LANGUAGE, IDENTITY AND PRESERVATION: THE CASE OF
AFRICAN LANGUAGES WITH THE SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
TSHIVENḒA
by
NNDWAKHULU MICHAEL SIKHWENI
submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in the subject
AFRICAN LANGUAGES
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: PROF MJ MAFELA
CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF ML MOJAPELO
JUNE 2016
i
Student no.: 31121896
DECLARATION
I declare that LANGUAGE, IDENTITY AND PRESERVATION: THE CASE OF
AFRICAN LANGUAGES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TSHIVENḒA is my own
work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and
acknowledged by means of complete references.
Signature:……………………………
NNDWAKHULU MICHAEL SIKHWENI
ii
Date:…………………………
DEDICATION
This research is dedicated to the following people:
My late father, Sunny Samuel Mutshinyalo Sikhweni, together my grandmother Phophi
Rashaka (Mukhuwa) Vhavenḓa Ṋesamvuni. Their unwavering faith in me runs today
as a testimony through my life. Peace be with them. Their parenting was marvellous.
My mother Maditseo Mtlajo Maria Monyemangeni: Your silence is a great message to
your children and your grandchildren. You are our courage, our rock and the
foundation upon which our lives are built. May God spare you for many more years.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iii
I would like to thank the following people for encouraging me to further my studies in
African Languages, particularly Tshivenḓa:
My brothers and sisters, together with their families, who have all been a great support
to me – and, my eldest sister especially, who encouraged me to stick to a particular
stream rather than mixing different courses.
Hlengani Vulendzani and Daniel Khosa, colleagues who encouraged me to study.
My supervisors Prof ML Mojapelo and Prof MJ Mafela who have played a great role
in guiding me through this journey.
SUMMARY
iv
The research in this dissertation explored the demise of African languages of South
Africa, Tshivenḓa in particular. The Vhavenḓa are historically one of the ethnic groups
which have been in South Africa for a long time. The economic activities at
Mapungubwe have ensured that they are able to absorb some of the small groups
that came to the area to conduct business with them. Due to frequent tribal clashes,
the Vhavenḓa resorted, for strategic reasons, to living in mountainous areas. They
also refused to work for the Europeans. This exclusion from other ethnic groups kept
their language and identity pure. Ethnic clashes gradually faded and the economy
called for a new lifestyle. At the same time, South Africa was developing into a nation
and men from the Vhavenḓa ethnic group started migrating to various parts of South
Africa in search of jobs. Some of these men were lost to their host ethnic groups.
Women, however, remained as the reserve of the language. The economy, both
nationally and globally, is permanently in a state of change and now male and female
youth are migrating to the cities. The care of the language is thus left to senior citizens
while the youth – who should be the future of the language – disappear to the cities.
All these factors contributed to the demise of Tshivenḓa. This research explores the
causes of the demise of African languages in South Africa, with specific reference to
Tshivenḓa; and concludes by suggesting various ways in which Tshivenḓa as a
language can be preserved.
Keywords: Language, identity, preservation, legendary, culture, intermarriage,
migration, traditional leaders, politics, religion, globalisation.
Table of Contents
v
Page
Declaration
i
Dedication
ii
Acknowledgements
iii
Summary
iv
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1.
Preamble
1
1.2.
Research problem
2
1.3.
Research questions
4
1.4.
Aim and objectives of research
4
1.5.
Justification for and significance of the study
5
1.6.
Definition of terms
6
1.6.1. Language
6
1.6.2. Identity
8
1.6.3. Preservation
10
1.7
10
Background information about South African indigenous languages
1.7.1 Nguni
12
1.7.2 The Setswana and Khoisan languages
15
1.7.3 The ChiShona and the Sotho languages
15
1.7.4 Xitsonga/Xichangana
16
1.8
The formation of the Vhavenḓa ethnic group
18
1.9
The status of indigenous African languages
20
1.9.1 Education
21
1.9.2 Globalisation
24
1.9.3 Language policy
26
1.9.4 Intermarriage
27
vi
1.9.5 Economy
28
1.9.6 Media
29
1.10
Research methodology
30
1.11
Quantitative method
30
1.12
Qualitative method
31
1.13
The scope of the research
33
Chapter 2: Literature review
2.1 Introduction
34
2.2 Literatures reviewed
35
2.2.1 Language identity
42
2.2.2 Language death
43
2.2.3 Language preservation
46
2.2.4 Language sustainability
46
2.3 Conclusion
49
Chapter 3:
Collection and interpretation of data
3.1 Introduction
51
3.2 Research tools for data collection
51
3.3 Data collection by questionnaires
51
3.3.1 Questionnaire questions
53
3.3.2 Part two of the questionnaire
56
3.3.3 Collection of data by interview
61
3.3.4 Interview response
63
3.3.5 Collection of data through observation
66
3.3 Conclusion
75
vii
Chapter 4: Analysis of data
4.1 Introduction
77
4.2 Analysis
78
4.2.1 Culture
78
4.2.2 African religion
83
4.2.3 Economy
84
4.2.4 Education
86
4.2.5 Social media
89
4.2.6 The role of parents
92
4.2.7 Politics
94
4.2.8 Media
98
4.2.9 Religion
100
4.3 Conclusion
102
Chapter 5:
Findings
5.1 Introduction
104
5.2 Findings
104
5.2.1 Religion
104
5.2.2 Education
105
5.2.3 Social factors
110
5.2.4 Socio-political aspects
114
5.2.5 Migration
116
5.2.6 Career
117
5.2.7 Language attitude
118
5.3 Conclusion
119
viii
Chapter 6:
General conclusion
6.1 Summary
120
6.2 Recommendations
121
6.2.1 The role of Tshivenḓa in the church
121
6.2.2 The role of literature
122
6.2.3 The role of printing companies
122
6.2.4 The role of the Department of Basic Education
123
6.2.5 The role of parents
123
6.2.6 The role of extended families
125
6.2.7 Patriotism and the development of Tshivenḓa
125
6.2.8 The role of traditional leaders
126
6.2.9 The role of education
126
6.2.10 Formal education
126
6.2.11 Informal education
127
6.2.12 The role of media
129
6.2.13 The role of politics
129
6.2.14 The importance of traditional games and infrastructure
129
6.2.15 The legal role of language and the development of Tshivenḓa
131
6.2.16 Limitations
131
6.2.17 Traditional leaders
132
6.2.18 Democracy
133
6.2.19 Globalisation
135
Bibliography
137
ix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Preamble
Language is a human tool and its purpose is to facilitate communication. People
communicate in order to pass their feelings and experiences on to each other – and
distinct groups of people have developed their own words so that members of each group
can communicate among themselves. It is interesting to note that people from one ethnic
group easily learn and adapt to the languages of other ethnic groups. According to
Aitchison (2001), life started in Africa; therefore, language was also invented in Africa.
The more groups of people developed, the more languages were invented. Each group
of people developed its own terminology to suit its own needs – the terminologies of the
people living inland will be different to that of the people living close to the sea depending
to their life styles and their daily needs. Language is not a static tool; it is dynamic,
changing as the need arises. The more sophisticated life becomes in any particular
period, the more words are coined to suit that sophistication. Ironically, the words which
are not frequently used disappear completely or they are brought back to a language with
a new meaning.
Aitchison (2001:208) makes a distinction between animals and human beings. He
maintains that the brains of human beings are better developed than the brains of animals
and he indicates that animals can communicate. However, animals do not communicate
using language and, hence, the term “language” is not well defined if it is described simply
as “a tool to communicate”. Aitchison (2001:208) comments on how human beings
acquired language: “They supplemented their meagre diet by scavenging for meat, which
aided brain growth. They started to walk upright, partly in order to minimise the heat of
the sun on their bodies. An upright stance promoted the production of clear sound.”
1
Language is of prime importance across the range of human endeavour: to entertainment,
to the recording of history, to education and to socialisation. Its importance is such that it
cannot be removed from the lives of human beings. People use language to show their
emotions and to express both love and hate. The importance of a language, however,
does not barricade it from changes or from interference from other languages.
There is no language or ethnic group that is completely useless or inferior. Each language
has its own particular knowledge and wisdom and, if languages are allowed to merge, a
large part of this wealth of information will be lost. It is best, then, if people find a way to
be happy both maintaining and developing their own languages.
Tshivenḓa, as a language, is a case in point. It has been developed in the same way that
other languages have been developed – in this case, specifically to provide for the needs
of the Vhavenḓa. And because it was transmitted along with the Tshivenḓa culture, it
forms part of the Vhavenḓa heritage.
1.2 Research problem
No language is an island, and Tshivenḓa – like any other language – is spoken by people
who interact and socialise with people from different language groups. People who speak
other languages bring knowledge of their own terminologies with them. Admiration of such
knowledge, as well as the desire to master the terminologies concerned, leads to the
languages of the other ethnic groups being adopted. The development of creoles and
pidgins serves as a good example of language change and of the need to communicate.
Different ethnic groups living together will develop a common language to communicate
to each other. Leicester (2008:4) maintains that the languages of the minority are weak
and are overshadowed by the language of the majority – and that the majority may be
economically stronger.
Youth are prone to speaking other languages. They speak English or any language of
their peers from economically strong background. Youth tend to weigh their home
language against an economically powerful language and are likely to adopt a language
2
which they feel is important. In the Vhavenḓa context, English and other national
languages (such as isiZulu and the various Sotho languages) are likely to be adopted at
the expense of Tshivenḓa. This problem raises the need for Tshivenḓa language to be
preserved – and for the creation of incentives aimed at encouraging the youth to enjoy it
as their home language. Youth who speak other people’s languages are not sensitive to
their own culture and identity and they compromise the pride that they would otherwise
take in belonging to a particular ethnic group. Any language that the youth are proud to
speak and to identify with is likely to have a bright future – and any language spoken only
by senior citizens is at risk of fading away completely. Such a language becomes history
as the senior citizens pass on, one after the other. The youth are the investment of each
ethnic group and it is they who carry on with the culture and identity of their parents. It is
also the youth who ensure that information and knowledge are transmitted from one
generation to the next. The youth of today, however, are interested in globalisation and
national identity more than in ethnic matters. Aitchison (2001:235) explains how language
dies. He writes:
Human beings never stop talking. How then can a language die out? When a
language dies, it is not because a community has forgotten how to speak, but
because another language has gradually ousted the old one as the dominant
language for political and social reasons.
Tshivenḓa is gradually following the trend described above and, if left unchecked,
Tshivenḓa may result in the language falling into disuse. Intermingling among ethnic
groups happens for various reasons, many of them determined by age. Youth will mix
with the youth of other groups at school; young adults will mix with young adults of other
ethnic groups while looking for jobs; and a middle-aged man might enter another ethnic
group in search of new pastures or to pursue other forms of business. Mixing between
ethnic groups will also inevitably lead to people falling in love with each other. When this
happens, it leads to culturally mixed families being formed; the two cultures will melt into
each other. The language is denied to play its heritage role in a family. As indicated
earlier, no language is an island, but it is also true that no man is an island. People living
together will defy ethnic boundaries, merging their activities or simply socialising together.
3
In such instances, it can take time to realise that the language is fading. Those living in
the same milieu may have an impression of national identity or globalisation when they
speak other peoples’ language. However, it takes time for them to realise that their own
language is at stake.
In South Africa, people migrate from rural areas to cities, looking for decent jobs.
