. – Alpha F2
There were some concerns voiced by two of the interviewees from Beta College
concerning regional accreditation. These comments seem to reflect the reason behind
Beta College’s decision to remain nationally accredited and not seek regional
accreditation. They are placed here because they deal with “speaking” and “language.”
I think the problem can be if the accreditation type doesn’t match the mission of
the college, then you can get off course, you can get off mission. There is a
propensity, a leaning towards saying, well, what do the accreditors want. Oh, we
can’t do that. What are the accreditors going to say? They say, yeah, you can do
this, but you can’t pray in your science classes, or the other things. You can do
your Bible stuff. So for the aspect of accreditation, I think it possibly can take
some folks away from their mission as any oversight would. – Beta A
It has to do much with the fact that a Bible college is another kingdom, so we are
dealing with kingdoms here. And this college operates on a principle and a
precept that is, that is otherwise in terms of kingdom reality. Let’s compare
TRACS, very, very kingdom oriented, and I mean the kingdom of God oriented.
So there’s a language; there’s a goal; there’s a vision; there’s a mission; that are
very common denominators. We can speak the same language. We can be
challenged by them integrity-wise…but we can also understand that we’re not
going to be challenged in terms of transferring from this kingdom to that
kingdom. And where if we opened up to regional accreditation, in truth, these are
my own thoughts now, in truth, we have bowed to Caesar in order to placate…in
order to have transferability of units. – Beta F1
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3. Accountability
Accreditation serves both the private function of institutional quality
improvement among its members and the public role of quality assurance. Quality
improvement has been a part of accreditation from the beginning, but quality assurance
for the public has only really been vital since the 1950s when the US federal government
started recognizing accreditors as reliable authorities on the quality of education provided
by the higher education institutions that they accredit (DOE, 2013). According to the US
Department of Education (USDE), the goal of accreditation is to ensure that programs
meet “acceptable levels of quality” (Adrian, 2004, p. 46). This was primarily tied to
financial aid.
One key theme that evolved out of almost all of the interviews with these nine
participants was the idea of accountability. This theme came as a result of all three
research questions. The sub-themes for accountability were assessment and quality
assurance. Sometimes, accreditation and assessment were used as synonyms for each
other. There were some negatives pointed out concerning this area, especially in regards
to the strictures of accreditation standards, amount of work involved, stress, and overassessment.
In response to research question #1, the value of accreditation, comments were:
There’s things you want to do, but a lot of times you won’t unless you know you
have this accountability. So I think it helps with accountability, but I think the
primary value is the quality assurance. It helps you do what you want to do, and
do it better. – Alpha A
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There’s always some confrontive things; some wise words that are left behind; we
may or may not see us addressing, but WASC is always been constructive in that
way. From a professor position, I’ve always felt supported as an academic. I
know some of my administrative folks, friends, colleagues, sometimes have felt
challenged more so than faculty have, but for the most part it’s been constructive.
So the value I think it brings is that it brings accountability. – Alpha F2
There’s a sense of accountability. There’s a sense of raising a standard. In truth,
accreditations do raise a standard of service, academics, philosophy. I think it
raises a standard amongst the community at large and in the school. I can
certainly see that with the TRACS accreditation. – Beta F1
My truthful answer is snobbery. I understand accreditation in order to hold high
standards, but I struggle with the educational process in that the system is too
constrictive. That’s why I like TEE, Theological Education by Extension. I can
go at the pace of the students rather than at the pace of the quarter or at the pace
of a semester. I love really helping people grow. And people don’t always grow
on a time schedule. And so accreditation for me, while it maintains the standard,
it also excludes a lot of people. It ends up dismissing people who don’t fit in that
system. I don’t want to minimize my teaching, but I don’t want to exclude
everyone from learning either. – Delta F2
Some of the comments made concerning research question #2, how does
accreditation affect a Christian college, were:
Faculty don’t always like to be accountable in terms of…I’m thinking of the
whole assessment movement. They like to teach, and they’re excellent teachers.
They don’t necessarily want to have to write reports that prove it, um, and so,
because accreditation and assessment are so linked together, they are sometimes
viewed through the same lens, and so that quality assurance process is not always
appreciated, the work, the work part. And it’s certainly more work to write the
reports and pay the bills for it, the dues. – Alpha A
You know, it’s the big thing, assessment. Everything has to be assessed, but all
working nights have to commend its value. It’s only to improve what the quality
of what we’re doing. I think some of our teachers that are not presently here
anymore, but they had concerns about whether it would change the quality of
what we’re doing in terms of Christian education, in particular, if we’re going to
have WASC accreditation, the Western Association, and then going more to a
liberal arts model too, which we wouldn’t be doing unless we went to the WASC
accreditation, so that was a concern. – Alpha F1
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WASC is only holding you accountable to follow through on the things that you
yourself decided to be. They’re not telling you who to be. They’re telling you to
follow through on who you decided to be…it kind of forces you to integrate that
whole process into how you do business, so that you’re operating in that on a
regular basis, rather than creating some God-awful, horrible, overtime work that
goes on for everybody cause WASC is coming in three weeks. We’ve gotta
create what looks like a mission analysis that we’ve supposedly been doing for
the last three years, but we haven’t…I think it can contribute negatively to stress
levels because most folks are so exhausted just doing the normal levels of work
that they’re doing. – Alpha F2
You’re going to be accountable to someone somewhere. So it’s just, is what
they’re asking me in the accrediting association going to put me on the slippery
slope, to turn away from my mission? That to me could be the negative in any
case there. – Beta A
The good effect is it forces them to be careful about who they hire for faculty
because the accreditation body is going to require that you have some percentage
of doctorates and probably a hundred percent of master’s degrees to teach there.
So I think it affects the college in terms of the quality of instruction the students
are getting. And accreditation, generally, they also require every quarter, the last
or next to last class I have to hand out a mountain of student evaluations. It holds
you accountable, not only to the dean or the vice-president of academics, but it
also holds you accountable to the students and the job. – Beta F2
It helps the institution to function more smoothly by raising the standards and
making it more policy-centered. It establishes written policies on hard copy
documents. Accreditation is a major factor in bringing this to pass. It causes an
institution to establish and maintain accountability across the board. Everyone,
from the president of the college to the janitor, is accountable to the established
written documents that are a part of the accreditation process of that institution.
Accountability is the key word here. – Delta F1
There was one comment for research question #3, lack of accreditation:
We don’t have to wait till the commissioners meet twice a year. We don’t have to
prepare a self-study. We don’t have to go through the accreditation guidelines,
which are thirty to sixty pages, and answer not just yes or no, but document,
document, all those things. So in that fence, those two sides, there’s strength and
safety, but sometimes the entrepreneurialism, the entrepreneurship, it’s not as
much as you can when you’re in an accredited institution. – Beta A
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Assessment.
Assessment is the major partner it seems like to accreditation because even
schools that visited that have program accreditation like ATS (Association of
Theological Schools) accreditation if they’re just getting involved in WASC and
they haven’t had to do ATS for a while, assessment is still a new piece. It’s not
just a report card. It’s learning artifacts that demonstrate…to me the fun thing is
to the students that they can do this. You can’t get accreditation without an
educational assessment plan. Again, it’s part of that quality assurance. – Alpha A
I think if you’re not careful accreditation for accreditation sake can make the
institution become bureaucratic or become about paperwork, as opposed to what
the heart of the institution’s really about. I think you can balance that out if you
do it right, as long as the paperwork piece, the assessment part, fuels what the
vision and goals and dreams are of the institution is fine. But I think some folks
get so assessment oriented that they forget about the heart of why we’re doing it.
