Chapter 12
Motivation
Psychology Applied to Work®
Learning Objectives
• Explain five critical concepts central to work motivation.
• Understand the conceptual basis and degree of empirical
support for these work motivation theories: biologicalbased, flow, self-determination, expectancy, equity, goalsetting, self-regulation, and work design.
• Provide an overview and synthesis of the work motivation
theories.
• Understand the ways in which time impacts work
motivation.
• Give practical examples of applying motivational
strategies.
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Overview of Motivation
• Three components:
– Direction
– Intensity
– Persistence
• Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
• Maximum vs. typical performance
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Five Critical Concepts
1. Behavior (action)
2. Performance (some evaluation/appraisal of the
behavior)
3. Ability (first determinant of behavior:
relatively stable: what you can do)
4. Situational factors (second determinant: what
you are allowed to do)
5. Motivation (the third determinant of behavior:
what you will do)
Psychology Applied to Work®
Work Motivation Theories
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Biological-based theory
Flow theory
Self-determination theory
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal setting theory
Self-regulation theories
Work design theory
Psychology Applied to Work®
Biological-based Theory
• Examines the role physiological responses
and inherited traits in motivation
• The gene D4DR, dopamine, and
motivational chemistry
• Conscientiousness: the will to achieve
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Flow Theory
• Intrinsic motivation on steroids - being "in
the zone"
• 3 preconditions
– challenge-skill balance
– clear goals
– clear and immediate feedback
• Some individuals are more prone to flow
than others
• Work-related flow related to benefits at work
and at home
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Flow Theory (cont’d)
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Self-Determination Theory
• Three basic needs necessary for intrinsic
motivation:
– autonomy
– competence
– relatedness
• Undermining effect - belief/finding that
extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic
motivation
– occurs when extrinsic rewards undermine one or
more of the basic needs
Psychology Applied to Work®
Self-Determination Theory (cont’d)
• Importance of linking extrinsic
motivations to values
• Key meta-analytic findings
– Intrinsic motivation related to quality of
performance; extrinsic related to quantity
– Intrinsic motivation and performance less
related when incentives directly (vs.
indirectly) tied to performance
Psychology Applied to Work®
Expectancy Theory
• Cognitive theory that suggests motivation
is a function of employee beliefs that:
– effort will lead to performance (expectancy)
– performance will lead to an outcome (instrumentality)
– the outcome is valued (valence)
Psychology Applied to Work®
Equity Theory
• Motivation is social in nature
• Individuals make comparisons between
themselves and others to determine how
hard to work
– Comparison of a ratio of their inputs and
outcomes with those of others
– When ratio is equal, there is equity
– When ratio is not equal, there is inequity
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
Psychology Applied to Work®
Equity Theory (cont’d)
• The basis for organizational justice
perceptions
• Comparisons may vary
– self vs. other comparisons
– internal vs. external comparisons
– comparisons with actual people vs. thoughts
Psychology Applied to Work®
Equity Theory (cont’d)
• Feelings of inequity motivate individuals
to take action by:
– reducing inputs,
– increasing outcomes,
– distorting their perceptions,
– changing the comparison person, or
– leaving the situation
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
• Equity sensitivity - individual difference
for preference/tolerance for
equity/inequity
– benevolents
– entitleds
– equity sensitives
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Goal-setting Theory
• Motivation influenced by directing efforts
toward established goals
• Goals influence direction, intensity, and
persistence, and influence development of
novel task strategies
• Goal content
– learning goals
– performance goals
– Tendency to approach goals in certain ways: goal
orientation
Psychology Applied to Work®
Goal-setting Theory (cont’d)
• Goals lead to greater performance when:
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they are specific (vs. vague)
they are difficult (vs. easy)
they are attainable (vs. unattainable)
individuals are committed to the goals
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goal seen as attainable
goal attainment is important
self-set or participatively-set (vs. assigned)
public (vs. private)
– tasks are simple (vs. complex)
– tasks are independent (vs. interdependent)
– feedback is provided (vs. not provided)
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Goal-setting Theory (cont’d)
• Evidence that goal setting is effective for
groups and highly generalizable
• Potential harmful effects (e.g., if goals are
too difficult)
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Self-regulation Theories
• Family of theories with the core concept of
goals
– People consciously set goals
– People self-monitor
– Use feedback for information about progress and
being on target
– Feedback yields discrepancies between current
status / needed status for gain of rewards
– If error message, individual responds and revises
goals
– Self-efficacy increases with success
Psychology Applied to Work®
Self-regulation Theories (cont’d)
• General pattern of results is very positive
• Research provides rich conceptual basis to
understanding how individuals become motivated
to pursue a goal, and why they persevere
• Self-efficacy adds utility to some of the other
theories explains how cognitive processes become
activated in behavior; e.g., that people:
– Form intentions
– Set goals and anticipate outcomes
– Adapt personal standards and monitor, regulate
actions
– Reflect and correct
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Work Design Theory
• Proper design of job facilitates motivation
– This process is called job enrichment
• There are critical core job dimensions:
– Skill variety
– Task identity
– Task significance
– Autonomy
– Feedback
Psychology Applied to Work®
Work Design Theory (cont’d)
• Jobs high on core dimensions – associated
with high motivation
• Value of core job attributes embodied in
concept of job crafting
• Evidence for multiple job characteristics
• Most useful for manufacturing as opposed
to knowledge-based organizations
Psychology Applied to Work®
Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
• Each theory provides understanding of how
direction, intensity, and persistence are impacted
• Theories can be organized along continuum of
conceptual proximity to action
– Proximal - directly influence behavior
– Distal - indirectly influence behavior
• As closer to proximal, motivation elevated to
cognitive explanations
• Most proximal (work design theory) relies
primarily on the characteristics of the work
environment as source of motivation
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Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
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The Impact of Time on Work
Motivation
• Deadlines - often included with goals but can
lead to risk taking and impair creativity
• Procrastination - self-regulatory failure
– Distal outcomes often discounted
– More likely with heavy workloads
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The Impact of Time on Work
Motivation (cont’d)
• Planning fallacy - tendency to underestimate
how long a task will take
– more related to when people start an activity than
when they finish it
– Suggestions: unpack tasks and take third-person
perspective
Psychology Applied to Work®
The Application of Motivational
Strategies
• Three major determinants of behavior: ability,
motivation, situational factors (including constraints)
– Most obvious beginning in problem analysis is remove
constraints (obstacles that limit range of behavior)
– Next step is to examine skill and ability factors
– Last step is to examine dimensions/strategies of
motivation:
• Direction (energies channeled in creative directions)
• Intensity (higher energy – trying harder
• Persistence (sustained effort over time)
• Pacing and spacing of motivation across different
goals/activities
Psychology Applied to Work®