Frequently, they take their families with them and, when their children need to go to
school, they are forced to send them to schools where other languages dominate. The
children then relate to people of other language groups and end up speaking their
languages. The identity of their original language – as well as its preservation – is
therefore subjugated.
This research will indicate that Tshivenḓa is at risk of fading away and that the Vhavenḓa
have forgotten the role of their language as a form of identity. The need for survival within
a wider environment has become their priority in life and, as the culture fades, so too does
the wisdom of the tribe.
1.3 Research questions

What is the status of language identity in the African communities of South Africa?

Why is Tshivenḓa becoming a fading language?

How can African languages - Tshivenḓa in particular - be preserved?
1.4
Aim and objectives of this research
The aim of this research is to investigate African languages – particularly Tshivenḓa – as
“fading languages” both in the pre- and post-apartheid eras as it relates to language
identity and preservation. Tshivenḓa is a minority language in South Africa and its
exposure to other languages thus has the potential to lead to its fading away.
4
Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study are as follows:

To establish the causes of Tshivenḓa being a fading language

To investigate the status of language identity among Africans in general and
the Vhavenḓa in particular in South Africa

To investigate how African languages –Tshivenḓa in particular – can be
preserved

1.5
To recommend ways of preserving Tshivenḓa as a language.
Justification for and significance of the study
Extensive research on language identity and the preservation thereof has been
conducted both internationally and nationally with reference to other languages. However,
no serious research on language identity and its preservation has been conducted in
respect of Tshivenḓa. It is necessary to conduct this type of research among the
Vhavenḓa because – given the intermingling with other racial and ethnic groups that has
taken place since the ushering in of the democratic dispensation – Tshivenḓa appears to
be at risk. Such a topic is also likely to be of interest to language scholars.
Tshivenḓa may well be able to withstand the threat it faces if native speakers of the
language can be made aware that their language is disappearing. In addition, the study
will encourage Vhavenḓa to love and respect their language, leading to educated and
wealthy speakers using their language in order to restore love for it. This research will
therefore try to suggest different ways in which the language can be preserved. As part
of this process, Vhavenḓa living in towns and cities will be made aware of the rights of
their language.
Finally, this research will indicate ways in which Tshivenḓa as a language can be
revitalised. The elders, both living in rural areas and cities should feel responsible to teach
their heritage language to the youth. The rate of fading of the language in the cities is
5
different to the rate of language demise in the rural areas. The elders in the cities should
ensure that Tshivenḓa is spoken, while the elders at the rural areas should maintain that
the language is spoken at its original forms, the competency of using different figures of
speech should be demonstrated. The youth must be instilled with the desire to speak
Tshivenḓa.
1.6
Definition of terms
The concepts of language, language identity and language preservation form the centre
of discussion in this research. In order to facilitate the serious discussion to follow, their
definitions are provided below.
1.6.1. Language
Language can be defined differently for different purposes. However, any definition of the
term will indicate that language:

is a tool used to transmit a message from one person to another person or
group of people

allows different people to communicate

depicts the emotions of a speaker by showing whether he or she is surely more
than just happy or angry.

is used when people agree or disagree

is used to entertain

it is a tool used in the thinking process and through which abstract terms are
formed

is supported by gestures and other body movements
Due to the rise of technology, language has developed into a tool used in business. Using
language, people communicate over distance with the aid of telephones and the internet
and they pay for using these facilities. Newspapers are able to sell news because
6
language is available as a medium. The media are totally dependent on language to
transmit their information while authors depend on language in the writing of the books
that form their businesses.
Language is both a heritage and a form of identity passed from generation to generation.
Hornby (2001:664) defines language as: “The system of communication in speech and
writing that is used by people in a particular country.” Van Schoor (1993:3) indicates the
importance of language when he writes:
The characteristic of a man’s being is his use of words, gestures, and activities. ...
Even when we are silent, and avoid gestures and imagery, we are nevertheless
conveying something to others: This “something” which can be as wide as a lifeworld of each of us, or as simple as greetings, as complicated as the formula for
atomic fusion as hilarious as Marks Brothers film, or as solemn as a mass by Bach,
can, be in short termed a message.
The importance of a language cannot be measured; the imageries we make in our dreams
are made vivid because of the language. Language is used consciously and
unconsciously. Due to language, both abstract and concrete terminologies are formed.
Tubbs and Moss (2003:8) agree with Fromkin and Rodman (1988:3), Van Schoor
(1988:3) and Sapir (1921:8) as quoted by Lyons (1981:3) when he writes: “what makes a
human communication unique is the superior ability that enables humans to share
experience indirectly and vicariously.” Phillipson (1994:5) gives another perspective on
language – one which is analytically supportive of the above scholars. He maintains that:
Language provides an important means of classification for African people; it is a
criterion which has a major bearing on an individual sense of identity and
membership of a group. It also has historical validity since we obtain the knowledge
of our first language from other members of that group to which we belong by birth
and/or upbringing.
On the other hand Ngara (1985:41) comments on Ngugi’s view of language when he
states:
Ngugi describes language as a memory bank of people and an embodiment of
both continuity and change in the historical consciousness of the people. For the
purpose of our argument, what is to be emphasised is that linguistic studies in
7
modern times have shown that each language reflects the concerns, attitudes, and
assumptions of its native speakers … the use of language carries with it the
prejudices, habits and mannerism of its native speakers.
1.6.2. Identity
Identity can be explained as the features that make a particular ethnic group different to
other groups. A group identity is also very important for every individual who belongs to
a particular group, and identity can determine whether an individual and his ethnic group
are accepted or rejected by other ethnic groups. Furthermore, an identity can develop
both positive and negative self-esteem. Young people enjoy being identified with victors
and they like to emulate the behaviour of their role models. Features that identify people
as part of a particular group may include clothes, behaviour, and the place in which they
live, how they interact with other ethnic groups and with each other within the group.
Hornby (2000:919) defines identity as: “The characteristics, feelings or beliefs that
distinguish people from others. Therefore, people speaking the same language feel
united, support each other and are proud.”
Each individual can learn and adapt new things from other people to modify his identity.
People of different cultures learn from each other to modify and create a new culture. Life
is dynamic, good new things are adopted from others, while bad things are gradually
removed. In a sense, then, the person next to you acts as your mirror. We know who we
are because we are told by others. People have a tendency to observe other people and
to accept or reject their behaviour, basing their judgements on what they see. Hanisch
(2001:123) identifies the Vhavenḓa in this way: “Vhavenḓa were “a secretive,” backward
nation hiding in the mountains and unwilling to be involved in the ongoing development
in South Africa”. Hanish accurately made a description of Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group
by studying their characteristics. However, the solitary culture cannot be maintained in
the world of today.
The Vhavenḓa have their own ways of identifying themselves. They use idioms, proverbs,
poetry, clerical names and collective nouns to identify themselves.
For example:
“Vhaḓuhulu vha Ṱhohoyanḓou” which refers to the grandchildren of Ṱhohoyanḓou, i.e. of
8
the lineage of Ṱhohoyanḓou. This is an identification of an ethnic group that speaks
Tshivenḓa, but it also has a legendary connotation. The Vhavenḓa are proud of this
identity because it shows that they are strong. While various other ethnic groups have
tried to destroy the status of the Vhavenḓa homeland (by, for example, changing the
names of streets on the pretext that these were symbols of discrimination), Vhavenḓa
have nonetheless maintained their heritage. They moved from the mountains to other
areas. They fought and defeated their enemies. They gradually occupied more land to
live and to keep their animals. Their power to their area was limited by the presence of
the whites.
Similarly, the newly constructed traffic circle on the Pundamaria road in Ṱhohoyanḓou is
identified as “Vhaḓuhulu vha Ṱhohoyanḓou”, a name which indicates the pride of the
Vhavenḓa. In ways such as these the Vhavenḓa have prevented other ethnic groups from
destroying the symbols of their identity.
The Vhavenḓa are a hardy ethnic group. Their strength is in their identity. “Muvenḓa
mubikwa na ive, ive ḽa vhibva Muvenḓa a sala (Muvenḓa is as hard as a rock, if a rock
and Muvenḓa are cooked together, the rock will get softer while Muvenḓa remained
unchanged). This is an identity which gives the Vhavenḓa, as an ethnic group, good
reason to endure hardship and pain.
The Vhavenḓa know that they live with other people and that they will be tested against
the strength of their neighbours. They also have a tendency to challenge other ethnic
groups and are also challenged by other ethnic groups. They believed in deceiving their
enemies in order to defeat them. People fighting each other cannot agree upon the rules
to use while fighting. They use an idiom – U shuma tshiṱavhatshindi (To be not truthful) –
which refers to their emulating the cruelty of Vhaṱavhatsindi, one of the Vhavenḓa clans.
This is an identity which cannot be erased from the Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group. They
have no reason to be truthful while they are being destroyed and they make use of the
same idiom even when they set out to deliberately destroy other people.
The Vhavenḓa are deceptive by nature. Hanisch (1982:174) writes: “The village was a
kind of a maze in which a stranger could easily lose his way.” What he describes here are
9
various passages leading to nowhere – erected to mislead strangers coming to attack or
entering the village without the permission or guidance of its citizens. The citizens, of
course, would have mastered these passages and the spies would thus be easily
identified.
1.6.3 Preservation
The term “preservation” refers to things being kept in a good and original state. Hornby
(2000:919) indicates that language is preserved when it is kept on its good and original
state.
A language is preserved when it is used functionally in social life, in the economy and in
education, always paired with its cultural heritage. If youth can speak their heritage
language with pride, it is likely to be preserved. In other words, youth are the future of any
ethnic group and of the language of such ethnic groups. If they are proud of their
language, and use it unashamedly, that language will survive. Bearing in mind that a
language which is known but not in use is a dead language, the more children that are
born to a particular tribe and who learn that tribe’s language, the brighter the future of that
language.
1.7. Background
languages
information
about
South
African
indigenous
South Africa is made up of various ethnic groups and all of these groups are further
subdivided among themselves. Over time, ethnic groups may have merged or scattered
due to wars or for security reasons (for example: the Mfecane/Difeqane which can be
defined as a period of ethnic upheavals leading to bloodshed and killing), and for
economic or social reasons. Various scholars have tried to explain the divisions of African
groups in South Africa, but this exercise has generally been in vain. Some scholars have
used the terms “Bantu” (Africans) and “non-Bantu” (Khoisan) to explain the differences,
10
while others have used the words “Nguni”, “Sotho”, “Venḓa” and “Shangaan-Tsonga” to
indicate the division of blacks in South Africa. Maylam (1986:20) says:
The rigid classification and demarcation of ethnic groups has been a major
obsession of successive white governments in South Africa … However, the
common tendency in South Africa is for at least one of these criteria to overlap
between different societies so that it becomes virtually impossible to use all the
major criteria at the same time to define neatly differing, self-contained entities…
Scholars of various disciplines still have to grapple with the problem of classifying
human groups in Southern Africa, and establishing critera for such classification”
The use of the word “Bantu” is fading today and is gradually being replaced by the word
“Africans”. The term cannot be removed from the history of this country; however, being
associated as it is with oppression of Africans. Bantustans and Bantu education are part
of the legacy of apartheid; they are the history of South Africa and they cannot be erased.
Notwithstanding the above, the indigenous African languages in South Africa are
isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sesotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Setswana, Siswati, Tshivenḓa,
Xitsonga and Khoisan.