If you get preoccupied with the work of accreditation, you’ll forget about the
hearts of the students you’re serving. I think there’s a danger of that. I’ve seen
that in institutions. – Beta F2
4. Collaboration between Institutions
Accreditation aids a student in the transfer of credit hours, which exemplifies its
value as a “stamp of approval” on a particular institution or program. Credits taken at an
accredited institution or program can aid in the transfer of credit hours, especially
internationally. Registration, licensure and certification boards utilize accreditation status
to screen applicants. In fact, certifications and licensure often require that one graduate
from an accredited program or institution (Boraiko et al., 2010).
One key theme that came out of these interviews on accreditation is that of
collaboration between institutions, how one college treats another college, when it comes
to accreditation versus non-accreditation, regional accreditation versus national
accreditation. None of the interviewees actually used the term collaboration, but the
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researcher has given this term as an overarching term for transferability of units,
articulation agreements, memorandums of understanding and advanced degrees. Each of
these terms or ideas will appear in the responses of the interviewees to the three research
questions. Some of the respondents do distinguish between regional accreditation and
national accreditation.
In regard to research question #1, the value of accreditation, here are some
comments that were shared:
For us, one of our primary motivators twenty years ago was for our students to be
able to go into state credentialing programs and go for graduate studies. – Alpha A
I don’t believe that regional accreditation would help us, except for
transferability. It would ease transferability. But I think that accreditation,
regionally helps with transferability. National accreditation versus regional, the
biggest difference is transferability because they both require the auditing process.
They both require the self-study. – Beta A
So they (students) come here and one of their first questions is always, ‘Can I
transfer units in from other places where I have gone to school?’ And our answer
to them that is, ‘Yes, probably.’ Every college makes up their own mind what
they’re going to transfer in. If you’re transferring in from an accredited college,
then we don’t have a problem usually transferring units. If you’re coming in from
an institution, maybe a Bible college that’s not fully accredited, we may still
accept those units provisionally.
And so, the reverse of that question is, ‘Okay, if I go here and I want to
transfer elsewhere, will they take your degrees? Will they accept your degrees?
Now, what Sac State does, for example, they’ll take our B. A. degree…in Biblical
Counseling. To get licensed by the state, you have to have a master’s in
counseling, so they take our counseling degree. There are some colleges around
that take some of our credits and some that don’t. They can pick and choose what
they want to accept. – Beta F2
It (accreditation) also allows a rich variety in course offerings for an accredited
college, especially in regards to degree completion and transfer of credits to other
institutions. – Delta F1
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The respondents made the following comments concerning research question #2,
how does accreditation affect a Christian college:
I’ve seen accreditation really help a student accomplish their goals way beyond
this institution and such because they had accreditation and that does apply to
whatever degree they’re getting. That means that they have some basis upon
which to take a next step. These days in the church area, as well as obviously the
larger work area, degrees really matter. If you want to advance in any field,
you’re gonna have to have some degree. There are some exceptions, I realize, but
for the most part, they want you to have some degree. – Alpha F1
We’re training people for ministry. If people go out of town or want to transfer
somewhere else, we’ll sure work with them and already have agreements with
many other Christian universities and colleges, even secular colleges and
universities if they are wanting to go that way. So we can help facilitate them.
Beta A
It might have an effect in terms of transferability of units, of course. Our
transferability for TRACS units is you’ve gotta fight for your transferability. If
you’re gonna transfer, you’ve gotta fight for them. Fuller is one of the top notch
schools in the nation in terms of missiology. They accept our units. They accept
our bachelors’ degrees right into their master’s degree program, which is all you
need. But it’s just so, it’s almost at the whim of who happens to be looking at the
transcript at that particular time. And it could just be somebody who’s hired to
look at transcripts. If your name isn’t found in the book, then you’re stuck. You
have to appeal it, and you know go to all of that. The academic world is really
snobby. – Beta F1
As for research question #3, the lack of accreditation, here is what the
interviewees had to say:
When I was the chair of Christian education, we had thirty-five students who
wanted to be school teachers, and then the state changed the admission
requirements to the credential program. You had to have a bachelor’s degree
from a regionally accredited university, period. There used to be others ways
around, other pathways until this period. I worked out an agreement with another
university under their program…until we had our own (regional) accreditation.
Alpha A
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I think that the problem with no accreditation is that, it’s really a matter of how do
you see your purpose I suppose. One of the questions that we’re always asked
and that the parents of our students ask is, will this transfer? Will this mean
anything in the marketplace? But not to have accreditation, not to have the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges means that you have less influence
in the marketplace. And our students cannot go to those schools if they really
want to do graduate work where are they going to go? You know, they’re going
to have to do extra work somewhere else in order to be able to go to graduate
school, unless again it would be something that was directly related to the church
group that would accept the unaccredited institution. – Alpha F1
I’ll focus (on lack of) regional accreditation and one thing absolute comes to mind
– transferability. The six or seven regionals that are out there, but you’ve done
your study already, you know, that they even fight amongst themselves. The
Southeastern Association, they did not want to take anybody else’s stuff, until the
feds came and said, oh, you don’t, that’s okay you don’t have to, but also you
can’t get financial aid.
Oh, okay, we’re a member of AACRAO, the American Association of Collegiate
Registrars and Admissions Officials. And AACRAO has fourteen basic
principles for transferability that an institution is supposed to follow. And it
mentions nothing in there, in fact, it says transferability of credits should not be
based upon solely regional accreditation, makes that statement in their transfer
principles.
Beta A
Transferability! I wrote that down, transferability only. That’s the only thing I
see. Oh, yeah, financial aid! Take away our financial aid and we close the doors.
Beta F1
Once, again, is the transfer of units, if the students are intending to go elsewhere
and don’t want to repeat a whole bunch of classes. – Beta F2
There have been times when prospective students have asked us as advisors,
“What can I do with this degree?” Although a completed degree is recognized as
a bachelor’s degree by the state of California, the units are not transferable usually
and the degree may not be acceptable to other institutions of higher learning if a
student decides to pursue an advanced degree, such as a master’s degree.
Delta F1
Well, I think for students who are transferring into an accredited school if they’re
going to a school, if they were going to a Biola…or an Azusa or any other
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Christian schools here, most of the courses wouldn’t be recognized, and wouldn’t
be accepted. So the transfer of credits is lost in that way. – Delta F2
Beta F1 gave an example in relation to this theme as to why he felt regional
accreditation would have been a benefit to his institution or its students:
When I had to tell a student that he had to go to Simpson, which is no longer
Simpson, I think it’s Tozer University in Redding. He transferred out of here, up
to there to go to a credential program in order to get units that would transfer over
to a state college. Then, I would have liked us to be regionally accredited to keep
that student.
5. Reputation
Accreditation became more attractive to religious institutions in the 1970s as they
sought to prove that they were not academically inferior to their secular counterparts
(McMurtrie, 2003). It became more important to them as they desired to safeguard their
students’ credits and degrees (Donahoo& Lee, 2008). Both of these speak to reputation,
especially academic reputation, a theme that was emphasized in one way or another by
the interviewees in this dissertation research. Key words or synonyms were the words
credibility, acceptability, integrity, viability, legitimacy and validity.
In response to research question #1, the value of accreditation:
There is an acceptability of the school itself within the accreditation that comes.
However, that, in my estimation, is way down the line, but I think there is that as
well. I think there is also, you know, students feel a bit better about it, you know,
that kind of perception that a student may have, or maybe an inner worth that a
student might have with regards to the degree. – Beta F1
It’s a simple word: integrity. Christian college without a good reputation and
education without integrity is almost an oxymoron. Christianity has to have
integrity. If there’s anybody who has the integrity of overseers who can
authenticate education, it should be the Christian community. And we’re all made
poorer by those operating in Christian education without integrity. And part of it
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is, those amongst our number who aren’t worthy, or are not ready I should say or
willing is the word, to go through the steps it takes to have accreditation.
