Accessed at http://www.minichess.co.za/index.php/benefits-of-chess/181-2/
CHESS AS A LOGIC AND LATERAL THINKING TRAINING INTERVENTION FOR
MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
Dept of Construction Economics
University of Pretoria (SOUTH AFRICA)
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
For some years now, in South Africa, a major thrust has been underway to improve
educational performance at all levels.
This thrust has been met with some noticeable improvements. However, the technical
subjects of mathematics, science and other technological subjects still remain a major
impediment to general progress, for a large sector of the population.
A logical problem solving framework has to be imparted to many learners to give them the
foundation on which to build mathematics and science ability.
One way in which this is being addressed is to introduce chess into primary and senior
schools. An experimental chess program has been introduced at the level of Grade One. This
program is delivering good results. It has been introduced together with a train-the-trainer
program.
A second school program has been introduced for learners in the 10 to 16 year age bracket. A
target of this program is to provide the learners with inter-school league competition
opportunities, the idea being that they view the playing of chess as a fun competitive
exercise, rather than as an exercise for the mathematics class.
Keywords – educational performance, problem solving, mathematics, science, chess,
competition
1
Background
In our modern world the educational demands of society are to produce trained people who
can function in a rather independent manner and who can deal with the complexities of
modern life.
This in turn requires of people that they think independently. As a result an education system
should educate people to be able to think in an analytical manner but this frequently does not
happen.
In many instances it is much easier for teachers to teach students information, and then to test
them by asking data-type exam questions, rather than by setting problem solving-type of
exam questions.
This approach is particularly compounded when class numbers are large, placing pressure on
a teacher’s time.
2
South African Educational Challenge
2.1
South African skills requirements
South Africa’s economy has not only expanded significantly over the last two decades, but
has significantly changed in nature.
The changes in social structure that have come about over this period of time are significantly
different to what one would see by examining a typical first world country.
A result of this is a dramatic demand for trained people with analytical and problem-solving
skills. Such people are required across the board, but particularly in fields of science and
technology. [1] [2] [3]
In 2005 the South African government’s Department of Education introduced a strategy
known as the National Strategy for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education
(NMSTE), which aims to more than double the number of students passing higher level
mathematics and science in high school. [1]
In the National Senior Certificate (NSC) final exams of 2008 a total of 298 621 candidates
wrote the mathematics exam. This is an unprecedented number in South Africa. However,
of this number only 57,5% passed. [1]. This level of pass rate has been typical for a number
of years now.
Part of the reason for the inadequate pass rate is that many students rely too much on rote
learning and are then confused when they face penetrating questions requiring analytical
thought, as presented in national examinations.
2.2
Nature of school classes
In South Africa the population is very diverse in sophistication and this is reflected in school
classrooms. Because of the geography of the country which places people in major cities but
also in remote rural communities, and also because of the rapid expansion in the number of
schools and numbers of students, school classes range from sophisticated first world groups
to very unsophisticated rural groups where the classroom may not even have electricity. [4]
In addition, the competence and knowledge of teachers ranges from very sophisticated, to
barely acceptable. Teachers with inadequate qualifications have had to be employed simply
beca
use not enough suitably qualified teachers can be found.
Although many of these under qualified teachers may be very dedicated and enthusiastic,
they often tend to teach by rote learning as the simplest way to achieve their objective of
getting through the syllabus.
A further complication is that many of the classes, particularly in the understaffed rural areas,
can have double or triple the number of students that is desirable for effective teaching. In
addition, many of the students, particularly in the unsophisticated areas, have very uneducated parents, who quite possibly never attended school themselves, or at best had five or
six years schooling. As a result such parents cannot offer academic support at home with
school homework, or in fact by entering into analytical debate with their children about their
schoolwork.
The teacher at school then has to perform the function of teacher as well as parent in the
general academic mental preparation of the child.
2.3
Required educational spectrum
To produce the nature of high school graduate as demanded by the modern technological
society it is necessary not only to teach subjects such as mathematics and science, but also to
install a sense of self-confidence in the student, which in turn can lead to problem solving
ability and an enquiring mind.