This section tries to locate the origin of the Vhavenḓa and examine this together with their
present and future movements. This will help us to comprehend the effects of their
movements. We will try to understand the present geographic area of the Vhavenḓa, as
well as the people they have met and how they have influenced each other. The
Vhavenḓa have proven to be a unique ethnic group in that they have done business with
various people from other ethnic groups, but at the same time have maintained their
culture and language. However, some few people were absorbed to other ethnic groups
during migration process. Balobedu is said to be a group of Vhavenḓa who merged with
Bapedi. It is important to mention that Balobedu kept their ties with their original ethnic
groups together with the activities of their ancestors. The ethnic groups that have
contributed to either the development or to the demise of Tshivenḓa are listed below.
1.7.1 Nguni
11
The story of ethnic groups in South Africa would be incomplete if the story of the Nguni
family were not to be told. The Nguni have played a big role in the history of South Africa.
The Vatsonga/Shangan and part of the amaNdebele fled to Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
They were part of the Nguni group. They escaped from the Nguni group. They were afraid
of the Nguni people because they were powerful warriors. They outnumbered the other
ethnic groups and tried to conquer the whole of South Africa in the eighteenth century.
Even today, the Nguni remain the biggest ethnic group. Most scholars are unable to draw
a line between the Nguni and other ethnic groups in South Africa. Chick (1992:282)
acknowledges the fact that the Nguni are in the majority. He writes:
For economic and administrative reasons, it may be necessary, in case of
indigenous languages, to limit the choice in areas where there is great linguistic
diversity to the Nguni languages.
The Nguni were the masters of the Mfecane/Difeqane. They defeated other ethnic groups,
many of which later joined them – some groups joined them for their own protection. The
main groups of the Nguni were the amaZulu and the amaXhosa. The amaXhosa did not
have a king; they lived in small groups under chiefs who were independent of each other.
They provided a fertile ground for the amaZulu wars and, because they were in small
groups, were easily defeated. Both the Shangaan and some of amaNdebele fled to
Mozambique and Zimbabwe to avoid being subsumed by the Nguni. The amaSwati were
also in the area of the amaZulu kingdom. They formed part of the Nguni group. The
amaZulu kingdom grew bigger as they defeated other ethnic groups; they became more
powerful, their language was adopted by those who were defeated.
Maylam (1986) and Parsons (1993) are among the scholars who have tried to explain
and describe the Nguni. Maylam (1986:21) writes:
For the purpose of convenience the Nguni can be divided into a Northern group –
basically the Zulu and the Swazi – and the southern groups, the Xhosa and the
Tembu groups, the Mfengu and Mpondomise … Nguni is based on a broad linguistic
uniformity. There are many local differences of dialects, but the dialects are closely
related.
Parsons (1993:39) tries to motivate as to how the Nguni were divided. He writes:
12
The area of stone-walling on the south eastern side of the Drakensberg is
associated with the Nguni speaking Zizi, Bhele and Hlubi - mostly expelled during
the Mfecane wars to form the basis of the later Mfengu people far to the south.
The scholars above were not the only scholars who noticed the divisions within the Nguni
group; however, they had their own perception about the division. After different scholars
have tried to describe the division within the Nguni group, Maylam (1986:20) considers
this description as useless. He considers all Africans as one group of people. He writes:
“Nguni label serves to impose spurious primodial ethnic unity on the African people of the
eastern seaboard of South Africa and he recommended that it be discarded.”
It is important for this research to discuss the meeting of the Nguni group and the
Vhavenḓa. The legacy of their meeting is still felt today. Although other factors –such as
government by the whites – have played a part, the Nguni group contributed indirectly to
the demise of Tshivenḓa as a language. They pushed other ethnic groups into the area
occupied and owned by the Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group. A case in point is the clash
between the Nguni and Vhavenḓa known as Nndwa ya Mabunyu (The war of the naked
people). The name comes from the way the Nguni used to put on clothes. Maylam
(1986:130) writes:
The Venḓa were largely able to withstand the impact of two major population
upheavals of the 1820s and 1830s, the difecane and the great trek. They ensconced
themselves in mountain strongholds in the Soutpansberg, and were thus in the
position to avoid the brunt of difecane.
The oral history of the Vhavenḓa indicates a very interesting story concerning the tribe.
The Vhavenḓa are known as a merciful ethnic group; they do not kill powerless people,
instead they kill only when there is a strong reason to do so. The story that follows is
important because it led to a new branch of the Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group. It also led
to the pooling of the genes between the Vhavenḓa and the amaZulu. The oral history tells
the story of an umuZulu who lost his way during a battle that took place on the mountain
at Tshakhuma. Other warriors were running away, but the umuZulu was caught.
Fortunately he was not killed. (Tshahuma-the area were the amaZulu made a turn which
13
later known as Tshakhuma). The Vhavenḓa were afraid that their prisoner might run away
and that, if he did so, he would tell their secrets as they are secretive ethnic group to his
fellow amaZulu, thus enabling them to defeat the Vhavenḓa in the future. Thus, for
security reasons, they gave him a village and a princess in order to make him feel safe.
Even today he is known as the umuZulu who increased the numbers of the Vhavenḓa.
He was the source of a new generation known by the compound name Mulangaphuma.
It is said that the newcomer used to wonder whether the direction from which the sun is
rising is the same direction of the sun while he was in Kwazulu area.
The name is analysed as follows:
Zulu:
langa – sun (noun)
phuma – rise/come from (verb)
mu – prefix (singular prefix for noun)
The Vhavenḓa protected the Vatsonga against the amaZulu and the Tsonga adopted
Tshivenḓa as their language. The Vhavenḓa have since increased in number, though the
formation of the homelands and the policy of separate development meant that the
Vatsonga were removed from the area where they were protected. This removal also had
the effect of reducing the number of people who spoke Tshivenḓa as a language.
1.7.2. The Setswana and Khoisan languages
The oral history of the Vhavenḓa indicates the legacy of the meeting between the
Vhavenḓa and the Batswana. The Batswana and Khoisan groups were not easily
influenced by other ethnic groups. The Balozwi clan – part of the Vhavenḓa ethnic group
– lived with Batswana, however, and intermarriage took place. The Batswana girls who
got married to Vhavenḓa kept their language, speaking Setswana instead of the language
of their husbands. It is very difficult for an adult Sotho to learn and speak Tshivenḓa. The
14
Vatsonga are the only ethnic group in South Africa who adapted easily if married to
Vhavenḓa.
1.7.3 The Chishona and the Sotho languages
Vhavenḓa oral history indicates that all Vhavenḓa groups originated in central Africa.
They used various routes to travel southwards and migrated during different times. They
brought cattle and dogs with them – the dogs helped with hunting while the cattle provided
milk and meat for food security. They also had knowledge of how to protect their livestock
from tsetse flies and of how to make fire so that they could keep warm and cook for
themselves. In addition to this, they had poisons for their bows and they carried
Ngomalungundu for security reasons. Ngomalungundu is an ancestral magical drum
which has an origin from Malawi and its sound weakens the enemies so that they are
easily killed by Vhavenḓa.
Maylam (1986:52) describes the relationship that the Vhavenḓa had with the VaShona of
Zimbabwe and with the Basotho. He believes all blacks are the same and they are not
supposed to be divided. He also indicates that all languages of Southern Africa have
similar characteristics in common. He states:
It is certainly true that the Lemba have displayed distinctive cultural and physical
characteristics that seem to set them apart and the Venḓa had strong historical links
with the Shona of Zimbabwe. However, element of Sotho language and culture can
also be found among the Vhavenḓa – another danger of rigid ethnic classification.
Wilson and Thompson (1982:168) cites Lestrade’s evidence to indicate the relationship
between the Tshivenḓa and Chishona languages.
GP Lestrade, shows that in grammatical structure and phonology Venḓa is akin to
Shona (Karanga), but in vocabulary the largest number of words are akin to Sotho,
a smaller number of roots are Shona, and a third, but still smaller group has its
closest affinity with the Eastern African group of Bantu-languages.
15
Wilson and Thompson (1982:171) traces the origin of the Vhavenḓa from Rwanda and
Malawi. He avoids mentioning that the Vhavenḓa as a group have similarities with the
people of Rwanda; instead he uses the Lobedu culture for comparison. He asserts:
There are similarities in customs between the people of Rwanda, Kilimanjaro,
Rungwe (where the Nyakusa lived) Inyanga (Eastern Rhodesia), the Soutpansberg,
and the Lobedu Mountains which cannot be explained by environment alone.
Parson (1993:40) describes the Balobedu as follows:
But oral evidence shows that the Lobedu were originally a Venḓa group which has
since been heavily influenced by Pedi languages and culture. The same may apply
to Phalaborwa people whose traditional pottery is similar to that of Lobedu.
This definition also indicates the geographic area in which the Vhavenḓa were found. The
presence of the rain drum (Muṱulagole) is also an indication that Vhavenḓa and Balobedu
share the same characteristics and origin, in this example, the making of rain.
1.7.4.
Xitsonga/Xichangana
The Vatsonga, as already indicated, are part of the Nguni group. Most of them are large
in stature, similar to the amaZulu. They stamp like the amaZulu as they dance makhwaya,
xigubu (makhwaya and xigubu are dances for young men - mostly performed at
Malamulele and Giyani area) and mchongolo (mchongolo is performed by men, in the
area around Phalaborwa). Their attire for the dance also resembles that of the amaZulu.
They share surnames, such as Nghomezulu, Nghonyama, Khosa/Khoza and
Mabasa/Mabaso, among others. The Vatsonga played a very important role in the
development and destruction of Tshivenḓa as a language. They acquired the land once
occupied by Vhavenḓa, and therefore reduced the area in which Tshivenḓa is spoken.
Vhavenḓa and the Vatsonga lived together since the eighteenth century; they were
divided by the enforcement of group area act which ended into independent homelands.
The power of division within the Africans was broken in 1994 with the achievement of
democracy vote to all the South Africans; however the legacy of this devision will take
long to destroy.
16
Our oral history indicates that the Vatsonga were running away from Mfecane/difecane
when they came into contact with the Vhavenḓa. The generosity of the Vhavenḓa made
them feel accepted and they were able to assimilate completely with the Vhavenḓa, even
going so far as to accept their language and culture. The name “Munukhavhaloi” uncovers
this history; it tells how and why the Vatsonga ran away from the Nguni to join the
Vhavenḓa. The oral history also tells of a ceremony in the south during which witches
were killed by being thrown into a hole with a very sharp pole set in the middle (khunḓa).
Soshangane as a leader of the Shangaan group within the Nguni realised that a great
number of his people were being killed annually and that he would be left without people
to lead. He thus arranged that his people would flee by night.
There is a praise song known as “Tshamakwatini tshi sa ori mulilo, Mange.”(“A scorpion
in a tree cannot warm itself at the fire”). It praises the people of the Mavhunga village in
Nzhelele. They were originally Vatsonga, though they portrayed the characteristics of
amaZulu. They came into contact with Vhavenḓa who taught them to make fire for cooking
and warming themselves. The division of the Africans into homelands removed
Vhatsonga from Vhavenḓa.