(Delta) College does not make these kinds of claims. We tell people up front we
don’t have regional accreditation. You can’t get grants. – Delta A
Another value that accreditation brings to an institution is legitimacy. It stamps a
seal of approval on an institution and states that this entity has the right to do what
it is doing and to grant the degrees that it is granting. – Delta F1
When responding to research question #2, how does accreditation affect a
Christian college, here are some comments that were made:
It lends credibility to what you’re already doing. That’s why I don’t think most
schools need to be afraid of accreditation because what we have found is…yes,
they’ll tell us to improve our system. They’ll come in and say, you know, there
may be things especially at the beginning that we didn’t have in place, but we’ve
always found that it’s to our benefit to put into place policies and practices that
are more industry standard. – Alpha A
I think it does present the institution in a better light in the community at large. It
does that. I think without that, without that accreditation I think there’s a real lack
of credibility that an institution has in the community at large. I’m talking about
the community at large. So as far as the effect of it, I think that’s probably the
key. – Beta F1
It affects, first of all, the level of education. It affects the reputation of that school
in the community, which is important, and then our testimony before those
watching us needs to be impeccable, not hypocritical, not proud, but genuine.
Delta A
It gives greater validity, but the question is, to whom? It gives greater validity to
those who look for that validity. Most people don’t ever go back and say, was
that school accredited? It’s usually only other accredited schools who ask if it’s
accredited. Uh, I’ve never known a church whose gonna ask was the school you
went to accredited. You’ve gotta be careful how that’s used. – Delta F2
Although there were no direct comments made concerning research question #3,
the effects of the lack of accreditation, some comments did surface later on in other
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questions related to sharing an example where accreditation would have been a benefit
and academic reputation.
The reputation of the degree when they get out and get into the field. You know,
non-traditional programs right now are taking a hit, and they don’t, they’re not
communicating that very well to their students. You know, if you’ve got a
student coming out of Stanford, that means something. If you’ve got a student
coming out of National University, you’re not gonna get the same, unfortunately,
same level of reputation. Non-accredited universities or non-accredited
institutions I think struggle with some of that reputation. Where did you come
from? Or it can. Not all of them, but it can be an issue. – Alpha F2
Also, being accredited and having written policies about how grades are to be
handled would have eliminated some personal decisions by professors regarding
students’ grades. Sometimes, professors are inclined to grant more leniency
towards students in the name of grace because there is no documentation or
established policy regarding how grades are to be given or processed, especially
in regards to deadlines. – Delta F1
As a parting comment for this section on reputation and integrity, Delta A made
the following statement:
We give what we say we’re gonna give. We don’t promise something we can’t
give. And that’s what makes it valid. At any level, a school can have integrity if
it does what it says and if it does what the laws of the country allow. It’s when
we falsify those things that we hurt people, exploit people and give the name of
Christ a bad name, a bad reputation.
6. Mission
The internal value of accreditation for an educational institution is that it provides
the faculty, administrators, staff and trustees the opportunity to examine their mission and
purpose and whether or not they are fulfilling it as an institution. Although institutions
regularly examine such things as retention, recruitment, endowments, etc., the
accreditation process provides an institution with the opportunity to examine all of these
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parts together, all at once (Oden, 2009). The major concern of this dissertation was does
accreditation affect the mission of private Christian colleges and in what ways.
Research question #1, the value of accreditation, received the following
comments:
I think that there’s great added value really in terms of the curriculum, helping
you articulate your mission, and then be able to build a program that helps you
actualize that mission. – Alpha A
Obviously we always have goals in mind and some things that we’re trying to
accomplish within education. And in this college, we have already had the Bible
college accreditation, so we had even that institution as a part of our accrediting
helping us to examine and affirm what we’re trying to accomplish. – Alpha F1
We had religious exemption because we were training people for ministry, which
we still do. That’s our purpose. That’s our niche. But then there was the degree
granting element which we needed if we wanted to help train veterans.
WASC accreditation or regional accreditation is not necessary for us to do what
we can do. And it may even inhibit our mission because of the lack of
understanding from the Christian perspective. – Beta A
In response to the effects of accreditation on a Christian college, research
question #2, interviewees made the following comments:
What we have found is that it doesn’t affect our mission. I don’t know if this is
true in every region. All my experience has been with WASC. They come on
campus and they find how peer-oriented it is, and how the idea is not to critique
the mission, but to just look at, you know, okay, this is your mission, so how do
you assess it. How do you teach for it? How do you insure it? It’s all about
supporting the mission that you have declared for your university. There is some
element of saying, okay, is this mission within the broad realm of academia? And
if it is, then the focus is not on critiquing the mission, it is on supporting it:
implementation. – Alpha A
WASC does this thing in the planning aspect to accreditation. You kind of have
to show a mission…you have to conduct a mission analysis connected to a cause.
You not only have to state what your mission and your vision and your goals and
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your objectives are, but you’ve gotta show an assessment that you’re moving
towards accomplishing those objectives.
So, one of the things WASC does is it really forces you to take this
mission plan idea and apply it to the way you do daily life because if you don’t
then you’ll have the way your school operates and then everybody scrambles to
create something for WASC that’s separate from that, so when they show up you
have something legitimate to show them. – Alpha F2
I think the problem can be if the accreditation type doesn’t match the mission of
the college, then you can get off course, you can get off mission. There are books
that talk about colleges that start off as a church-based Bible institute then become
a Bible college then become a Christian college then become a Christian
university, and they move away from the focus. Well that could be or else that
could just be a Christian university that started out that way. Cause you could still
be a good Christian university and be accredited nationally or regionally and stay
focused on your mission.
Positively, there’s the way that helps us focus on our mission; that we
learn good practices. That’s what the audit process does, is we learn good
practices from other institutions that are out there, other studies that have been
done, and so for me, I think it can be a very positive point. – Beta A
Negatively, a lot of Christian colleges are not regionally accredited because every
time you turn around they’ve got one more compliance thing you’ve gotta comply
with and sometimes those come from a very secular viewpoint. The more you
become partners with people who don’t believe exactly like you, how much of
your convictions do you have to give up?
I wish we had WASC accreditation, but I also know that I’ve talked to
people from other colleges, Christian colleges, who’ve gone through WASC
accreditation, and I know the compromises they’ve had to make. – Beta F2
There were various comments made in regards to the effects of a lack of
accreditation, research question #3:
But, again, church-based schools might be a little bit different. It might be a little
bit different. Um, I think, um, that’s what comes to mind when you talk about a
lack of accreditation. I’m trying to think. Some schools may not need it. I think I
would say that. – Alpha F2
You look around at some of those non-accredited institutions that they have a
focus. They usually have a very dynamic leader. Somebody says they have a
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purpose. They have a mission. They’re doing something specific and from that
point then they go on. – Beta A
During those days and I was a little younger, a little bit naïve, more idealistic, I
wonder whether, I wonder whether the years have worn some things off that
should not have been worn off. Sometimes I wonder about that. But in my
idealistic days, my thought was let the world do what it needs to do, we don’t
need the world. We’re training ministers. Why should we get the world’s
accreditation to train people in the kingdom of God? – Beta F1
There is room for unaccredited Christian education, but it needs to make, it should
not claim that it’s accredited. It ought to be a discipleship school or a school of
prayer or a school of the prophets. Okay, not disdaining education, but having a
different goal. (Delta) College has been like that. And if you look at the last
fifteen years, (Delta) College has produced almost as many ministers as Bethany.
