VERACRUZ
CLASSIC
GROTESQUES
AND
ICONOGRAPHY
SACRIFICIAL
M. E.
KAMPEN
Arizona State University,Tempe
Stone sculpturesfromthe Gulf Coast of Mexico, known as Classic Veracruz works of art,
illustrate many themes and ideas relating to ball court rituals, including images of
antinaturalisticor supernaturalbeings conventionally known as gods. Three gods in
particular,a vampirebat, ghoulishvultureand pulque-rabbit,explain the religiousthinking
of the Classic Veracruz peoples. Visual evidence in the sculpturessuggeststhatthe vampire
bats drink blood spilled by sacrificialvictimswhile the vulturesconsume the bodies. The
rabbitsymbolisespulque, the intoxicatingdrinkprovided forparticipantsin the ritualsof
human sacrifice.While some parallels can be drawn between the gods at Tajin and other
Mesoamerican gods, an examinationof the sculpturaldetailsindicatesthatTajin and Classic
Veracruz civilisationas a whole developed theirown specialised lines of iconography.
I
Portableand monumentalstonesculpturesfromthe GulfCoast of Mexico
belonging to the Classic Veracruz stylerepresentthe only major lowland
Mesoamericansculpturestylein theClassicPeriod outsidetheMaya territory.
Proskouriakoff(1954) and Kampen (1972) have illustratedthe major
monuments but very little is known about the iconography of Classic
Veracruzart.Veracruzsculpturesillustratemanythemesand ideas relatingto
In additionto the
the ball courtrituals,includingscenesof human sacrifices.
ball players,priestsand otherperformersshown in ritualcontexts,Veracruz
art also representsantinaturalisticor supernaturalbeings conventionally
known as gods. Scroll-formedheads withor withoutbodies representbeings
with no counterpartson this earth. Some of these Veracruz grotesque
creaturesresemble other Mesoamerican gods. Their meanings,however,
cannot necessarilybe understoodby equation with gods from other time
periods and locations. Classic Veracruziconographyclearlyfollowsits own
patternsand can be best understoodby a visual analysisof the sculptures
themselves.
The single most importantgeneraltheme in Veracruz art is the ritualof
human sacrifice.A vast number of sub-themes,including gods and their
associated cults, play parts in this dramatic celebration. Three gods in
particular,a vampire bat, ghoulish vulture, and pulque-rabbit,are well
illustratedin thesculpturesand are studiedhereto show how theyexplainthe
religiousthinkingof Classic Veracruz peoples.
Man(N.S.)
13, II6-126.
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M. E. KAMPEN
117
II
ceremoniesis the
One of the most importantgods in the post-sacrificial
vampirebat,presentedin itsnaturalistic
form,by men in bat costumesand by
grotesqueheads representing
profileviews of actorswearingbat masks.The
the vampire bat, a
bat is a native American variety,Desmnodus
rotundus,
nocturnalcreaturethatliveson a dietof blood. Vampire batsdo not actually
suckblood fromtheirvictims:theybitethemwiththeirsharpincisorsand lap
blood fromthe wounds with theirlong tongue. Vampire bats sleep by day
and huntbynight,takingtheirblood mainlyfromsleepinganimals.They are,
however, not the sinister creatures that we associate with European
vampirism.Folklore literaturesince the end of the nineteenthcenturyand
filmshave populariseda vampire character,ultimatelybased in part on the
Desmtodus
rotundus,
but with littlerelationshipto the Americanbat. Leaving
theirlairsat sundown,in searchof blood, thebats would have been attracted
to ritual centres where sacrificeshad taken place. Veracruz sacrifices,
documentedin Tajin art,show priestscuttingthejugular veinsof victimsas a
prelude to decapitation.A rarerformof sacrificewas by heartextraction.
Both methodswould have spilledample quantitiesof blood to attracta hostof
winged vampires.
FIGURE
Ia.
FIGURE
ib.