The separation of the Vhavenḓa and Vatsonga into different areas has had two results,
both of which are important in this research. The Vatsonga, as already indicated in the
discussion of the Nguni, were already part of the Vhavenḓa, speaking Tshivenḓa and
studying Tshivenḓa at school. The separation ensured that the Vatsonga revitalised their
language while the numbers of Tshivenḓa-speaking people were reduced. Besides the
Vatsonga, there is amaNdebele group which went to Zimbabwe via Mozambique. Some
of them later came down to the Soutpansberg and were assimilated with the Vhavenḓa
people like the Ncubes. The Ncube are the Ndebele who fled Mfecane from the south
together with the Shangaan to Zimbabwe via Mozambique
1.8. The formation of the Vhavenḓa ethnic group
17
The partitioning of Africa into various countries with artificial borders meant that Vhavenḓa
became alienated from the people of the south. Below, is an attempt to indicate the
various clans and how they influenced the development of Tshivenḓa before the formation
of the artificial boundaries. The boundaries separated people speaking the same
language, assigning them to different countries or nationalities. Wilson and Thompson
(1982:168) describes Vhavenḓa this way: “The Venḓa are the fusion between the lineage
of incoming chiefs and the Ngonas and other aborigines”. All the people who joined the
Vhavenḓa, whether as superior or inferior, adopted Vhavenḓa culture as their own. Stayt
(1931:9) on the other hand defines Vhavenḓa as follows:
The BaVenda are a composite people who have been gradually welded together
into a compact whole in the locality which they now occupy. The tribe is composed
of sibs and groups of unrelated peoples who have, in varying circumstances and
localities, come into contact with a small homogenous nucleus and become
identified with it. The ethnological origin of this nucleus, in which many diverse
races have become incorporated, is uncertain.
The clans listed below together formed the ethnic group called the Vhavenḓa: Masingo,
Vhalemba, Makwinḓa, Vhakwevho, Vhaṱavhatsindi, Vhadau, Dzinḓou, Vhaluvhu,
Vhanyai, Vhambedzi and Vhadoṅwa. However, the main Vhavenḓa clans are
Vhasingo/Masingo,
Vhatwanamba,
Vhangona,
Vhalozwi
and
Vhasenzi.
The
Vhasingo/Masingo are Kalanga (Kalangas are vaShona who are Zimbabwean) in origin
and they became leaders of the Vhavenḓa, and these leaders were referred to as kings.
In his narration of the movement of the Vhasingo/Masingo, Benso (1985:19) refers the
leaders of this clan as kings. He writes:
After their King, Dimbanyika, had been trapped in the cave, they descended to
Nzhelele Valley, were they established their second Dzata, the capital under the
King, Thoho-ya-ndou, and with the help of the drum Ngomalungundu (drum of
gods), they subjugated the original inhabitants and established an empire-like
structure which is reported to have covered the whole area between Zambezi and
Lumbelule Rivers.
The Vhalozwi are also Kalanga in origin and were known to be a very powerful group.
The Vhasenzi are proper Vhavenḓa coming from Malawi and are the owners of
Ngomalungundu and Muṱulagole. Muṱulagole like Ngomalungundu already defined as an
18
ancenstral drum of Malawian origin, its sound causes rain clouds to gather and eventually
it rains. Van Warmelo (1940:10) describes Ngomalungundu as follows:
We have seen that the most important musical instruments were the drums, and
amongst the drums again the greatest one of all was called Ngomalungundu or
thundundu. The people honoured it and feared it because it was believed to be the
drum of the dead. It was brought hither by Vhasenzi who are today called
Vhavenḓa … Ngomalungundu also was a taboo to peple, it might not be looked at,
and the drum sticks with which it was beaten were equally a taboo. He who beats
the drum was the priest himself, a man from the blood of Vhasenzi. Before beating
the drum, he would kneel at the door and salute the great drum, then he would
enter but remain on his knees and make obeisance and say, “Great spirits, my
master and of the people and of the animals and everything! You omen of clouds,
drum of spirits, gods of heavens!” Then only would he take the drumsticks and
beat it softly, so that people who were far away could not hear it.
One elderly woman interviewed by the researcher indicated that Muṱulagole solidifies the
relationship between the origin of Vhavenḓa and the rain queen of the Balobedu who can
cause rain to fall. The Vhalemba (Vhashavhi) are said to be Jews in origin; their sons and
daughters do not marry into other clans of Vhavenḓa, keeping such couplings among
themselves. They do not eat pork, or animals that have died of natural causes. In addition
their sons are circumcised. Makwinḓa is another clan of Vhavenḓa which is divided into
two groups, i.e. Makwinḓa a ha Tshirunduvhuya (The Makwinḓa of Tshirunduvhuya), and
Makwinḓa Vhalaudzi. The Vhakwevho is clan whose totem is a pig – though they do not
eat pork. They are divided into Vhakwevho vha Luonde (Vhakwevho of Luonde) and
Vhakwevho vha Ha-Matidza (Vhakwevho of Matidza). Vhatavhatsindi is a very popular
clan among the Vhavenḓa.They are secretive by nature as well as being decisive and
good at pretending. Other clans are Vhadau, Dzinḓou, Vhaḓoṅwa, Vhaluvhu, Vhanyai
and Vhambedzi.
Another version about the Vhavenḓa clans is provided by Benso (1979:17) as follows:
It is thought that by the end of the twelfth century, the foremost group, the
Vhangona, had already established themselves south of the Vhembe (Limpopo
River) in the land which they called Venda. Their most prominent ruler was
Raphulu. Amongst the Vhangona were the people of Madala who settled at
Bulugwana (in the vicinity of today’s Pietersburg), the Mishashani and Vhadau who
19
settled across Lumbelule (Olifants River) as far as Phugwane. The Vhanyai settled
at Hananwa (Blaauberg) in the west, Lufurudzi (Zeerust) to the south eastern
Venda beyond Madzivhanombe, the present Chueniespoort, Balavhurwa
(Phalavhurwa) and other adjacent areas. These groups have the baboon as their
totem … The Vhambedzi groups from Mount Malungudzi spread themselves
across the Lumbelule. The name “Bopedi” is a corruption of Vhumbedzi. Other
groups who lost their contact are the Vhanarini in the Tzaneen area (the name
Tzaneen comes from Dzanani) … The last group to arrive were the Vhasenzi and
Vhalemba who after leaving Matongoni near the Great Lakes, settled at Vhuxwa
and Mbelengwa and thereafter crossed the Vhembe into Tshiendeulu where they
found the Vhakwevho of Lwandani under Mmbwayapenga.
The clans are very important to the Vhavenḓa as they are, in a way, a password to the
supernatural; without a clan you cannot be identified and you are invisible to the
prophecies of traditional doctors. While other people claim that all people are the same
and - for the sake of peace and unity - are not supposed to be categorised, the divisions
of Vhavenḓa into clans serves to make them stronger. It is a division which they are all
proud of and a clan membership indicates that a person is not a stranger (khangamutupo).
1.9. The status of indigenous African languages
The status of the indigenous African languages of South Africa has been greatly affected
by the type of education offered, by globalisation, by the language policy of the country,
by the economy, by the introduction of modern technology, and by aspects such as
intermarriage and media. These will be discussed below.
1.9.1. Education
Education is a pillar of a person’s future; it shows the type of person someone is going to
be in the near future and gives an idea of the socio-economic role he or she is going to
play. Education and socio-economic status have a great influence over the choice of the
language to be used and the type of education to be followed. Where English is to be the
medium of instruction, people who do not understand English will not understand the
subject matter. In such cases, the pace of acquisition of the subject matter is very slow
20
compared to that of their peers who are native speakers of the language. Parents are
therefore left with no alternative but to take their children to schools where English is
offered as a first language. This means that maintenance of their culture and language is
left to senior citizens alone. Parents are ready to buy education for their children in search
of schools where English is offered, risk the lives of their children by allowing them to
travel long distances to and from the school, by entrusting them to people they do not
know. In so doing, they leave public schools which are free to the learners and that have
feeding schemes. The advantages conferred by English in teaching and learning are thus
clearly seen to be very important to such parents.
Mda (2000:164) indicates the reason why Africans prefer to speak English over their own
language. The author writes:
South Africans fear each other linguistically. Many African language speakers – and
other South Africans – perceive English as offering greater socio-economic and
educational opportunities and as potentially ‘unifying’ a linguistically diverse nation.
English is therefore preferred as a lingua franca and language of learning.
The recognition of all languages is seen to bring conflict, to be divisive, and to lead to
linguistic inequality. In addition, many African parents fear that their children could lack
socio-economic access and mobility if they are taught in their home language.
The principals at such schools insist that their teaching staff speak English. Pupils are
also encouraged to speak English and, sometimes, are penalised for speaking their first
languages. Foreign nationals have realised the importance of education in the business
world and have established schools all over South Africa. These schools are becoming
more prolific than schools established by missionaries. As secondary pupils, the
researcher’s principal forced them to speak English instead of their first language. Today
the researcher is a teacher, the trend is the same, teachers are forced to speak English
to communicate to each other and to the pupils not just in class, but even outside the
school. These schools ensure that even the pupils from the most rural areas of the country
lose their culture in favour of English. People from Ghana, Nigeria and Zimbabwe are
admired for speaking English well. Parents send their children to the private schools
21
opened and led by foreign nationals as they are admired for their fluency and competency
in English.
The universities of South Africa also contribute to the destruction of indigenous African
languages. Tshivenḓa used to be very difficult to pass as a subject at the university level.
People of other language groups did better in their university studies than those who had
enrolled for Tshivenḓa as a subject. Tshivenḓa did not serve a purpose in assisting the
speakers to obtain their teaching qualifications with Tshivenḓa as a subject. Native
Tshivenḓa speakers were afraid of considering Tshivenḓa as a language course on their
profession because the medium of instruction was English. Studying Tshivenḓa in English
made it difficult for students to master the subject.
Teaching is the profession which encourages more students to enrol for Tshivenḓa as a
language. There were few professions for Africans during the apartheid era; Tshivenḓa
was supposed to have been a stepping stone to acquire a profession. However, this was
not the case. The attainment of democracy has opened so many careers to the
indigenous African languages students. The new careers are better paying than teaching
which has few opportunities for promotion. The students are opting for careers other than
careers in languages. Presently, Tshivenḓa is being avoided because there are better
professions than those in which Tshivenḓa is included, while previously Tshivenḓa was
avoided because it was a difficult subject to follow. The two scenarios indicate how
Tshivenḓa was and is still a difficult subject to follow at the university level because the
speakers of the language feel that it is useless for the future generation.
Students from the rural areas, taught mostly by teachers who speak Tshivenḓa as their
native language, are failing to cope with the demands of university studies. Often, the
academic year will come to an end before they understand the foreign language as it is
used at the university level. Such students usually fail their first year. Some of them repeat
the year while others opt to move to other institutions of lower quality than the universities.
They sometimes go to unregistered colleges, but find themselves even more frustrated.
They also lose all forms of financial assistance – for example, bursaries.
22
Most of our public schools have no discipline. Teachers are not respected; children
cannot take their instructions as they are always disturbed while teaching. Very few
parents, mostly in the rural area, can take care of the behaviour of their children while at
school. The government does not have a clear policy relating to pupil discipline at schools.
Wealthy and well-educated parents cannot afford to waste their own time or their
children’s time by taking them to schools where there are no morals. Parents, rather
choose to invest in the future of their children by taking them to private schools which do
not offer Tshivenḓa in their curriculum. Muller (1992:356) says:
By introducing greater choice into the question of school access, schools are made
more market responsive and hence responsible for quality of service … But even if
parents exercise choice in the public system, they do so as citizens, with the right to
education for their children precisely because education is a public and shared goods
which work to the benefit of communities and societies as well as of individuals. When
parents exercise choice in the private domain, they do so largely as consumers, as
private individuals attempting to maximize their own benefit, not that of the community
or a society.