This has been a great mentoring school. We have taken students who often didn’t
feel they were qualified to go to an accredited school. They just wanted to study
the Bible. They just wanted to serve God.
So I am not just on one side that everything has to be accredited. I
recognize, and that’s because I’ve worked in African schools where there wasn’t
any accreditation available.
So there’s room for Christian education. Look at the education that
happens at the low level of Sunday School, is that valid? You’d better believe it.
The study of the Scriptures on any level is valid. You just can’t make false
promises. That’s where you lose integrity. – Delta A
I think it makes it easier for people to get involved in higher learning. And those
that would be marginalized and pushed out, who wouldn’t fit getting into a
Stanford, getting into a UC Berkeley, getting into a school of quote unquote
caliber in that way, that doesn’t mean they’re dumb. That doesn’t mean they have
nothing to offer. That doesn’t mean they can’t achieve. And so I like that
students come in here with very little background and we’re able to get them
excited about greater learning. We’re able to get them excited about getting into
the subjects that they’re interested in. And they’ve realized that they can.
Unfortunately, our accredited school systems of California have not done
a good job preparing students. I have students who come in here who don’t know
how to write papers, who don’t know how to do research and those kinds of
things. And they’re coming in with their high school diplomas and yet they don’t
have any of that background for all that accreditation. – Delta F2
Beta A made one parting comment in regards to accreditation and mission:
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Make sure the mission or niche of your institution is not compromised, whoever
you are. That doesn’t mean you don’t round out some things. It doesn’t mean
you don’t make some corrections there. But just make sure the mission or niche
that you have is not compromised. Even some good, um, Christian accrediting
associations can come across as a B. A. cookie-cutter. This is what we believe a
B. A. is. Here, you fit it in. Whether it’s regional, whether it’s national
accreditation, just make sure that our mission or our niche is not compromised.
The following tables (Tables 6, 7, and 8) categorize the responses of each college
in relation to the three research questions. The six themes and their relevant sub-themes
are displayed in these responses. Table 4.4 will compare and contrast the responses of
the three different colleges.
Table 6
Alpha College (Liberal arts – Regional accreditation)
Topic Area & Questions
Value of Accreditation
Question #1: What value does
accreditation bring to a 4-year, private
Christian college?
Effects of Accreditation
Question #2: To what extent does
accreditation affect the mission and
vision of such an institution?
Themes & Sub-themes
A. Financial aid
B. Outside agency
1. Outside voice
2. Peer-review
3. Like-institutions
C. Accountability
Quality assurance
D. Collaboration between institutions
Advanced degrees
E. Mission
A. Outside agency
1. Peer-review
2. Like-institutions
B. Accountability
1. Assessment – can be over assessed
2. Quality assurance
C. Mission – analysis of mission
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Table 6 (continued)
Topic Area & Questions
Effects of Non-accreditation
Question #3: How does a lack of
accreditation affect such an institution?
Themes & Sub-themes
A. Financial Aid – “it affects your ability
to survive” – Alpha A
B. Outside agency – no outside
accountability, but some church-based
schools may not need it – Alpha F2
C. Collaboration between institutions
1. Hinders transfer of credit hours
2. Not able to pursue advanced
degrees
Table 7
Beta College (Bible college – National accreditation)
Topic Area & Questions
Themes & Sub-themes
Value of Accreditation
A. Financial aid
B. Outside agency – biblical premise that
others speak well of you – Beta A
C. Accountability – raising a standard
D. Collaboration between institutions
1. Transferability of units, especially
in relation to regional accreditation
2. Advanced degrees
E. Reputation – acceptability of the
school
F. Mission - Concern that regional
accreditation would inhibit their
ministerial training niche or purpose
Question #1: What value does
accreditation bring to a 4-year, private
Christian college?
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Table 7 (continued)
Topic Area & Questions
Themes & Sub-themes
Effects of Accreditation
A. Financial aid
B. Outside agency – Can be a bad
influence if it causes the institution to
wander from its mission and purpose
C. Accountability – holds you
accountable to the students and the job –
Beta F2
D. Collaboration between institutions
1. Transferability of credits
2. Memorandums of understanding –
academic world can be snobby – Beta F1
E. Reputation – credibility
F. Mission – type of accreditation must
match the mission of the institution
Question #2: To what extent does
accreditation affect the mission and
vision of such an institution?
Effects of Non-accreditation
Question #3: How does a lack of
accreditation affect such an institution?
A. Financial aid – very little available
B. Outside agency – could become very
inward focused – Beta A
C. Collaboration between institutions
Hinders transfer of credit hours
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Table 8
Delta College (Bible college – Non-accredited)
Topic Area & Questions
Themes & Sub-themes
Value of Accreditation
A. Financial aid
B. Accountability – high standards, but
may exclude some people – Delta F2
C. Collaboration between institutions
Transfer of credit hours
D. Reputation
1. Integrity
2. Legitimacy
Question #1: What value does
accreditation bring to a 4-year, private
Christian college?
Effects of Accreditation
Question #2: To what extent does
accreditation affect the mission and
vision of such an institution?
Effects of Non-accreditation
Question #3: How does a lack of
accreditation affect such an institution?
A. Financial aid – depends upon what
agenda the government attaches to
financial aid
B. Accountability – causes an institution
to establish and maintain accountability
C. Reputation
1. Level of education
2. Validity – to whom? Delta F2
A. Accountability – lowers expectations
and academic rigor – Delta F1
B. Mission
1. Room for unaccredited Christian
education – Delta A
2. Easier for people to get involved in
higher learning – Delta F2
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Table 9
Comparison and Contrast of Responses
Topic Area &
Questions
Alpha College
(Regional acc.)
Beta College
(National acc.)
Delta College
(Non-accredited)
Value of
Accreditation
A. Financial aid
B. Outside agency –
all 3 participants
C. Accountability
Quality assurance
D. Collaboration
between institutions
Advanced degrees
E. Reputation
(No response)
F. Mission
Helps articulate your
mission
A. Financial aid
B. Outside agency
only administrator
C. Accountability
Raising a standard
D. Collaboration
between institutions
Advanced degrees
Transfer of credits
E. Reputation
Acceptability
F. Mission – concern
about regional
accreditation
A. Financial aid
A. Financial aid
B. Outside agency
(No response)
C. Accountability
High standards
D. Collaboration
between
institutions
Transfer of credits
E. Reputation
Integrity
Legitimacy
F. Mission
(No response)
A. Financial aid
Depends on
government agenda
B. Outside agency
(No response)
Question #1: What
value does
accreditation bring
to a 4-year, private
Christian college?
Effects of
Accreditation
A. Financial aid
(No response)
Question #2: To
what extent does
accreditation affect
the mission and
vision of such an
institution?
B. Outside agency
Peer-review
Like-institutions
C. Accountability
Assessment
Quality assurance
D. Collaboration
between institutions
(No response)
E. Reputation
(No response)
F. Mission
Mission analysis
B. Outside agency
Can be bad if
influence causes
college to wander
from its mission
C. Accountability
To students & job
D. Collaboration
between institutions
Transfer of credits
Memorandums of
Understanding
E. Reputation
Credibility
F. Mission – type of
accreditation must
match mission of
college
C. Accountability
(1 respondent)
D. Collaboration
between
institutions
(No response)
E. Reputation
Level of education
Validity-to
whom?
F. Mission
(No response)
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Table 9 (continued)
Topic Area &
Questions
Effects of Nonaccreditation
Question #3: How
does a lack of
accreditation affect
such an institution?
Alpha College
(Regional acc.)