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I8
M. E. KAMPEN
havethefollowing
features:
a supraorbital
Vampiregrotesques
scrollover
theeye,a prominent
humannose,an elongatedtongueor scroll-form
upper
lip symbolising
thevampirebattongue,concentric
circlesplacedin various
contextsaroundthe faceand varietiesof an aberrant,
scroll
meandering
in theplaceof a bodythatsymbolises
formation
blood.
The identification
of the bat grotesqueis ultimatelybased upon
decorations
on a palmain the ClevelandMuseumof Art (fig.i). A man
wearinga bat maskand costumestandson a platform
decoratedwitha
grotesquehead.A prominent
humannoseappearswitha scroll-formed
eye
andanelongated
ofthisgrotesque
headtypeappears
upperlip.The formation
inmaskswornbypersons
tobe basedonelements
thebatdeityin
representing
Classic Veracruzrituals.Additionalvariationsof thisgrotesquewith a
prominent
humannose are illustrated
aroundthe upperperimeter
of the
stone.The roleof thevampireis explainedon thereversesideof thestone
wherea divingbatwithscallopedwingtipsswoopsdowntolickthescattered
piecesof a sacrificial
victim.
Aggressive
vampirebatsareshownatworkon theHammondpalmafrom
New Orleanswherethreebatsinflight
descenduponthebodyofa recumbent
sacrificial
victim(fig.2). Eachbatis illustrated
withspecialemphasis
uponits
FIGURE 2.
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M. E. KAMPEN
I9
scalloped wing outlines,pointedearsand upturnednose. The lowermostbat
opens its mouth and licks the chin of the sacrificialvictim who places his
knuckles,as if in resignation,againstthe bat's wing. The victimis entwined
withina larger,aberrantscroll,similarto those behind grotesquebat heads:
the sign for blood. In the place of a tongue, a stringof beads (a common
sacrificial
symbolin Tajin) fallsfromthemouthof thebat on theupperright.
Some of the more positiveexamplesof bat symbolismin the architectural
sculpturesat Tajin are listedbelow. Bat grotesquesappear in the North Ball
Court friezeson theeastend of theplayingfield.The grotesqueon thesouth
wall has threeconcentriccirclesaround its eye and a body formedby the
aberrantblood scroll(fig.3). The guillocheto theleftis also providedwith a
FIGURE
3.
scalloped outlineto symbolisethe bat wing. The companion head acrossthe
courtis similarbut less detailed.Yet anotherbat grotesquein the Mound of
theBuildingColumns has a scrollloop below itseye,an elongatedtongue,not
lip, and an atypicalbody scroll.Two decapitatedheadsnear thefeetof a man
seated on a bench, Sculpture 5, Mound of the Building Columns, have
elongatedupper lips and eye scrolls.Details of the grotesquehead appear as
masked elementson actorsin Panels 5 and 6 of the South Ball Court (figs.4
and 5). The man performinga blood-lettingceremony,Panel 5, passesa rod
throughhispenis.This blood anointsthefaceof a sacrificial
victimseatedin a
pool of pulque. This performerappearsagain in Panel 6, acrosstheCourt. In
both cases he can be recognisedby his elongated upper lip.
It would seemrelativelysafeto borrowa basicidea fromAztec thoughtand
assumethatsacrificesat Tajin were offeredto the gods, thatthe prieststhere
expressedno small concernover theproperpresentationof thoserituals,and
that they wanted the gods to accept the offerings.Smelling blood, the
vampireswould be almostcertainto appear at thesacrificial
locationsshortly
aftersundown. The presenceof the thirstyvampires,lapping up the blood,
could have been equated withthegods' acceptanceof thesacrificial
offerings.
The role of the bats,bat gods and human imitatorsis quite old in Tajin.
Representationsofbatsoccurat thebeginningoftheLate ClassicPeriodin the
Temple of theNiches. Since vampirebatswould almostcertainlybe attracted
to blood-lettingceremonies,the cult surroundingthe veneration of the
vampire bat might be extremely ancient, as old as the blood-letting
ceremoniesthemselves.
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I20
M. E. KAMPEN
FIGURE 4.
;~
FIGURE 5.