Having a good foundation of mathematics and science knowledge is not sufficient if the
student does not have the sort of mind that can utilise this knowledge in a problem solving
and analytical fashion.
3
CHESS LINK TO MATHEMATICS
AND SCIENCE COMPETENCY
3.1
Subject performance improved
For many years now, arond the world, it has been shown that the playing of chess by school
students improves their performance in all school subjects, not only in mathematics and
science.
In New Brunswick in Canada, where chess has been taught in schools for some years now
improved student performance was already measured some time ago. [5] An improvement in
problem-solving scores in the province increased from 62% to 81%.
In Venezuela the “Learning to Think” program trained 100 000 teachers to teach thinking
skills. This program reached a conclusion that chess playing activity amongst school
children, structured correctly, is an incentive system which improves problem solving
capability in children from all socio-economic levels. [6]
A study, using a sub-set of New York City Schools Chess Program students produced
statistically significant results concluding that chess participation enhances reading
performance. [7]
So results from around the world, from different groups of people, show that performance in
all subjects is improved if the participants play chess systematically.
3.2
Human attributes improved
It has been found that not only are the school grades of students improved but that general
human attributes are improved as well. [8] [9]
These attributes include; general self-confidence, self-organisation, competitive spirit,
thinking patterns, sense of punishment and reward, and more. As a result of this a more
rounded complete person is produced. It is then not surprising that such a person will
approach schoolwork with a better, more organised, attitude which then serves to improve
performance in all school subjects.
A more socially adjusted, confident person will also ask more structured questions of the
teacher, will organise homework better, and will generally approach learning with a more
receptive mind, which has been prepared for the uptake of knowledge and knowledge
manipulation.
4
4.1
Chess Intervention Performance
National picture
The playing of chess at schools in South Africa is certainly not a new activity it has been
practised for many years.
However, in decades gone by chess at schools was predominanently an activity of a chess
club at a school, and chess was played for its own sake, and not as part of an intentional
program to improve the mathematics and science performance of students.
Similarly there is currently a significant national system of inter-school and inter-provincial
tournaments, national championships and so on, but all directed at the game of chess itself
and not primilarly as an intervention to address improved mathematics and science learning.
4.2
Pretoria region initiatives
Although chess is currently played at schools all over the country this study has confined
itself to mainly the Pretoria area, strectching some 200 to 300km radius around Pretoria.
Over a number of years various chess playing centres have evolved for children of school
age, mainly linked to schools, but not limited to schools.
Initially the target group was high school students, which implies ages 13 to 17. This was
mainly because chess was viewed as a game for older persons and not small children, and so
the natural occurance of chess clubs and chess centres was at high school.
However, it was frequently the case that the type of student who joined the chess club was the
one who did not succeed at the more physical playing field sports and so chess was viewed as
an activity for a minority of students who frequently were seen as being out on a limb from
the mainstream.
However, in many chess clubs this attitude has changed, or is in the process of changing. A
positive attitude towards chess is frequently the result of the enthusiasm of one or two
teachers, or chess club coordinators who bring a sense of excitement to the activity.
A second initiative has been to start chess in the first year of school in Grade 1. These
children are typically six years old. A unique concept that has been developed is the
miniChess program. [10]
At the age of six children do not realise that chess is considered an intellectual game, and
treat it like any other game. There is therefore no peer pressure to stay away from chess
because it is not viewed as physical and ‘sporty.’
This training program, from age six, has been implemented at locations in the Pretoria area
for sufficient time that people who started at age six have now graduated from high school.
Experience on how to approach the teaching of chess to Grade 1, 2 and 3 children has
therefore been accumulated. [11]
4.3
Scholastic performance
In terms of the training of chess at high school level it has been shown that the activity leads
to improved academic performance. [12]
An important driver has been competition, either in inter-school team competitions, or in
individual competition for personal achievement. Competition challenges all students, fosters
interest and promotes mental alertness. The spirit of competition also has the effect of
making the game of chess exciting, and so breaks down established stereotypes. A dedicated
chess centre exists at the Waterkloof High School in Pretoria. Before the centre was
established, chess was formally coached to members of a chess club. Membership of the club
was voluntary.