A. Financial aid
Affects ability to
survive
B. Outside agency
No outside
accountability
C. Accountability
(No response)
D. Collaboration
between institutions
Hinders transfer of
credit hours
Not able to pursue
advanced degrees
E. Reputation
(No response)
F. Mission
Beta College
(National acc.)
A. Financial aid
Very little available
B. Outside agency
Could become
inward focused
C. Accountability
(No response)
D. Collaboration
between institutions
Hinders transfer of
credit hours
E. Reputation
(No response)
F. Mission
Delta College
(Non-accredited)
A. Financial aid
(No response)
B. Outside agency
(No response)
C. Accountability
Lower
expectations
D. Collaboration
between
institutions
(No response)
E. Reputation
(No response)
F. Mission
Room for
unaccredited
education
Easier for some
people to get
involved in higher
learning
Theoretical Framework
As presented in the Literature Review in Chapter 2, systems theory is used as a
guiding framework for this study to examine accreditation and mission statements as
concepts within the system of higher education. “Systems theory comprises a broad
conceptual framework that permits the identification of key inputs, outputs and
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transformative processes in organizations such as colleges and universities at both the
institutional and individual levels” (Bess & Dee, 2008a, p. 91) (see Figure 3). Inputs are
the groups that provide resources to the organization. In the case of higher education,
inputs may include tuition income, feeder high schools, financial contributors and
research grant awarding agencies (Bess & Dee, 2008a).
There are two, possibly three, important kinds of transformation processes in
higher education. First, colleges admit students with different levels of ability, add to
their skills and content knowledge, and then send them out transformed; hopefully for the
better. A second type concerns research: faculty receive and transform raw data into
more refined forms of knowledge. A third possible type may emerge from institutions
with a strong mission for public service. This requires practical application of theoretical
knowledge (Bess & Dee, 2008a).
Outputs consist of all groups that receive goods and services from the
organization. Within higher education, they may be understood to be educated students,
new knowledge, and service (Besss & Dee, 2008a). Feedback alerts the organization to
the receptivity of the environment to these outputs and helps the organization to ascertain
whether to maintain its current activities or change them (Bess & Dee, 2008a). For
instance, do employers value the types of students who are graduating from this college?
“Environment includes everything beyond the boundary of the system” (Bess & Dee,
2008a, p. 98). For colleges and universities, this can mean state regulators, parents,
community members, etc. (Bess & Dee, 2008a).
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Organization
Inputs
Transformation
Process
Outputs
Feedback
The External Environment
Figure 3. Basic model of systems theory.
After examining the interviews of our participants, a new model could be drawn
using the themes addressed in our findings. The themes of financial aid and outside
agency could be considered as “inputs” from the external environment. Accountability
and mission, especially mission analysis, could be considered part of the “transformation
process” of the organization. Collaboration between institutions and reputation could be
seen as “outputs” of the organization back into the community. “Feedback” could be
seen as responses from constituents. This would allow for the following model in terms
of accreditation in higher education (see Figure 4).
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Inputs
Financial Aid
College
Accountability
Outside Agency
Mission
Analysis
Outputs
Collaboration
between
Institutions
Reputation
Feedback (Constituency)
The External Environment (Community)
Figure 4. Systems theory model of accreditation.
The External Environment is the larger community in which a college or
university finds itself. From this external environment comes the accrediting body as an
Input that serves as an Outside Agency that speaks into the college. As Alpha F1 put it,
“it is that outside voice.” Alpha F2 spoke about the value of outside institutions, outside
peers speaking into your organizational life. As mentioned earlier, Inputs are resources
from outside organizations. One of the resources brought by accreditation is the
availability of financial aid for students. Without it, students may be forced to make
other choices due to economic reasons.
The Transformation Process has a great deal to do with Accountability and
Mission Analysis/Mission Statement. In regards to Accountability, Alpha A says, “It
(accreditation) helps you do what you want to do, and do it better.” A big part of
accountability has to do with assessment. Everything has to be assessed. As Alpha F2
states it, “They’re (accreditors) not telling you who to be. They’re telling you to follow
through on who you decided to be.” Furthermore, there is the whole idea of Mission
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Analysis in the Transformation Process. The internal value of accreditation for an
educational institution is that it provides the faculty, administrators, staff and trustees the
opportunity to examine their mission and purpose and whether or not they are fulfilling it
as an institution. Alpha F2 said, “you have to conduct a mission analysis connected to a
cause…you’ve gotta show an assessment that you’re moving towards accomplishing
those objectives.”
The Outputs of an accredited college, as seen in this study, are Collaboration
between Institutions and Reputation. The collaboration between institutions includes
transfer of credit hours, pursuit of advanced degrees, memorandums of understanding and
articulation agreements. Alpha F1 stated it this way: “I’ve seen accreditation really help
a student accomplish their goals way beyond this institution…That means that they have
some basis upon which to take a next step.” Reputation is also an Output of accreditation
for a college. Beta F1 said, “There is an acceptability of the school itself within the
accreditation that comes.” He further states, “I think it does present the institution in a
better light in the community at large.”
Summary
The overall consensus appears to be that accreditation can be an asset to an
institution of Christian higher education. Some of the concerns centered around the type
of accreditation, regional versus national, and whether or not accreditation was necessary
in order for that particular institution to fulfill its mission. A more thorough
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interpretation of these findings, possible recommendations and suggestions for further
research is discussed in Chapter 5 of this dissertation.
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Chapter 5
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Overview of the Study
Accreditation is voluntarily sought by institutions and is conferred by
independent, autonomous bodies. Voluntary, non-governmental, institutional
accreditation is uniquely characteristic of American education. In most countries, the
development, maintenance, control and supervision of educational standards is a
governmental function (TRACS, 2012).
A greater understanding about the effects of accreditation upon educational
institutions, especially private Christian institutions, needs to be sought. If a private
Christian college becomes accredited and is authorized to offer federal and state financial
aid, will the requirements and/or restrictions of these government-sanctioned bodies
affect the mission and vision of such an institution?
The purpose of this qualitative research dissertation was to explore the effects of
accreditation on the mission and vision of four-year, private Christian colleges. The three
research questions that the researcher sought to answer were: a) What value does
accreditation bring to a private, Christian college? b) To what extent does accreditation
affect the mission and vision of such an institution? c) How does a lack of accreditation
affect such an institution?
This dissertation used a qualitative phenomenological case study approach. In
addition, the researcher employs systems theory and attempts to identify the essence of
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the accreditation experience from the perspective of study participants (Creswell, 2009).
The very practice of accreditation reflects an overall organizational theory, systems
theory (Bess & Dee, 2008a). As presented in Chapter 2, systems theory is made up of a
wide-ranging conceptual framework that allows the identification of key inputs, outputs
and transformative processes in organizations such as colleges and universities at the
individual and institutional level (Bess & Dee, 2008a).
The input set is the group of organizations that provides resources to the focal
organization…these include feeder high schools, financial contributors…The
output set consists of all organizations that receive goods and services from the
focal organization…these include employers of graduates, clients of institutional
services, recipients of research findings, and the external community at large.
(Bess & Dee, 2008a, p. 51)
Accreditation could be seen as one of these external, environmental inputs that shapes the
transformation of the higher education institution, thus affecting its mission and its
outputs (see Figure 5).
Inputs
Organization
Transformation
Process
Outputs
Feedback
The External Environment
Figure 5. Systems theory.
Although there is a great deal of literature on the subject of accreditation itself,
there has been very little conducted on the perceptions of those who guide Christian
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educational institutions, especially in regards to how it affects the mission of their
institution. This dissertation contributes toward filling this gap in the literature, or at least
towards challenging others to delve deeper into this matter.
After examining the interviews of our participants, a new model can be drawn
using the themes addressed in our findings in Chapter 4. The themes of financial aid and
outside agency could be considered as “inputs” from the external environment.