III
A closelyrelatedvulturecultcoexistedwiththevampirebats.Illustrations
at Tajin and on portableClassic Veracruzsculpturesshow large birds
of the
victims.They are actingas representatives
consumingsacrificial
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M. E. KAMPEN
I2I
Thesescavengers
of theskypatrol
Veracruzgods,acceptingritualofferings.
above thelandscapein searchof food,mainlyfallenanimals.The sightand
coveredby
a flockofvultures-aplatform
smellofa deadrodentwillattract
victimswould exciteeveryvultureformanymiles.
decapitatedsacrificial
in theritualcentresmighthavebrought
Eventhesightof crowdsgathered
oftheblackbirdstothetreesaroundthecitywheretheywould
greatnumbers
andbats
to be felled.Togetherthevultures
waitinthehotsunforthevictims
consumedthebodyand theblood of thecorpses,thegiftsto thegods,to
offerings.
thegods' acceptanceof thesesacrificial
symbolise
IV
iconogthesacrificial
In additionto thevampireand ghoulsymbolism,
associated
important
anothervery
raphyofClassicVeracruzartalsoillustrates
cult: the venerationof a holy intoxicant,pulque. Pulque is made by
in
juice takenfrommagueyplants.The cultis bestrepresented
fermenting
I and6 in theBuilding
Panels5 and6 oftheSouthBall CourtandSculptures
Columns.Aspectsof the pulque iconographyin thesereliefshave been
discussedby GarciaPayon(I973) and Wilkerson(I976). In theartpulque
thatare associated
was consumedby priestsand otherpersonsrepresented
and thegod of pulqueappearto be
withthiscult.Certainritualattendants
of thepulque cultcan taketheformof
Iconography
heavilyintoxicated.
withanthrocreatures
rabbit-headed
rabbits,
dates,naturalistic
hieroglyphic
godswithhumanbodiesandritualactorswearing
bodies,flying
pomorphic
costumeelementsof therabbitpulquesymbolism.
i and6 oftheBuilding
Columnsrepresent
scenesfromthelifeof
Sculptures
thatmayhavebeena rulerofTajinaroundA.D.
figure
I 3 Rabbit,an historical
secured
6, 13 Rabbitwearsa longplumedstaff
goo(figs6 and7). In sculpture
4
~~~~~~~~~~~~-N
ofIGR
6..
FIGURE 6.
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I22
M. E. KAMPEN
FIGURE 7.
inhisheadband.A hieroglyphic
signforhisname,a naturalistic
rabbitprofile
overtwobars(eachsignifying
overhishead.
5),andthreedots,aresetdirectly
The mannexttohim,8 Maguey,wearsa tallhatdecorated
withsmallmaguey
plants.Theyarebothpresent
at ballgameritualsthatincludethesacrifice
of
showntotheright.Inthefrieze
theplayers
above13 Rabbitisanother
directly
seminaturalistic
rabbitwitha grotesqueon historso.This grotesquehas a
scallopedupperoutlineof feathers
and a longbentscrollthattrailsthehind
ofassociations,
but
quarters
oftherabbit.Thegrotesque
mayhavea multitude
forthepresent
it willbe identified
onlywithrespectto itsrabbitconnexion.
ThirteenRabbit,recognisable
nameand plumedstaff,
by hishieroglyphic
i. Hisnameisrepeated
appearsagaininSculpture
totheleft,abovea sacrificial
platform
decoratedwithmagueyplants.The nameof thisTajin leaderas a
calendricdatein the260 ritualyearwas a namewell takenforhis roleas
rituals.
pageantmasterin thesacrificial
Magueyplantsin variousstagesofgrowth,Panel5, SouthBall Court,fill
theentireleftsideof thecomplexscene.A rabbitbearinga scrollequipped
intheairwithitslegsbenttosignify
withmagueysignsonitstips,issuspended
A twisted
thescrollin thehandoftherabbit
theideaofflight.
cordconnects
in thelefthandofthemanseatedon the
withan identical
scrollcounterpart
headon thetorsooftheflying
roofofthebuilding.