To induce the school authorities to start the chess centre a proposal was presented to them in
2003. [11] The data in Table 1 was presented to the school. It shows the number of
distinctions gained in the final school leaving examination by the number of students
indicated. These students had been members of the chess club and received structured chess
training for some years.
The figures are striking and convincing, indicating that academic performance was enhanced
over a broad spectrum of subjects. Students who did not study chess did not perform as well.
It has to be pointed out that the school is an above average school and that the students who
volunteered to take chess seriously tended to be from the upper academic segment.
Table 1: Number of exam distinctions achieved by the number of students writing final
school leaving exam.
Year
Distinctions
No of Chess Players
4.4
1997
21
4
1998
15
4
1999
38
5
2000
6
1
2001
20
4
2002
41
6
Human attributes performance
Experience of playing chess at schools in the Pretoria area has shown that not only do
students perform better at academic subjects, but they also exhibit better social skills. This is
in keeping with international experience.
A significant number of chess players have gone on to become head boy or head girl of their
schools, and to achieve other positions that are linked to some measure to a popular vote by
their peers.
The playing of chess at school has been shown internationally to not only improve the
academic performance of school children but also the general self-confidence and social
abilities of the chess players. [9]. This factor was also monitored in the chess group, reflected
by the academic performance indicated in Table 1. In Table 2 the number of school honours
colours gained by the total group of chess players is indicated.
These colours are not only awarded for academic achievement but also for superior
performance in sport and in cultural activities such as performing in school drama
productions.
What Table 2 indicates is that an unusually high number of colours were awarded to the
group. Therefore, this group did not only perform well in academic subjects but also
performed well in sports, leadership, and cultural activities requiring social interaction skills
such as self-confidence, and teamwork.
Table 2: Number of school honours colours gained by number of students indicated
Year
Colours
No of Chess Players
1997
27
32
1998
27
25
1999
31
27
2000
26
24
2001
27
36
2002
37
36
Note: The number of students indicated here is the total in the club at the time. The school
colours are awarded for superior achievements in academics, sport, leadership, and cultural
activities. Not all students were awarded colours while some gained more than one award.
5
5.1
THE WAY FORWARD
Anchor personality
Chess is recognised by the government Department of Education as an approved school
activity. Therefore there is no impediment to using school property, such as classrooms or
storage areas, to conduct chess classes or to store the equipment.
However, from experience, it has been found that to run a successful chess program it is
necessary to find at least one anchor personality. This person could be a teacher, or parent, or
other socially-minded individual who is prepared to organise and run the chess club.
Usually this person is also someone who knows chess and is also the chess coach, but this
need not be the case.
The anchor personality is critical to ensuring that there is continuity to the activity.
Furthermore an anchor personality with an enthusiastic attitude also provides a sense of
excitement and challenge to the club.
5.2
Foundation support
The Telkom Foundation, which is a charitable trust linked to a large South African
telecommunications company, Telkom, based in Pretoria, has made a commitment to advance
the playing of chess in schools, with the specific objective of enhancing mathematics and
science performance amongst school children of all ages. [13]
Current advancement of the primary objective is being propagated mainly in the Pretoria
region, but also includes areas as far as 300km from Pretoria.
Of paramount importance is to find an anchor personality on which to build a successful
chess activity. In many cases such people already exist. Where such people have been found
they have been contacted, and in some cases, they have been given a meaningful number of
chess sets to accelerate the development of the club.
5.3
Target schools: urban
One target group is urban schools. This grouping also implies that the schools, posses good
quality, to reasonable facilities, including such facilities as a room to use for chess, storage
areas, and administrative facilities.
The project has identified fifty schools, which will each receive a donation of chess sets and
boards. This operation has started. However before the donation takes place an anchor
personality has to be identified.
Furthermore, facilities have to be identified, such as places to keep the equipment safe,
venues and furthermore any authority that needs to be obtained, has to be acquired.