Accountability and mission, especially mission analysis, could be considered part of the
“transformation process” of the organization. Collaboration between institutions and
reputation could be seen as “outputs” of the organization back into the community.
“Feedback” could be seen as responses from constituents. This would allow for the
following model in terms of accreditation in higher education (see Figure 6).
Inputs
Financial Aid
College
Accountability
Outside
Agency
Mission
Analysis
Feedback
Outputs
Collaboration
between
Institutions
Reputation
(Constituency)
The External Environment (Community)
Figure 6. Systems theory model of accreditation.
The nine participants in this research study were all administrators or faculty
members of three private Christian colleges in northern California. In an effort to be
balanced and fair, one administrator and two faculty members were chosen from each
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site. One college was a medium-sized, Christian liberal arts college that is regionally
accredited with WASC (Western Association of Schools and Colleges), hereafter known
as Alpha College. The second college was a small Bible college that is nationally
accredited with TRACS (Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools),
hereafter known as Beta College. The third college was a small church-based Bible
college that is non-accredited, but is authorized by the state of California to grant
bachelor’s degrees under the auspices of the BPPE (Bureau of Private Postsecondary
Education) and the Department of Consumer Affairs, hereafter known as Delta College.
For the purpose of anonymity, each participant was designated by college,
position and number [i.e., Alpha A (Alpha College, Administrator); Beta F1 (Beta
College Faculty Member #1)]. Because there was only one administrator from each
college, there will not be a number for administrators just the letter A. The findings from
these nine interviews revealed important information about how the participants view
and/or have experienced the effects of accreditation or the lack thereof on their respective
institutions of Christian higher education.
Chapter 5 provides an interpretation of the findings collected by addressing the
three research questions of this dissertation. The themes presented in Chapter 4 are
discussed by referencing the importance of each and evaluating the findings relative to
the existing literature presented in Chapter 2. This chapter also provides
recommendations for action using the primary learning objectives of the CSU
Sacramento Doctorate in Educational Leadership and Policy program as a framework.
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These learning objectives are: 1) developing an understanding of transformational
leadership and its impacts; 2) the application of research to policy and practice; and 3) the
use of data-driven decision-making. The chapter ends with recommendations for further
study, a reflection from the researcher and a concluding statement.
Interpretation of Findings
This section adds to the existing body of literature by addressing the accreditation
experience of administrators and faculty members of private Christian colleges through
interpreting the findings presented in Chapter 4. Study findings consist of participants’
perceptions of their overall accreditation experience at their respective institutions and
their institutional recommendations in response to the three research questions: 1) What
value does accreditation bring to a private, Christian college? 2) To what extent does
accreditation affect the mission and vision of such an institution? 3) How does a lack of
accreditation affect such an institution?
1) What value does accreditation bring to a private, Christian college?
According to the literature, accreditation, in general, serves the private function of
institutional quality improvement among its members and the public role of quality
assurance. Quality improvement has been a goal of accreditation from its beginning, but
quality assurance for the public only really became apparent in the 1950s when the
federal government started recognizing accreditors as reliable authorities on the quality of
education provided by institutions of higher education that they accredit (DOE, 2013).
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According to the US Department of Education (USDE), the goal of accreditation is to
ensure that programs meet “acceptable levels of quality” (Adrian, 2004, p. 46).
According to the New Mexico Higher Education Department (NMHED),
accreditation can aid a student in receiving financial aid from the federal government,
such as grants or subsidized loans. It may also be relevant in the transfer of credits from
one college to another. Furthermore, prospective employers may require a degree from
an accredited institution, especially state and federal governments and the public
education sector (NMHED, 2012).
The internal value of accreditation for an educational institution is that it provides
the faculty, administrators, staff and trustees the opportunity to examine their mission and
purpose and whether or not they are fulfilling it as an institution. Although institutions
regularly examine such things as retention, recruitment, endowments, etc., the
accreditation process provides an institution with the opportunity to examine all of these
parts together, all at once (Oden, 2009).
Accreditation became valuable to religious institutions during the 1970s. First of
all, a landmark Supreme Court decision in Tilton v. Richardson allowed religious
postsecondary schools to receive public funds for secular educational activities (Donahoo
& Lee, 2008). Accreditation also became more attractive as such institutions sought to
dispel ideas that they were somehow academically inferior to secular institutions
(McMurtrie, 2003). Accreditation further became desirous of religious institutions
because it safeguarded their students’ credits and degrees (Donahoo & Lee, 2008).
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In response to the first research question, Alpha A listed five of the six themes in
rapid succession: financial aid, outside agency, accountability, collaboration between
institutions and mission. The only theme that she did not answer this question with was
reputation. Beta A spoke of the value of the four themes of financial aid, outside agency,
collaboration between institutions and mission. The other seven participants gave various
answers from our six themes. It is interesting to note that two of the three administrators,
and the two that are from accredited colleges, are the participants who gave a long list for
the value of accreditation. Delta A, the other administrator, did not give a long list, but
he did emphasize that the main value of accreditation is that it allows an institution to
prove the integrity of its claims: “If there’s anybody who has the integrity of overseers
who can authenticate education, it should be the Christian community.” This finding
may show that administrators understand the value of accreditation more than faculty
members.
2) To what extent does accreditation affect the mission and vision of such an
institution?
Accreditation affects the ability of private Christian colleges to receive federal,
and possibly state, funds because it is usually tied to the receipt of such funds. In an
effort to keep tuition costs down, private Christian colleges are pressed to accept
conditions for receiving federal funds, which typically restrict the Christian perspective
of such institutions (Benne, 2001). Schwenn (as cited in Oliver, 2004) states that it is
inevitable for colleges and universities to break historical ties with their founding
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churches as they accept government and other funds. He further states that religious
institutions should clearly state their missions.
Education schools and departments of private Christian colleges are pressured to
conform to the outside review of state and professional accrediting agencies, from
NCATE to the advisory groups in specific academic fields of study. Those who have
worked in these departments know well how state mandates, accrediting agencies,
textbook publishers and foundations and other funding institutions have centralized and
neutralized such departments. These external influences often marginalize individuals
with convictions and interests that are outside the mainstream of American society and
culture (Vryhof, 2004).
The pressures and requirements of accrediting bodies cause religious institutions
to struggle with their faith mission and their academic mission. The practical application
of such accreditation standards places a special burden on such institutions of higher
education (Donahoo & Lee, 2008). This particular question received mixed responses
from the participants, dependent upon the type of accreditation of their institution or the
lack thereof. The participants from Alpha College seemed to feel that accreditation,
especially regional accreditation, did not affect the mission of their institution. In fact, it
was their opinion that accreditation strengthened their mission through analysis and
assessment. Alpha A said, “It’s all about supporting the mission that you have declared
for your university.”
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The participants of Beta College, which is a nationally accredited Bible college,
were concerned about accreditation, especially regional accreditation, leading such a
college away from its biblical mission. Beta A stated concerns that if the accreditation
type does not match the mission of the college then the college can get off course. He
also talked about “the slippery slope” of following what the accreditors want. Beta F2
thought that WASC accreditation, regional accreditation, would be good for Beta
College, but he said, “I also know that I’ve talked to people from other colleges, Christian
colleges, who’ve gone through WASC accreditation, and I know the compromises
they’ve had to make.” By this he means, compromises to their Christian mission.
It would appear from these comments that it really depends upon the mission of
the Christian college and the type of accreditation as to whether or not accreditation
would have positive or negative effects upon the mission of that institution of Christian
higher education. As with most areas of life, careful examination must be made in order
to ascertain what would work best. The author will examine this further in the
recommendations section of this chapter.