Despite the medium of instruction, parents will always choose schools in which they are
confident that their children will be safe and will receive the best education. As already
noted, English is a need for an African child. Just like a living being in search of oxygen,
the black child will search for knowledge through English. Such children want to be
accurate and fluent in English. It is impossible for a native speaker of a language to leave
that language completely behind. For this reason, black students have to put greater effort
into their studies both of and in English.
African languages are not considered as languages for science. They are considered as
sources of errors by those who want native African language speakers to acquire English
at a standard equivalent to that of English first language speakers.
Teachers make a distinction between an adult and a child learning the same language.
Young children will acquire a language if they are in an area where that particular
language is spoken and they will acquire it as if they were native speakers. An adult
learning a language will use the first language to think in and then translate to a new
23
language. By so doing; the speaker will frequently commit errors. Dulay (1982:108)
argues:
Adults have to produce the new language long before they have been exposed to
sufficient of it to internalize the rudiments of its basic structures. English is therefore
chosen as the only language to learn. Parents also do not prefer teachers who are
second language speakers to teach their kids because they have problems with the
language themselves and they are prone to teach English on their first language. They
transmit mistakes to their learners.
Hofmeyer and Rosamund, (1992:172) is also against the idea of a second language
teacher. He says: “Typical African teachers have a poor command of English language
as a result of the Bantu Education system which was forced from 1953 to 1979.”
1.9.2 Globalisation and Technology
People need other people in order to survive. They need to entertain each other and to
share our information. There is a saying: “no man is an island”. It has already been
indicated that men are different from animals because they can communicate using words
and language and by forming abstract imagery. Technology is breaking the barriers of
communication. Gidden (2006:922) discusses the value of life before technology and the
effects of globalisation. He asserts:
In pre-modern times, cities were self-contained entities that stood apart from the
predominantly rural areas in which they were located… communication between cities
were limited.
The artificial boundaries are removed, language difference is minimized and the
distance can no longer interfere with communication. Without language people
cannot, and for them to communicate, they must be able to understand each other,
there should be a common language. Hence a language of minority group should lose
its value and pave the way to the stronger language understood by everybody. We
are in a time of globalization. We are both directly and indirectly affected by this
globalization.
McGrew (2000:346) states:
24
Globalization refers to the growing sense of interconnectedness. It also tends to be
associated with the perception of powerlessness and chronic insecurity in the speed
and scale of contemporary global social change…
Tshivenḓa as a language is affected by globalisation; it is losing its popularity among the
youth and the working class who need a tool to search for information. Youth are hungry
for knowledge, and English is a solution. English is both a national and an international
language. English is the lingua franca used in technology like internet. Both youth and the
working class are bound to use English because it is a language commolly used to get
information from the internet. Therefore, the Vhavenḓa youth in particular tend to ignore
Tshivenḓa in favour of English.
Both Gidden (2006:347) and McGrew (2000:17) agree that globalisation is here to stay
and that it will change the world forever. Towns and cities will be united; as will villages
as they become urbanised. This is an important point as it is in villages where African
cultures (for example, Tshivenḓa) are preserved. If villages are affected, the language is
also affected and destroyed. Gidden (2006:922) points out that:
Globalization had a profound effect on cities by making them more independent and
encouraging the proliferation of horizontal links between the cities across national
border. Physical and virtual ties between cities now bound, and global networks of
cities emerge.
McGrew (2000:17) is supported by Gidden (2006:347) when he says:
Of course globalization involves much more than simply interconnectedness or
shrinking world, for it captures a sense that world-wide connectivity is very much a
permanent or institutionalized feature of modern existence. In this regard it
simplifies the deepening enmeshment, ideas, images, weapons, criminal activities,
and pollution, among other things. Neither is it simply an economic phenomenon.
Things which are taboos in Tshivenḓa are now, as a result of globalisation, being exposed
due to globalisation. Traditionally, sex issues are taught at a specific age at the
circumcision schools and, just as traditionally, youth are conditioned to run away from
strangers. Also reflecting the effects of globalisation, the youth of today spend most of
their time on social networks and games played on electronic devises.
25
The introduction of modern technology resulted in the Tshivenḓa lifestyle changing
completely and these changes affected the language (Tshivenḓa) negatively. A large
number of Tshivenḓa words have disappeared or are disappearing and English words
are taking over. While languages can be enriched with words borrowed from other
languages this should, however, be done with caution. The following are examples of
words that are disappearing: luhura, tshivhana. shuthulu, ḓaleḓale, khono, ḓambuwo,
biselo, mvuvhelo, khali, tshiṱanga. They refer to utensils that have been replaced by
western-style utensils, the inventors of which have brought their language along with their
technology.
1.9.3. Language policy
Each country has a policy on how to deal with, handle and develop its national languages.
South Africa has eleven official languages. This is typical American policy where all
languages are equally recognised and are given equal opportunity to develop. They have,
however, since their official recognition faded in favour of English. Therefore, all the
eleven languages recognised in South Africa might have been given equal status, but the
native speakers of each language will always consider English important both for national
and international communication. Tshivenḓa, as a minority language, is seen not to
benefit from the South African language policy. Vhavenḓa are taking their children to other
schools than the government schools where Tshivenḓa is taught. They are taking their
children to private schools where native languages and Tshivenḓa in in particular are
taught at a later stage or is not taught at all. They speak English at the government offices
where they work.
An ideology is a guideline on how things are to be done, in this case, within a country. It
is more powerful than a contract written in black and white. People are guided by what
they see valuable in a country than what is written on government documents. The
government may disguise by claiming that all languages are equal, but the people will
adopt a language according to the purpose that languages serves in a country. A
country’s ideology may be positive or negative, but it will always have the purpose of
leading that country in a particular direction. The Constitution of a country may be
26
inclusive (i.e. stating that all people are equal, together with their cultures and languages)
while its ideology is exclusive and contradictory. Leicester (2008:2) defines exclusions
this way: “To shut out, to prevent from entering, to omit, to prevent from taking part and
leave out.” South African ideology caters for only a few languages: English is the most
considered language, followed by Nguni, Afrikaans and Sesotho. Languages such as
Tshivenḓa and Xitsonga are ignored. Gidden (2006:605) states:
Ideology is about the exercise of symbolic power – how ideas are used to hide, justify
or legitimate the interest of dominant groups in a social order … Power groups are
able to control the dominant ideas circulating in a society so as to justify their own
position.
Mda (2000:162) indicates the way minority groups are affected by South African language
policy. She writes:
On paper, all languages are equal and treated equally. In real life, the former official
languages, English and Afrikaans, are still held in high esteem by all who aspire to be
successful socially and economically. The continuing state of inequality between
languages points to the difficulty in achieving‘ respect for languages ’counter(ing) …
ethnic chauvinism or separatism through mutual understanding and in building nonracial nation…. The inequality among the languages is also demonstrated by the fact
that Africans are usually expected to communicate with whites, Indians or coloured
people by English and Afrikaans. The African knows how to switch to the other
languages.
1.9.4. Intermarriage
This section will discuss the period when parents had more power over the love affairs of
their children compared to the period when youth took the responsibility of their love
affairs as they developed or destroyed Tshivenḓa as a language. In traditional black
South African culture, Tshivenḓa in particular, marriage is an agreement between two
families that a daughter of a particular family is taken to another family in order to start a
new family which may be an extension of the primary family. Mamalo (Lobola is paid to
conclude an agreement, originally, specific type of cattle were provided to pay for mamalo
and there were some cattle breeds which were not allowed to pay mamalo, due to change
of time, money has solely replaced cattle in paying mamalo).
The male becomes the
head of the family, any children are called by his name and they adopt his language as a
27
first (mother tongue) language. In addition, marriage is a family responsibility. In the past,
a family had the responsibility of choosing a wife for their son. Marriage ensured that the
number of people speaking a particular language (Tshivenḓa) would increase.
Intermarrriage between ethnic groups can decrease or increase the number of language
speakers.
1.9.5 Economy
Webster, M. (1984:462) defines ’economy’ as: “a thrifty and efficient use of the material
resources; frugality in expenditures; also an instance or means of economizing”.
Economy is the amount of wealth accumulated by an individual. The richer individuals in
a country become, the richer the country becomes too. At a lower level, ethnic groups
that have more wealth have the power to control other ethnic groups which are poor and
this means that poor ethnic groups are likely to be assimilated into economically stronger
groups. The language of the people who are assimilated will gradually fade as they
become closer and loyal to their employers. Historically, the economy of the Vhavenḓa
as an ethnic group was based in agriculture (plant and animal production) and in hunting
and mining (iron and copper). They were self-sufficient enough to remain in the same
geographic area. People who travelled to that area for business purposes joined them
and spoke their language.
Things have changed and our economy is now based on education and professionalism.
People no longer remain in one place, but rather move all over South Africa in search of
jobs. The youth migrate to the cities and towns searching for wealth while the villages and
traditional culture are left to the senior citizens. The youth are being assimilated into the
populations of the people with whom they work. All of the above-mentioned have led to
the lowering of the status of African languages in general – and of Tshivenḓa in particular.
Indeed, few professionals in the urban areas will try to speak Tshivenḓa to enhance their
businesses.
28
1.9.6 Media
In every culture, the media inform, teach, and entertain the society. In the African, and
thus Tshivenḓa context, the media has taken over the role of parents as source of
information. As such, they have reduced the power of oral history in the life of African
children and have limited the role of parents in determining their children’s future. South
African media such as television do not have the facilities to provide equal coverage for
all the languages and the various cultures are consequently mixed together. It may be
expected then, that those languages which are given more time will influence youth
speaking those languages which are given less time. Tshivenḓa is affected in this way as
it is not used independently in the media, but is always mixed with English and Sesotho.
This ensures that the media is contributing towards the demise of Tshivenḓa as a
language.
Gidden (2006:608) indicates the way in which media influence the life of the audience.
Audiences are manipulated both consciously and unconsciously. Good media planning
will influence the audience to use a language used by the media while a language which
is rarely used by the media gradually fades. The author writes:
The hypothetical model-compares the media message to the drug injected by a
syringe. The model is based on the assumption that the audiences (participants)
passively and directly accept the message and do not critically engage with it in any
way… The media creates the need.
People such as Vuyo Mbuli and Thabo Mbeki speak English on the media in such a
manner that every member of the youth wants to imitate them. Opinion leaders in various
groups were always found discussing Mbeki’s speeches and the manner he use to
choose the words. Youth loved Mbuli and they used to imitate his words as he was
broadcasting. Most of his utterances were adopted by the youth as their slang. There are
better jobs available in the media for those who speak English as if it is their first language;
and low jobs for those who specialised in the indigenous African languages.
1.10 Research methodology
29
This subheading introduces the various methods used to collect data. Hornby (2000: 919)
defines methodology as: “A set of methods and principles used to perform a particular
activity.” This research is both qualitative and quantitative in nature and concerns the
Vhavenḓa and the preservation of their language and culture. It examines how the
Vhavenḓa conduct their daily lives linguistically and considers the stories and history of
the Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group.