The grotesque
rabbithasa
crown of saw-toothmotifsthatare repeatedin the otherabbreviated
of
attachedto theupperborderofthissceneandon theperimeter
grotesques
theshieldheldbythemanseatedon thetopof thebuilding.The scrolland
thismanwiththerabbitand pulqueassociations.
saw-toothmotifsidentify
The long-hairedman with fangsand a protractedupper lip wears
boundwitha sashandtiedtohis
ovalsoverhischestanda cylinder
concentric
doesnotbrandhimasa
ora loincloth:butthisnakedness
back.He lacksa skirt
a
dramatic
bloodletting.
is
because
he
to
lowlycaptive
exposed performvery
hispenis.Thismaybe a spindle
rodthrough
He is in theactofpassinga stiff
rod,thetypeusedto spinfibresfromthemagueyplantleafintocordsfor
fromthis
andmakingnets.A thickflowofbloodgushesforth
weavingfabrics
victimseatedwithfolded
andanointsthefaceofthesacrificial
largepuncture
ofthispriestis
arms,in thepool ofpulqueto theleft.The bloodassociation
signified
by thevampirebatelementon hisface.
In thecompanionpieceacrossthecourt,we see themirrorimageof this
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M. E. KAMPEN
I23
ritualstage resetwith the actors in new locations (fig. 5). The man who
received the scroll from the flyingrabbit is seated to the upper right.A
conventionalrabbit grotesque with exteriorsaw-tooth motif decorations,
replacestheshield.He hashandedhisscrollgiftfromtheskyrabbitto thelonghairedman who hasfinishedhisblood-lettingceremony.The sacrificial
priest
is seated directlyabove the victimwho is in the proper supine position for
sacrifice.The mutilatedpriest,stilllackinga skirt,now holds therabbitscroll
and the cylinderwhich was tied behind his back during the ritualbloodlettingscene. He has removed his sash thatbound the cylinderand looped it
aroundhisforearm.The sashmay be a naturalcounterpartto thescrolltrailing
therabbitgrotesquein Panel 5 counterparts.
The sashfallsdown on thefaceof
theanointedsacrificialvictimwho is now provided withan elongatedupper
lip and a scroll-formed
eye like therabbitrepresentative
above him. This lip
formationis not a rabbitsign, but part of the vampire bat symbolismthat
plays a major role in post-sacrificialceremonies. A performerwith a
pronounced squint,who may be intoxicated,holds a globular pulque vase
similarto thoserepresentedin Maya and Aztec art.He also touchesthe sash
with his fingerto underscorethe importanceof thismotif.Similar pulque
vases fromwhich skeletonsrisesetin pools of pulque, are foundin the four
cornerpanels of thisball court.
A thirdrepresentation
of the naked, long-hairedpriestof the pulque cult
appearsin Sculpture6 of theBuilding Columns. Here thepriestcarriesa sash,
a stringof beads and urinateson thebase of a magueyplant.He will place the
beads on theshoulderof thesmall,squintingvictimstandingbeforehim who
appearsto have been well plied with pulque in preparationforthissacrifice.
The complex pulque-rabbit symbolism continues outside the picture
framesof Panels 5 and 6 of the South Ball Court. Pairs of grotesqueheads
flankingthe panels incorporatea scroll repeatingthe elevated formof the
rabbitear in Panel 5. Their designis roughlysimilarto therecognisedrabbit
grotesquesas are thepairsof grotesquessetin thefriezesover thefourcorner
panelsin theSouth Ball Court (fig.8). Grotesquesabove thecornerpanelsare
separatedwith crossedbands, common sky signsin much of Mesoamerica.
The skeletonsrisingfromglobular pulque pots, set in pools of pulque, are
directlybelow therabbitgrotesques,two ofwhich(Panels i and 4) arefrontal,
open jaws of rabbitsrelatingto the facesof pulque gods over Panels 5 and 6.