3) How does a lack of accreditation affect such an institution?
Although an unaccredited degree may be useful for some purposes, such as selfsatisfaction or a marketing edge, it will typically be called into question by other
academic institutions or employers. The unaccredited degree may hurt your chances of
getting a job in ministry, especially a teaching ministry in a private Christian college, or
elsewhere in academia. Secondly, it will definitely prevent you from pursuing a masters
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or doctoral degree (Moore, 2012). A lack of oversight by an accrediting body may
provide a lack of transparency and responsibility, especially in regard to finances and
records. Also, such lack of outside accountability may result in identity theft or
carelessness with your personal information (Moore, 2012). However, lack of
accreditation does not mean a lack of academic rigor. For instance, students taught by
graduates of non-NCATE-accredited education programs do as well academically as
those taught by graduates of accredited ones, and the best and most selective teacher
education programs tend not to pursue NCATE accreditation (Neal, 2008a). NCATE is
the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education.
A lack of accreditation means little or no financial aid for students and probably
no endowments from donors. It also probably means no outside accountability and that
an institution could become very inward focused. It definitely impedes the ability of a
student to transfer credit hours to an accredited institution or to pursue advanced degrees
at an accredited institution.
Even though there are negative aspects to a lack of accreditation, it really is a
matter of mission and purpose. Several of the participants made comments relating to
this fact. Alpha F2 stated, “some church-based schools may not need it.” Delta A, who
has had a great deal of experience with institutions in Africa and the Philippines and with
church-based schools, as well as accredited institutions, said, “there is room for
unaccredited Christian education.” Finally, Delta F2 felt that non-accreditation makes it
“easier for people to get involved in higher learning.”
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Recommendations for Action
Based on the findings of this dissertation the researcher recommends the
following institutional practices for private Christian colleges:
1. Each private Christian college should conduct a mission analysis in order to
determine the mission and purpose of their institution.
2. Each private Christian college should formulate a mission statement that carefully
details the mission of its institution.
3. From this mission statement, each private Christian college should determine
whether or not accreditation is necessary in order to fulfill their mission.
4. If it is determined that accreditation is necessary, then a careful examination
should be conducted to determine what type of accreditation is necessary to carry
out the mission of the private Christian college.
Recommendation #1
Each private Christian college should conduct a mission analysis in order to
determine the mission and purpose of their institution. This recommendation is based
upon statements by Alpha A and Alpha F2 concerning WASC and its requirements
concerning mission analysis being part of the accreditation process. Alpha A stated that
accreditation helps to “articulate your mission” and then “be able to build a program that
helps you actualize that mission.” Alpha F2 said, “you have to conduct a mission
analysis connected to a cause.” This is a great beginning for any institution, whether they
plan to become accredited or not.
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Recommendation #2
Each private Christian college should formulate a mission statement that
carefully details the mission of its institution. “A mission statement is the foundation
upon which the vision and the strategic plans of an institution rest” (Velcoff & Ferrari,
2006, p. 329). A mission statement helps a college or university keep a sharp focus on its
priorities, especially if it is vigorously implemented (Sevier, 2003). The mission
statement of a religious institution should aid in the implementation of the practical
reflection of religion to the institution (Wilson, 1996).
The mission statements of colleges associated with the Coalition of Christian
Colleges and Universities (CCCU) use the following words most frequently: education
(70%), Christian (68%), service (61%), society (55%), life (45%), and academics (44%).
A surprising result from recent research is that Christian distinctives were not given as
much attention in CCCU mission statements, such as Christ (43%), faith (31%), churchrelated concepts like kingdom (27%), God (26%), Bible (23%), Christ-centered (16%) or
truth (10%) (Firmin & Gilson, 2010).
Recommendation #3
From this mission statement, each private Christian college should determine
whether or not accreditation is necessary in order to fulfill their mission. As stated by
Alpha F2, “church-based schools might be a little different. Some schools may not need
it (accreditation). I think I would say that.” However, as all three administrators
stressed, it is important to have the accountability and reputation that accreditation brings.
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All three colleges stressed the value of financial aid to their students and the
transferability of credit hours. As Alpha F1 put it, “it’s really a matter of how do you see
your purpose I suppose.” Is accreditation necessary in order for that institution to fulfill
its mission or purpose?
Recommendation #4
If it is determined that accreditation is necessary, then a careful examination
should be conducted to determine what type of accreditation is necessary to carry out the
mission of the private Christian college. There are three types of accreditation: regional,
national and specialized. Regional accreditation is often seen as the common form of
institutional quality assurance for higher education institutions. However, it does not
address the concerns of non-degree and for-profit educational institutions. It also is
having difficulty dealing with the demand for online education (Eaton, 2001). Nationally
accredited institutions are typically career-based and single-purpose. Specialized
accreditation usually reviews professional programs and schools related to, for example,
art, music, architecture, law, medicine, and business (Eaton, 2001).
Recommendations Based upon Key Objectives of Doctoral Program
Transformational Leadership Recommendation
Each Christian college must seek out strong transformational leadership in order
to analyze and state the mission of the college and determine if accreditation and what
type of accreditation is necessary to fulfill that mission. The three colleges in this study
appear to have strong leadership, but it remains to be seen if that leadership has followed
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each of these steps in order to bring about the fulfillment of the mission and purpose of
their respective institutions. The leader at Alpha College is relatively new to his position,
so it remains to be seen if he will follow through on these steps of mission analysis,
mission statement, etc. Beta A, however, has been at Beta College for decades. He is
very analytical and has a strategic planning committee that he works with closely. It does
appear that he sincerely attempts to follow each of these recommendations. Delta A is in
a unique position in that he is a transitional leader. The person who was the leader of
Delta College for over 30 years is gone now. Because of his vast experience, Delta A has
been asked to help Delta College transition into being a site campus for a fully, regionally
accredited university. According to Delta A, he has been asked to be the Chancellor of
Delta College as it moves through this transition. This move will bring Delta College
into sync with many, if not all, of these recommendations. These three institutions in
microcosm are a realistic view of private Christian colleges in macrocosm: some are
following all of these steps; some are doing most; and some have good intentions, but
maybe don’t know the best ways to carry them out.
The three primary aspects of a Transformational Leader are:
1. Motivational: they inspire those around them to achieve the highest standards
possible.
2. Intellectual: they challenge themselves and others to envision an organization
that surpasses its current form.
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3. Attention: they provide individualized attention and support to each member
of the institution (Nevarez & Wood, 2010).
A transformational leader understands that it is important to not rely upon one
approach to leadership. Delta A was probably the most adept at doing this. Maybe it is
because of his age and experience, or maybe because of his demeanor, but Delta A is
definitely skilled at using all three leadership approaches as needed. As mentioned in
Delta A’s profile, he has founded and helped to transition many colleges and seminaries
over the years. In the Assemblies of God denomination, he is highly regarded as a
Christian educator. When used in isolation, the bureaucratic, democratic and political
approaches are ineffective due to their narrow focus. Each has advantages and
disadvantages in and of themselves. Effective leadership requires multiple approaches.
This is what has made and continues to make Delta A such an effective leader. Even in
his late seventies, Delta A is still being called upon to help Delta College and several
colleges overseas with his leadership skills. Strong, transformational leaders need to use
all three approaches as a guide to identify, implement and assess practices (Nevarez &
Wood, 2010).
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Democratic
Transformational
Leadership
Bureaucratic
Political
Figure 7. Combined leadership approach.