1.10.1 Quantitative method
The quantitative method is scientific in nature; it uses numbers to confirm the accuracy of
data collected. Sebastian (2008:7) writes:
Nevertheless, the main characteristic of quantitative data is that it consists of
information that is, in some ways or other, quantifiable. In other words, we can put
quantitative data into numbers, figures and graphs, and process it using statistical
(i.e, a particular type of mathematical) procedures. When we are using quatitative
analyses, we are usually interested in how much or how many there is/are of
whatever we are interested in. Newby (2010:92) indicates that quantitative
research deals with measurable data. The author writes:
Quantitative research seems to replicate the strength and success of science by
reproducing some of its research principles. Its belief in an observable and
measurable reality places it in the positivist camp. Because the things that
quantitative researchers examine are measurable and because the conditions for
data collection and analysis are specified, quatitative research can be replicated.
Hopkins (1976:54) on the other hand comments on qualitative method as follows:
The problem question will give direction to the type of data needed and the source
or sources of information needed, but specific decisions must be made as to
exactly what primary and, secondary sources will be utilized in a historical study,
or what phenomena or human subjects will be observed or measured for a
descriptive or experimental study… A qualitative study - usually based in question
best answered by a study of the past - may examine closely an institution, a
movement, an idea, a person or persons, and their interrelationship.
Quantivative method will be used to confirm the data collected. King, Tomz and
Wittenberg (2005) define quantitative method this way:
30
In this article we suggest an approach, built on the technique of statistical
simulation, to extract the currently overloocked information and present it in a
reader friendly manner. More specifically, we show how to convert the raw results
of any statistical procedure into expressions that (1) convey numerical precise
estimates of the quantities of greatest sustintive interest (2) include reasonable
measures of uncertainty about those estimates, and (3) require a little specialized
knowledge to understand.
Data will be collected from different people of different ages. This will be done through
discussion and through one-on-one interviews. Telephones will also be used to
communicate information related to the research with the respondents. The activities of
the Vhavenḓa will be observed because they offer crucial information about the language.
Various books will be considered as well as Vhavenḓa oral history. The data compiled
will be grouped according to their similarities and their differences. Factors upon which
most people agreed or disagreed will be noted as this will provide valuable information
for analysis purposes.
1.10.2 Qualitative method
Qualitative method is descriptive in nature. It is characterised by its aims, which relate to
understanding some aspects of social life and its methods which generate words rather
than numbers as data for analysis (McCusker and Gunaydin, 2014:537). Boudah
(2011:12) comments:
Qualitative methods are used in descriptive research. Qualitative researchers
analyze language, written, or oral, and actions to determine patterns, themes, or
theories in order to provide insight into certain situations. Qualitative data include
personal interviews, observations, and document review. The qualitative researcher
works at “capturing what actually takes place and what people say.
Other scholars emphasise meaning in their definitioin of qualitative research. Wiseman
(1999:5) views qualitative research “… as a category of research that emphasises the
meaning of events as expressed by those who experience them.” On the other hand,
31
Harwel (2011:148) states that:
“Qualitative research methods focus on discovery and
understanding the experiences, perspectives and thoughts of participants – that is,
qualitative research explores meaning, purpose or reality.”
Boudah (2011:126) further says: “Qualitative research includes data collection and
analysis grounded in observation, interview, and document review.” With regard to the
function of qualitative research method McCuster and Gunaydin (2014:537) state:
These methods aim to answer questions about ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’ of a
phenomenon rather than ‘how many’ or ‘how much’ which are answered by
quantitative methods. If the aim is to understand how a community or individuals
within it perceive a particular issue, then qualitative methods are often appropriate.
The Vhavenḓa were the target group for this research and their lives and feelings about
their language were considered as valuable data. Tracy and Blackwell (2007:107), in
acknowledging the area and the method of data collection, write:
One of the most convenient places to start a field work is right where you are - in
your work place, culture, social group, classroom, vacation destination or watering
hole.
In this research project the focus of the collection of data will be restricted to the
observation, interviews and questionnaires methods.
11
1.11 The scope of the research.
Chapter 1 outlines the research problem and the aims of and justification for the research.
In addition, it provides definitions of literary concepts. The chapter further outlines
background information regarding indigenous African languages in South Africa,
32
sketches the status of African languages in the country and introduces the research
methods employed.
Chapter 2 reviews a number of sources dealing with areas of research similar to that
under investigation.
Chapter 3 is about the collection, recording and interpretation of data for this research.
Instruments of data collection in this regard are questionnaires, interviews, observation
and other secondary sources.
Chapter 4 provides the analysis of the data collected in Chapter Three in order to arrive
at meaningful findings.
Chapter 5 outlines the findings of the research
Chapter 6 provides a general conclusion in the form of a summary and makes a number
of recommendations.
33
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
Language change is a global problem, it is inevitable, and all languages are changing.
The pace of change differs, though, according to both the specific language and place
concerned. Some of these changes are natural – when two or more languages come
together, they influence each other and they adopt words and cultural meaning from each
other. There are also changes which are caused by individuals. A family can choose a
language that was originally not its own and that language eventually becomes a family
language. People may choose a new language because their language is considered
inferior and spoken by the oppressed. In this way they try to run away from subjugation
and try to acquire the status of their leaders by speaking the language of those leaders.
Education, migration and intermarriage are also contributory factors.
This chapter will try to discuss the ways in which scholars in different countries deal with
the problem of language demise. It will outline the causes and the effects of language
change as indicated by these scholars. The chapter will also indicate if these scholars are
proud of the shifting of languages and it will show how different nations have tried to stop
changes in language, or how they have encouraged the change. Fishman (2001:1) writes:
What the smaller and the weaker languages (and people and cultures ) of the world
need are not generalized predictions of dire and even terminal illness, but, rather,
the development of therapeutic understanding and approaches that can be adjusted
so as to tackle essentially the same illness in patient after patient. However, just as
the illnesses that have infected so many of the world languages constitute a very
recognizable syndrome that yet varies in kind and degree from one infected
language to another, so the diagnosis and cures that are required, fundamentally
related though they may well be, may also vary , depending on the facts in each
case.
34
This confirms that there is a serious problem related to various languages. The
subjugation of each language must be verified and efforts must be made towards its
restoration. Each language comprises a particular way of thinking and, if it disappears, its
wisdom disappears along with it. Each language has an ancestral wisdom – a wisdom
that has proved valuable over a long time. This ancestral wisdom should be made
available for consultation in time of need yet such consultation is possible only when the
language has been kept functional by all possible means.
2.2. Literatures reviewed
Depending upon the topic and the subject of research, there may well be information
already known and to which the scholars can add their findings. This existing knowledge
should form the basis of the new research. As such, it can give direction to the research
and can unlock some of the questions the researcher will be seeking to answer. The
existing knowledge gives an indication of the instruments previously used and can also
suggest how new information can be collected.
Hillway (1969:4) explains the task of a reseach as follows:
The educational scholar - the expect in his field - has the task of searching for
undiscovered facts and principles about education. This amounts to far more than
merely reading all books and articles about education and absorbing what others
already know. It means adding something new and important to the total body of
educational information. Expects in any subjects presumes thorough
understanding of the whole body of knowledge that scholars in the field have
gathered over the years. But nobody can be regarded as an expert who takes all
his knowledge at second hand. The true expert must have the skill and intelligence
to contribute new ideas of his own.
The scholar above indicates the role of the scholar in a research. A researcher is always
asking questions about a particular topic. He searches the knowledge from other
researcher which he later enriches them by adding his contribution. Hill and Kerber
indicate that: “The word “research” is a derivative of the French word “recherché” which
means: quest, search, pursuit, the search after truth, the rearch for truth, to make
searches into; close investigation or inquiry.”
35
A number of scholars who have tried to explain the causes of and reasons for language
change in different countries and in different ethnic groups are discussed below. Their
contributions will be considered while studying and investigating manner in which
Tshivenḓa as a language is disappearing.
Brenzinger (1997:273) blames parents, education, economy, intermarriage, and
urbanisation for the disappearance of minority languages. Before he starts his discussion
he defines the term ‘minority language’ as languages which exist in the environment
hostile to them – the school, media, and administration being dominated by other
languages. Language on its own cannot change; it changes because it is in contact with
another language or languages which are considered superior. Brenzinger (1997:282)
writes:
Language contact is the prerequisite for language shift. Ethnolinguistic communities,
usually those with minority status, become bilingual in that they still retain their own
languages and acquire the language of the dominant group.
Parents are more interested in the future of their children than in their culture. Although
they are the transmitters of culture from one generation to the next, they allow their
children to speak the languages of the dominant groups so that they can compete with
members of those groups. Brenzinger (1997:282) writes:
In all parts of the world, we observe an increasing tendency among members of the
ethnolinguistic minorities to bring up children in languages other than their mother
tongue, thereby abandoning their former ethnic language. These changes in
language used by individuals might ultimately lead to the irreversible disappearance
of the minority language. People who prefer to strongly adhere to their cultures, but
who have to do so without any strong economic base, are likely to change and come
to rely to those who are economically viable; those who are economically viable may
be of different language grouping, thus exacerbating the problem.
Human beings are mobile by nature; they move from one area to the next for various
reasons, including being in search of greener pastures. While they “live their languages”
in their own rural areas, when they marry into new environments, the transmission of their
languages is disturbed. Brenzinger (1997:276) comments:
The mere fact that only a few parents may decide not to use the minority language
with their children already results in endangering the entire transmission from one
36
generation to the next. Intermarriage and migration from rural to urban regions by just
a few members can have a dramatic impact on the survival of a minority language.
Brenzinger (1997:277) like Aitchison (2001:242) believes in languages suffering death by
suicide and by murder. People choose to speak a particular language over and above
their own language and, hence, theirs will disappear and soon be forgotten. The author
states:
Some shifts reflect a voluntary decision to abandon a language, whereas others are
the results of coercion. However, in the vast majority of cases, we find a mixture of
those two scenarios, which means neither “language suicide” (Derrison 1977) nor
“language murder”.
Tshivenḓa as a minority language lacks the power necessary to influence other
languages. It is, however, influenced by them. The Vhavenḓa are a minority in South
Africa, but are also very curious politically, socially, economically and educationally. They
speak the languages of other ethnic groups so that they can be understood and
recognised. Both professional and unskilled Vhavenḓa leave their “homelands” to search
for jobs in towns and cities. They speak the languages of their acquaintances and they
practise intermarriage. These new marriages inevitably influence the transmission of
Tshivenḓa as a language. Private schools are mushrooming throughout their home area
(Venḓa) as children and parents choose English not just as a medium of instruction, but
as a first language. Brenzinger’s reasons for language change can therefore be seen to
be similar to the changes taking place in Tshivenḓa as a language.
Strubell (2001:261) uses the Catalan language in Spain to indicate the manner in which
language dies. He mentions the following factors as the causes of language change: the
labour market; the need to belong to the bigger community; the number of children per
family; infant mortality; people who are not bothered about the disappearance of their
language; and language planning or language policy. He indicates that people speaking
Catalan are being absorbed by the Spanish, thus leading to the disappearance of Catalan
as a language.
37
Vhavenḓa parents are struggling to build good future for their children. They want children
who will become leaders rather than subordinates. For this reason, parents tend to be
more concerned about the future than about language. Parents who have suffered the
pain of inferiority because of language discrimination are likely to opt for more progressive
languages than their primary language. Strubell (2001:262) writes:
Parents want the best for their children. They do not want them to be held back, or
subject to ridicule or abuse, the way they may feel they themselves have been.