Although the national schooling system is not formally involved, it is the case that most
centres identified are actually schools. However, they could be churches, community centres
or any other suitable venue where the required conditions can be met.
In many cases, in fact in most cases at present, the school already has a chess club the quality
of which could vary from being of a high standard, or alternatively of being only of
rudimentary functionality.
The intention is also to start chess operations in schools that have no chess at all but this is a
longer route requiring the identification of an anchor personality as an initial condition for
success.
5.4
Target schools: rural
A second target group is rural schools. This grouping implies school which are typically far
away from main centres.
These schools can range in quality from having acceptable facilities, to schools which have
no electricity or running water. The rural schools frequently have teaching which range from
being barely adequate to inadequate. Very few of these schools would have a chess club.
It is students at such schools who could most alter their entire school educational experience
by being exposed to the thinking patterns, which are engendered by exposure to chess
training programs. In most cases children in these rural areas do not have Enghlish as their
home language. As a result some attempt is being made to bring chess to them in their own
language. For example a chess instruction booklet in Zulu has been written by International
Master Watu Kobese. [14]
An important factor in such schools is to find an anchor personality and then to supply the
support required to get the chess nucleation point to become functional. A case in point is a
school, the Unity Primary School , which is 50 kim from the town of Tzaneen. Tzaneen itself
is 300km from Pretoria.
The chess teachers from Tzaneen regulalry drive over to the Unity Primary School to coach
the teachers and to assist them in establishing the chess operations there. Both schools have
been supplied with chess sets. The teacher in charge of the operation in Tzaneen has been to
Pretoria for face to face guidance.
5.5
Target level: grade one phase
The one category of children, which has been targeted, is children in Grade 1,2 and 3, which
implies six to eight year olds. These children are too young to understand the academic
nature of chess and so are not intimated in any way, they enthusiastically play the game, just
as they would play any other children’s game. They all join in.
The miniChess program includes a teacher’s manual, which has instructions and guidance for
the teacher on how to teach chess in such a way that it develops problem solving skills and
logical thinking patterns. [10] Workbooks are given to each child and contain a mixture of
mathematics-related diagrams and also terminology written to appeal to small children, see
Fig 1.
The development of the miniChess program started over 15 years ago now, and has been
formalised as time passed. This period of time has provided the opportunity to monitor the
performance of children who started chess at a very young age. [11]
A current example is a girl who started with the miniChess program at a young age (grade 1)
and has now become South Africa’s first Woman’s Grand Master at the very young age of
fifteen. [15]
Fig 1: An illustration that appears in the miniChess manual.
5.6
Target level: mid school phase
The second category of school students that is being targeted is the group in middle and high
school, particularly the lower level of high school, which is the age bracket 13 to 15.
This group is in an important formative stage of life, since it is during this phase that school
students elect whether to continue to study mathematics and science, or to drop the subjects
in favour of other non-technical subjects.
In this phase it is possible to arrange inter-school competitions. A target is to use the nature
of the competitive spirit to encourage more school children to take up chess, and not to view
it as an activity only for the very intelligent few.
Such competitions have been held with great success. Furthermore, a few hundred chess sets
and boards have been held in stock to lend out to inter-school tournaments. To date,
tournaments with up to 800 players have been supported.
6.
Conclusions
South Africa faces a significant challenge in improving mathematics and science education in
schools across the country. A significant number of these schools are in rural areas of the
country and have limited access to modern technology.
The formal teaching of chess to school students, as an extra mural activity, is an inexpensive
intervention that can be rapidly implemented. Internationally, chess has been found to
rapidly improve the academic and social performance of school students from all
backgrounds and at all levels of academic competence.
In South Africa a Telkom Foundation backed project, centred on the Pretoria area initially,
has been initiated which targets two groups of students; young children at grade one level,
and mid-school children of the age-bracket 10 to 16. The fundamental objective is to
improve problem-solving abilities amongst the target groups. Initial successes have indicated
that the rapid expansion of this approach is a desirable objective.
7.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Telkom Foundation for their involvement in the chess
education project. We would also like to thank Marisa Van Der Merwe and IM Watu Kobese
for assistance in the project.
8.
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