Educational Policy and Practice Recommendation
Each Christian college could utilize the Criteria Alternative Matrix (CAM)
analysis of Eugene Bardach for their mission analysis (Bardach, 2009). This would
allow them to weigh all of their options, both criteria and alternatives, before proceeding
in the delineation of their mission statement. This is referred to as Bardach’s Eightfold
Path:
1. Define the problem
2. Assemble the evidence
3. Construct alternatives
4. Select criteria (efficiency, equity, sustainability, feasibility, legality, etc.)
5. Project outcome(s)
6. Confront trade-offs
7. Decide
8. Tell your story
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Table 10
Sample CAM analysis
CAM
Analysis
Alternative #1
Current
Policies
Alternative #2
New
Alternatives
Alternative #3
Status quo
Criteria #1
Efficiency
Criteria#2
Equity
Criteria #3
Sustainability
Criteria #4
Legality
Data-driven Decision-making Recommendation
Each Christian college should use the data it already possesses, such as student
demographics, faculty credentials, attendance records, syllabi, number of books in
library, etc., and possibly other data that it needs to gather, in order to properly conduct a
thorough mission analysis and/or decide whether or not accreditation and what type of
accreditation is necessary to fulfill its mission. Far too many decisions are made in
education at the level of simple data and simple analysis. “Simple analysis can be
problematic because this may lead to erroneous conclusions” (Ikemoto & Marsh, 2005, p.
126). Data-driven decision-making would aid these Christian institutions in their efforts
to remain Christian and to raise the standards of their institutions as well, whether they
decide to be accredited or not.
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Implications for Further Study
This study was conducted on a small scale with three sites over a short period of
time. In order to gain a proper perspective of the effects of accreditation or nonaccreditation on a private Christian college, research needs to done on a larger scale over
an extended period of time with multiple sites in multiple states, if possible utilizing more
quantitative data from accrediting bodies, both secular and Christian. As for nonaccredited institutions, it might be possible to use some type of survey instrument in
order to gain the necessary statistics to perform a quantitative study of such institutions.
As for a larger qualitative study, perhaps interviews could be conducted with the
presidents of private Christian colleges in several states over a longer period of time.
One concern that was addressed in Chapter 2 was that of secularization of
Christian institutions. Many religiously affiliated colleges have gone through periods of
reassessment in order to renew and redefine their identities because of such secularization
of their purpose and mission (Meyer, 2009). Further research needs to be conducted into
this idea of whether it is accreditation itself that leads to the secularization of Christian
institutions of higher education, or are there other factors involved.
Author’s Reflections
Since one’s background, social values and ways of making sense of the world can
influence how one processes activities, events and perspectives that researchers consider
central, it is important to introduce the role of the researcher in every study (Patton,
2002). The researcher holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Biblical Studies and a Master’s
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Degree in Biblical Literature. He has served as an administrator at the nationally
accredited college, Beta College, in the past. He also served for two years as a part-time
professor at the non-accredited college, Delta College, in the past. However, he has not
had any current connection with either in recent years.
It is from the researcher’s own experience within such institutions that the
question of the influence of accreditation upon private Christian colleges has come. The
researcher has often wondered whether such influence was positive or negative, minor or
major. After conducting this research, it is the opinion of the researcher that it really
depends upon the mission of the institution and the type of accreditation. There is no
hard and fast rule here. Some church-based Bible institutes do not need accreditation in
order to fulfill their purpose; others do. Bible colleges, because they are vocational
institutions, may be better served under national or specialized accreditations, possibly
with Christian accrediting bodies only. Christian liberal arts colleges would probably be
best served under regional accreditation.
Conclusion
As stated in Chapter 1 of this dissertation, this focus on accreditation was to be
analyzed according to the definition given by TRACS: 1) accreditation is voluntarily
sought by institutions and is conferred by independent, autonomous bodies; 2) voluntary,
non-governmental, institutional accreditation is uniquely characteristic of American
education; and, 3) in most other countries the development, maintenance, control and
supervision of educational standards is a governmental function (TRACS, 2012).
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Although it is true that accreditation is voluntarily sought, not forced upon an
institution, this research has shown that without it, an institution cannot receive most
forms of financial aid, cannot transfer its credit hours to accredited institutions, and the
graduates of a non-accredited institution cannot pursue advanced degrees. Hence, is
accreditation really voluntary? If an institution does not pursue accreditation, then the
effects are very detrimental to it and to its students.
Furthermore, it is stated in this definition that accreditation is independent and
non-governmental. Although this is technically true, due to the fact that the federal
government and most state governments have attached financial aid to accreditation, is it
really true? If a private Christian college cannot receive financial aid without being
accredited, then what are its options?
Finally, TRACS’ definition states that accreditation is uniquely American and that
in most countries education is a government function. It appears that with the
implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act the federal government is seeking to
change how education is governed. Alpha A and Delta A also mentioned concerns that
the federal government appears to be trying to make such inroads into higher education as
well. Although she was not specific, Alpha A said, “Sounds like the Obama
administration is trying to do with higher education what the Bush administration did
with K-12.” By this she is referring to the tying of federal funds to academic
performance in the K-12 system under the No Child Left Behind Act.
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The researcher began this study by sharing the concerns of Christian institutions
of higher education regarding the dual expectations of accrediting bodies and their faithbased communities. Through this research we have heard from the participants that some
of these concerns are valid and some are possibly misplaced. Many of the participants
stated that accreditation is valuable, but some were concerned about it changing their
mission or purpose. Some even stated that for certain institutions their mission might not
require accreditation. Overall, the researcher has come to the conclusion that the key for
the private Christian college is to genuinely know its mission and purpose. Only then
will it be able to ascertain whether or not it needs accreditation, and what type of
accreditation it needs.
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
Questions
Background
1) What led you to become involved in Christian higher education?
2) What other experiences in Christian higher education have you had outside of
your current institution?
On Accreditation
3) What value does accreditation bring to a Christian college?
4) In your opinion, how does accreditation affect such an institution?
5) How does a lack of accreditation affect a Christian college?
6) Please share an experience where you thought that accreditation would have been
a benefit to your institution or to its students.
7) Please share an experience where you thought that being non-accredited was a
benefit to your institution or to its students.
Conclusion
8) From your perspective, what should be done to enhance the academic reputation
of your institution?
9) What should be done to develop the academic sustainability of your institution?
10) Probe: I have asked you many questions about accreditation, are there any other
comments you would like to add?
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APPENDIX B
Consent Form
The researcher has a BA and MA in Biblical Studies and is working towards a
doctorate in Educational Leadership. He has served as a professor and/or administrator at
several Christian colleges in the United States (Arizona & California) and India.
You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Richard A.
Tevis, Doctoral Candidate in the Department of Educational Leadership & Policy Studies
at California State University, Sacramento. The purpose of this study is to examine the
effects of accreditation on the mission of private Christian colleges. You will be asked to
participate in an interview at a mutually agreed upon location. There are 10 questions
which should take no longer than 1 hour to complete. You can skip any questions or stop
the interview at any time. Participation in this research study will remain confidential;
pseudonyms will be used in order to protect your privacy. All data will be stored in a
locked file cabinet at the researcher’s office and will be destroyed within six months after
all data has been transcribed and utilized.
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If you agree to participate in this study, please sign below:
Respondent:
___________________________________ Date: __________________
Researcher:
___________________________________ Date: __________________
I (□ do □ do not) grant permission to have the interview digitally recorded. You have the
right to review the recordings upon request.
Respondent:
____________________________________ Date: __________________
Researcher:
____________________________________ Date: __________________
If you have any questions about your rights as a subject/participant in this research, or if
you feel you have been placed at risk, you may contact the researcher, Richard A. Tevis
at [email protected] or (209) 298 – 7546, or my dissertation chair, Dr.
Caroline Turner, at [email protected], or (916) 278 – 3580.
129
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