Strubell indicates the acquisition of a foreign language as a means of avoiding
discrimination. The scholar also indicates the labour market as a cause of language
change. Languages useful in the labour market are more important than languages used
for social reasons. Building on this, a language used for the administration of a country is
likely to entice the youth of that particular country. Strubell (2001:262) thus states:
It is thus essential to study the role each language plays in the labour market which
most school leavers will be entering. It may be local, if there are new jobs available, it
may be outside the linguistic area, in which case it will be less likely that the family will
speak the subordinate language (which may well be viewed as less useful) to their
children.
Strubell (2001:263) also reflects on the number of people who speak a particular
language as a determining factor for either the survival of a language or for its death. The
more the children are born to a particular ethnic group, the better the chances for the
survival of that groups’ language. As fewer children are born, the chances for their
language to expand are reduced. The number of infants who survive after birth also
determines the future of the language – high infant mortality in a particular group is an
indicator of a gloomy future for the survival of that group’s language. Strubell (2001:263)
writes:
In Catalonia there has been concern for decades about the low birth rate (the small
average number of children that each woman has). Over the past 20 years there
has been a dramatic decline in birth rate and general fertility of the population in
both Spain and Catalonia. It is estimated that women are now having an average of
38
under 1.2 children, well below the replacement level, usually put at 2.1. Annual births
in Catalonia have halved, and many schools have closed down. The typical
dumbbell-shaped distribution of population is developing a tapering base. In 1996
the numbers of births and deaths were almost identical…. The average number of
children born to native Catalonia speakers continues to be lower ...
This explains why the percentage of native Spanish speakers in primary schools is higher
than it is in the general population. This trend obviously has serious implications indeed
for the future of the Catalonian language community – especially given its weak power of
linguistic recruitment on the one hand and the matter of assimilation on the other. When
the native population of an area decreases in number it makes room for other ethnic
groups to occupy its space – land which is, by rights, the property of the native population.
Such populations are gradually overpowered and their languages cease to exist. Strubell
(2001:271) indicates that language policies are not better than functional use of a
language – in other words, a language must be used in order to survive. In the quotation
below, Strubell slams a leading Catalan sociolinguist along with those who call for more
language policies to sustain the survival of their languages. He writes:
A leading Catalan sociolinguist, Vallverdil, vehemently, criticizes those who call for still
more dynamic policies while seemingly not accepting their own share or responsibility
in the process. He finds it shameful that among those who call for radical new
language policy with almost exclusive use of Catalan, some have given up practicing
passive bilingualism.
Tshivenḓa, as a minority language, shares certain problems with Catalan. The Vhavenḓa
opted to live in a mountainous area for strategic reasons. However, they communicated
with other people for trade sake. The fact that they traded in Mapungubwe and Musina
from fifteenth century indicate the period in Vhavenḓa occupied the area.
Graig (1997:257) also discusses various causes of language death. His discussion is
based on sudden language death and language remembrance. People enjoy speaking a
language which they feel safe and are comfortable to speak: they do not enjoy speaking
languages which they feel are inferior and discriminated against. People do not enjoy
subjugation – rather, they enjoy an environment in which their potential can be seen and
39
recognised. People who feel threatened because of their language are likely to hide
themselves and choose to speak the language of their superiors. Nonetheless, it is
possible for them to rediscover their languages if their protection can be guaranteed.
Graig (1997:258) shows how detrimental force and fear are to a language. He comments:
The case of “radical language death” is similar to that of sudden death in that it
involves massive dying or killing of the speakers, but there are survivors, who opt
to abandon their language for being too much a liability for their survival.
Graig (1997:259) makes mention of the group of people called “rememberers” as being
very important in studying the survival and the demise of a language. He writes:
Another category of speakers that need to be included in the study of dying
languages is that of the “rememberers”. These are speakers who may have been,
at an early stage in life, native fluent speakers, or who may simply have learned only
some elements of the language a long time ago, and who, in either case, have lost
much of their earlier linguistic ability. Rememberers are typically of a situation of
fairly advanced stage of language death, and are found in relative isolation.
Sometimes the language memory of such speakers can be triggered enough for
them actively to participate in salvage linguistic projects, but at times such speakers
have been so traumatized about their speaking a stigmatized language that nothing
can help them recall much of it.
The Vhavenḓa were never subjugated to other ethnic groups. Their language and culture
remained very strong, so much so that people who came to live with them adopted their
culture and language. The Vhavenḓa cannot be considered “rememberers”, however.
Rather, it is the people of other ethnic groups who lived among them, before the formation
of the Republic of South Africa who qualify as “rememberers”: Vatsonga as indicated
above, lived with Vhavenḓa, they adopted Tshivenḓa as their first language, howevever,
the homelands policy of separate development separated them from Vhavenḓa such that
they revitalized Xitsonga as their language when forced removals were inforced by the
apartheid government. The interaction between the Vhavenḓa and Vatsonga was alluded
to in Chapter One of this dissertation. The acquisition of ‘the Republic of Venḓa’ in 1979
greatly reduced the number of the people who speak Tshivenḓa as a language and the
40
Vatsonga were separated from the Vhavenḓa. The problems of language outlined by
Graig do not apply completely to Tshivenḓa as a language.
The problem of dual languages being spoken within families is important to the demise of
Tshivenḓa as a language with the language of the minority (as spoken by the parents)
making way for the language that is dominant in commerce and likely to be a symbol of
prosperity in the near future. Graig (1997:259) writes:
Language death may appear to be sudden but may infact occur as a result of a long
period of gestation, a situation discussed by Dorian (1981:51; 1986:74) under the
label “language tip”. It typically involves a case of sudden shift from a minority
language to a dominant language after centuries of apparent strong survival. The
loss of ethnic language, Dorian argues, is the results of long standing assault on the
language which has eroded its support from the inside. It can be traced through the
evolution of the patterns of language use in specific families, ones in which parents
and older siblings speak an ethnic language while younger siblings suddenly do not
acquire it.
Benjamin (1997:116–134) comments on how the development of the Cochiti (keres)
language in America was negatively affected. The Cochiti were dependant to each other,
they lived in extended families and they were strongly attached to their clan and
community. They respected each other and they used to visit each other. There were
rules to be followed, with each person being obliged to be a leader as long as he or she
was chosen as such, and everybody had a responsibility to pledge support to whoever is
choosen to be a leader at that time. This was a culture which, if disturbed, would also see
its language affected. If the culture were to be destroyed, the language would also be
destroyed.
The Cochiti were agrarian in nature. This allowed them ample time to live with their youth
and to teach them their culture and beliefs. As soon as they adopted the wage system,
however, as demanded by the American economy, their culture of sharing disappeared.
Family ties were cut and each family became less bothered about the problems of the
other families. Benjamin (1997:121) writes:
During this tragic period, the vitality of the language, Keres, also suffered. Fewer
opportunities existed for people of different ages to talk and work together. Young
41
children spent less time with adults of different ages. Fluent adults could no longer
afford to spend time with wiser, more learned elders. This in turn, disrupted the
education of young people. The contexts in which children had learned traditional
Cochiti knowledge was either weakened or destroyed. Older adolescents and young
adults had a difficult time finding knowledgeable adults with sufficient time to teach
them. Many young children were not taught the native language.
Vhavenḓa, like the Cochiti, have a problem finding sufficient time for adults to teach the
youth about their culture. In addition, the wage economy has also disrupted the culture of
sharing and taking care of each other as relatives. The days are gone where time was
divided between home and school and now, parents and grannies are obliged to fill the
gaps left by teachers at school. Parents have also been converted from their culture on
the pretext of helping their children with their homework. The extended family has
disappeared and television has encroached on their homes, bringing with it a whole new
source of influence on the youth.
2.2.1. Language identity
People are who they are because of the language they talk and because of their culture
and beliefs. Their thoughts and behaviours are guided through their culture. A person
who adopts a new language will also change his or her behaviour and this will be
considered shameful by his or her community. However, if the change has been made
for reasons of economic viability it will be gradually accepted and developed into a culture.
When the issue of language is not properly handled, however, it may lead to emotional
and spiritual disturbances, discrimination or even war. Thomas (2004:15) asserts:
The study of language is worthwhile, because it is such an important part of all our
lives. We also believe that by studying it we can learn a great deal about how society
is structured, how society functions and what are the most widespread, but
sometimes invisible, assumptions different groups of people who are proud of their
culture will keep their language by all possible means. Culture and language are
inseparable. Le Page (1997:17) writes: “I shall want to maintain that ‘languages don’t
do things: people do things: languages are abstractions from what people do.’Of
course we are all making and using abstractions”. Lepage indicates the
responsibility of language users; language does not develop automatically, but
develops because there are people who are using it functionally.
42
Pedzara (1996:172) tries to indicate the relationship between a person and a language.
The author writes:
Language characterizes the individual. When we say “I am a Nahnu” (Otomi) or “I
am a Nusau”, (Mixtec), etc. we identify ourselves with the nationality or ethnic group
that speaks that language. In fact, I see language as a fundamental to consolidation
of ethnic or national unity. The consciousness of belonging to a group develops
above all, from speaking that group’s language, so grows the speaking of the
language… Up to now, colonial thinking has rejected the idea that native languages
are real languages. But native language carries the contents of the long lives of the
people who speak them.
2.2.2. Language death
The definition of language by Franz Bopp, as quoted in Aitchison (2001:235), clearly
indicates that a language is subjected to change and that the change may be positive or
negative, conscious or unconscious. Negative changes will lead to the disappearance of
a language, while a language well nurtured is likely to be developed, become useful and
to endure challenges from other languages.
Languages are to be considered organic natural bodies, which are formed according to
fixed law, develop as possessing an inner principle of life, and gradually die out because
they do not understand themselves any longer, and therefore cast off or mutilate their
members or forms.
The definition of language as organic indicates that while language can be destroyed
easily, it is difficult to develop it again.
Aitchison (2001:235) uses terminologies such as ‘language death’ , ‘ language suicide’,
‘language murder’ or ‘slaughter’ to indicate the pressure exerted on a language by other
languages which may be the languages of power, economy or simply the language of the
majority. Aitchison (2001:235) explains what language death is.
43
When language dies, it is not because a community has forgotten how to speak, but
because another language has gradually ousted the old one as the dominant
language, for political and social reasons.
A language with more rewards will survive while a language without rewards will fade. A
good language will alow a speaker to communicate both nationally and internationally, a
speaker will be able to socialise across different ethnic groups, a language is rewarding
if it allows a speaker to acquire better quality education. A good language will allow a
speaker to compete economically across the globe. Aitchison continues to indicate the
role of the parents in developing their language. Both the parents and their children should
speak the same language to ensure the role of the language as a heritage. Children who
speak different languages from their parents soon lose the pride of belonging to the
community and they marvel at their dominant language. Aitchison (2001:236) writes:
“Typically a young generation will learn an ‘old’ language from their parents as a mother
tongue, but will be exposed from a young age to another more fashionable and socially
useful language.”
Aitchison (2001:236) discusses the problem when two languages which are nearly the
same are put close to each other. There are no two languages which are equally powerful
– the weaker language will be swallowed and disappear while the stronger will take over.