The bordersover Panels 5 and 6 illustratean anthropomorphicaspect of
therabbit-pulquegod. The rightbody of thegod in Panel 5 is directlyover his
representative,the rabbit deity in a similar pose. A broad laughing or
yawningfacewithhumanfeaturesjoinstwo identicalprofilebodies. The god
carriesa sash wrapped around eitherwrist,counterpartsto the sashescarried
by priestsin Tajin rituals.Crossed scrollsat the sidesof thisupper friezeare
common Mesoamericanskysigns.The skyaspectof the rabbit-pulquegod,
withbentlegsto symbolisetheidea offlight,
is in theskyover theTajin rituals.
His open mouth,a gleefulgrin or drunkenyawn, and squintingeyes,may
representan advanced stateof intoxication.
The single head and double body compositionresemblesthe schema of
mostyoke carvings.A figureon a yoke fromtheMinneapolisInstituteof Art
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M. E. KAMPEN
124
A
B
C
E
F
FIGURE 8.
hasa broadfaceandtwobodiesfollowing
theexterior
surface
oftheU-shaped
stone.Thismanalso holdssashesand mayrepresent
anotherversionof the
thatotheryokesrepresent
pulque sky god. It is also possibletherefore
additionalaspectsof thepulquegod.
Fourmorevarieties
of theanthropomorphic
pulquegod appearoverthe
cornerpanelsoftheNorthBall Court.Threeofthegodshavelongextended
The fourth
tonguesandareshownas iftheywerein flight.
god hasupraised
arms,no bodyand an open mouthliketheexamplesfromtheSouthBall
Court (fig.9). An unidentified
numberof rabbitgrotesques
appearin the
friezesconnecting
thepanels,includingone grotesqueovera centralpanel
a pool of pulqueand anotherrabbitgrotesqueis adjacentto a
representing
of therabbitand batsymbolism
is
vampirebatgrotesque.The relationship
suggested
againon thereversesideof a palmain theClevelandMuseumof
Art.A rabbit,deerand two otheranimalsappearveryneara dismembered
victimbeingattackedby a vampirebat.
corpseof a sacrificial
in AztecandClassicVeracruzartrepresents
Rabbitsymbolism
one ofthe
many thematicconnexionsbetweenthesetwo Mexican art styles.The
withtheAztec
anthropomorphic
aspectoftherabbit-pulque
godcorresponds
god, Ometochtli(Two Rabbit), who was constantlyintoxicatedand
notoriousforhisbad behaviourwhenundertheinfluence
of pulque.The
Aztecgodisoneofthe400children
ofMayauel,goddessofthemagueyplant.
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M. E. KAMPEN
125
FIGURE 9.
While it is usuallydangerousto borrow ideas fromAztec civilisationand use
them to explain earlierones, thereis a special relationshipbetween Aztec
iconographyand earlierMesoamericantraditionsthatmay make thispractice
permissiblein thiscontext.Ometochtliand his siblingsare pulque gods and
many of them may correspondto regional pulque gods taken over by the
expanding networkof Aztec authority.Deities fromoutside the Valley of
Mexico were importedintoTenochtitlanto become partsof theinternational
into theemergingand eclecticconceptof Aztec
potpourribeing synthesised
religion.Ometochtli'scharacteris appropriatelybacchanalianforhis role as
champion of the potent pulque: and like his Mediterraneancounterpart,
Bacchus, Ometochtli may have come fromthe East.
R E FE R E N C E S
de El Tajin (Col. cient. arqueol.). Mexico: Instituto
Garcia Payon, Jose 1973. Los enigmnas
Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.
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126
M. E. KAMPEN
Kampen, M. E. 1972. The sculptures
ofEl Tajin, Veracruz,Mexico. Gainesville: Univ. of Florida
Press.
Proskouriakoff,
T. 1954. VarietiesofClassic CentralVeracruzsculpture
(Contrib. Am. Anthrop.
Hist. 58). Cambridge, Mass.
Wilkerson,Jeffrey
K. 1976. El Tajin: an introductionto a specialexhibitionof photographsand
drawings. UniversityGallery. Gainesville: Univ. of Florida.
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