Aitchison calls this “language suicide”. He states:
Language suicide occurs most commonly when two languages are fairly similar to
one another. In this situation, it is extremely easy for less prestigious one to borrow
vocabulary, constructions and sounds from the one with greater social approval. In
the long run, it may obliterate itself entirely in the process (2001:236).
Aitchison (2001:242) continues to discuss the manner in which a language dies by
defining the phrase “language murder”.
Language murder is more drastic than language suicide. The old language is
slaughtered by the new. How does this happen? The first stage is a decrease in the
44
number of people who speak the language. Typically, only isolated pockets of rural
speakers remain.
Aitchison (2001:242) did not choose to describe how a specific language was affected;
his writings are based on the general causes of language death. Tshivenḓa is currently
going through the stages the author referred to above. Things have changed since the
past when people who did not go to school were the only ones to go to work in the cities
and mines. Today, professionals (teachers, nurses, doctors, policemen, engineers, social
workers and so on) are also forced to go to cities to look for jobs. They become
neighbours with people who cannot speak their language and they are gradually
absorbed through learning to speak their new neighbours’ languages, leaving their own
to rot. The few who are left at home are not a big enough force to continue to influence
the development of their language. In addition, private schools are also increasing their
influence over the youth, leading them to speak the “foreign” language – that is, English.
Gradually, their original, traditional language is forgotten.
Before the introduction of written civilisation, Tshivenḓa as a language never suffered any
form of subjugation and were never forced to speak other languages. They were better
warriors against their enemies; they fought and protected their heritages. The movement
and development of Vhavenḓa was outlined in Chapter One of this dissertation: people
speaking various languages mixed with the Vhavenḓa and adopted Tshivenḓa as their
language, together with its culture.
2.2.3. Language preservation
A language can be preserved if the youth of that particular group are proud of their
language. Elderly people who are left alone in villages should be convinced that they have
value and should be encouraged to share their knowledge with the youth. The economy
of today does not allow the existence of extended families. Extended families were very
important for the development of Tshivenḓa as a language. The economy is favourable
45
for the existence of nuclear families. Traditional ways of life like hunting, gathering and
cultivation has faded. This traditional way of life allowed each tribe to live alone. Each
tribe was self sufficient. Relatives visited each other and their ties were maintained.
Watahomigie and McCarthy (1996:950) adopts eight stages from Fishman to indicate how
language can be revitalised and preserved. She writes:
Our analysis is informed by Fishman’s (1991) model for reversing language shift
(RLS). Key to RLS, Fishman maintains, is intergenerational language transmission
in the home, family, and community. This position anchors his eight-stage ranking
of endangered languages. Briefly, at stage 8 (most disrupted), the majority of
heritage language speakers “are socially isolated old folks”and the language must
be “re-assembled from their mouths and memories” (Fishman 1991:88). Stages 5 –
4 involve mother tongue literacy and use of the heritage language at school. Stages
3–1 involve heritage language use in the work place, government and media. The
turning point is stage 6, characterized by integration of mother transmission in the
intimacy of home, family and neighborhood. (Fishman 1991 see Fishman1991a;
1991b) “One cannot jump across or dispense with stage 6,” Fishman insists.
“Nothing can substitute for the building of a society at level of… everyday, informal
life. Thus, mother literacy in particular, school based mother tongue literacy, are for
threatened languages, on the dispensable side of stage 6, potentially helpful but not
critical in ensuring that language survival.
2.2.4. Language sustainability
Language can be sustained if people are consciously sensitive of what they intend to do.
Benjamin (1997:122) gives three ways in which language can be sustained. The first and
most important thing is for the youth in minority groups or who speak the oppressed
language to study very hard so that they attain high positions in the government. This will
allow them to be included in policymaking, and people employed in policy-making
departments are able to defend their languages. He also indicates that youth must
participate in the activities and rituals of their community. Lastly he indicates that the youth
must come to work and to live within their communities after completing their studies.
Benjamin (1997:121) writes:
The choices were clear; they needed to choose professions which were clear
professions which could help them protect their community from the outside. They
also needed to continue to participate in the internal affairs of the community. Once
they finished their professional education they took jobs that would allow them to
46
continue to live in the community. In this way they could participate in traditional and
ceremonial life, and continue Cochiti education.
Vhavenḓa youth and the tribe as a whole take into consideration what Benjamin has
written above. Vhavenḓa should encourage their children to acquire good education so
that they compete with youth of other ethnic groups. Vhavenḓa youth must feel proud to
participate on the activities of their ethnic group. Vhavenḓa youth must not run away from
their ethnic group after they have completed their education. They must work within their
ethnic group so that they uplift each other. Vhavenḓa youth who are not fortunate enough
to get work within their ethnic group must keep ties with their ethnic group by coming back
home on weekends, month-ends and on holidays. Those who are working far from their
ethnic groups must keep on supporting the activities of their ethnic group at home; they
may even practice the rituals of their ethnic group wherever they are.
Benjamin (1997:133) also discusses the importance of a language “nest” in revitalising a
language. This concept relies on young children being taken to people who are fluent in
the language concerned. There they are taught their native culture and language. The
author states:
Another important initiative in this goal will be the establishment of a “language nest”.
Language nests, or kohanga neo, were first established by the Maori people in their
language revitalization efforts in New Zealand (Fishman, 1991). Essentially, a
language nest is a culturally appropriate language centre and early childhood
program run by knowledgeable and fluent old women who are able to impart the
language and cultural knowledge to young children. Young mothers have neither
the language nor cultural knowledge necessary to raise their children in culturally
appropriate ways. Therefore, an integral part of the language nest is to include
young mothers in this experience as “apprenticed” learners. This initiative will
require a great deal of thinking, training and planning so that it conforms to realities
of Cochiti life.
Vhavenḓa, like the Maori people must help each other to transmit their language from
one generation to the next. Vhavenḓa youth must be guided through their culture so that
they will be able to impart their culture to their own children. Fortunately enough,
Tshivenḓa is still spoken by a lot of people who should be made aware that they should
take care of their language before it disappear commpletly.
47
Benjamin (1997:134) also reveals that there should be programmes held during school
holidays so that the youth are taught their language and culture.
One of the first small-scale initiatives to be undertaken by the Pueblo has been the
summer school program which is going on at the time of this writing. Six fluent speakers
are responsible for teaching traditional knowledge from the Cochiti ceremonial calendar,
through the Keres language, to children from the ages of four to six. At times, children are
grouped by age, at other times by sex, depending on the content of the teaching. The
lessons are grouped around specific, tangible outcomes such as being able to invite
elders to traditional songs, making ceremonial attire and participating in summer events
(Benjamin, 1997).
Pedzara (1996:172) suggests that minority languages must become written languages
and must be provided with sound technology to support them. The author states:
Indigenous languages must become written languages. This will open possibilities for
enriching and developing spoken languages. Besides preserving our languages,
written languages have, in my view, a greater capacity for abstraction. They also adapt
quickly to cultural and social changes and can thus be enriched indefinitely, and they
communicate across the time and space… Development today depends on
technology. Education and cultural activities, in particular, benefit from communication
technology. That technology increases the possibilities for creative activities and it
accelerates the diffusion of ideas. The socially and economically marginalized people
of our country are also marginalized from modern means of communication. As
Indians, for example, we are prevented from expressing our ideas, our desires and
our needs because we lack access to mass communication (Pedzara, 1996:172).
2.3. Conclusion
This chapter has discussed facts about language change and disappearance – both of
which are global problems. All languages are changing. Changes may be positive or
negative. Negative changes will weaken the development of a language while positive
changes will make a language favourable and admired by other ethnic groups. Tshivenḓa
in particular is negatively affected. The cause of the demise of Tshivenḓa is not different
to that of other African languages. Tshivenḓa as the language of the minority is highly
affected by changes leading to language change. Colonisation and religious pressure
48
were initially the forces behind language change. Language has also been used as a tool
for nationalisation with all people being forced to speak a national language. Language
policies which were biased towards a national language ensured that people adopted a
national language. Missionaries, alongside the colonisers, were also responsible.
English as a medium of instruction is important for education; with English as primary
language, pupils have a better chance to understand the subject matter they are studying.
This encourages parents to allow their children to adopt English as their primary
language. In the past, extended families were the institutions which kept culture safe and
protected. The advent of the nuclear family, together with the wage economy, disrupted
both extended families and the advantages they brought. Nuclear families are easily
influenced by other cultures and, in addition, intermarriage with nuclear families is
controlled by the strength of one of the parents involved instead of by culture.
The problems related to language shift may be identified and a language may be
revitalised – however, if the native speakers of that language do not see enough reason
to use it, it will soon disappear. Native speakers should be proud to maintain their
language and should use it at home, at school, in the work place, socially, and for religious
purposes.
The contributions of the scholars quoted above are very important and, indeed, provide
the basis for this study. The similarities and differences between the demise of languages
in various countries will provide a base upon which the demise of Tshivenḓa will be
studied. The problems in different countries may need different solutions – however,
some of the solutions may be similar to each other depending on the cause of each
individual problem and on the ideology of each country affected and that nation’s
willingness to solve the problem. The scholars quoted have indicated that it is rare for
people who migrate to other countries to keep their language. It is also not possible to
convince those who have adopted a second language as their first language to see the
value of their original language. People adopt a new language because they have realised
the importance of that particular language compared to their primary language. The lack
of interest in the problem indicates how serious the problem actually is
and highlights
the need for continuous research by all nations that have more than one official language.
49
CHAPTER 3
COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
3.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses the various tools used to collect data for this study –
questionnaires, interviews, and observation. Webster (1984:923) defines a method as a
“systematic plan or procedure for doing something.” This makes it clear that valuable
information can be discovered when relevant tools of collecting data are used.
50
This research is based on Tshivenḓa as a language and a culture. The people, their
activities and their environment are very important aspects of this study. Questions were
asked of them and they were observed. The stories they told were then considered.
Information from books and other documents was studied and analysed. This information
was supplemented by other valuable historical informaion such as oral history.
Both the quantitavie and the qualitative methods were used to collect data.
3.2. Research tools for data collection
As indicated above, three research tools of data collection have been used, i.e.
questionnaires, interviews, and observation. The three methods are discussed below.
3.2.1. Data collection by questionnaires
A questionnaire is made up of a series of questions which are sent to various respondents
who then supply the researcher with a feedback. Webster (1984:1213) defines a
questionnaire as “a set of questions to be asked of a number of people in order to obtain
useful information”. There are two types of questions. The first type elicits personal details
while the second type focuses on the information required for the research, i.e. short
questions and open ended questions.
Hornby (2000:955) defines the term ’questionnaire’ as “A list of questions that are
answered by a number of people so that information can be collected from the answers.”
Patel (2013:42) comments on questionnaires as follows:
A survey method of research consists of asking questions of a representative crosssection of the population at a single point in time. The persons to whom the
questions are asked are called survey respondents. The questions are often mailed
to respondents asked by an interviewer in the person’s home or elsewhere, asked
over a telephone by an interviewer, or handed out as in the classroom setting for
the respondents to answer and return.
Davino and Fabbris (2013:11) explain the weaknesses and strengths of different types of
questions used in a questionnaire. They write:
51
However, open-ended questions have a reputation for poor quality responses,
difficult in coding and costly administration. In addition, survey designers often need
to fit items within the constraint of a page limit, so open-ended questions are often
either reduced into allocated space or eliminated outright, and using such questions
have proven problematic especially in mail survey. But open-ended questions have
the potential to generate rich, detailed answers and can provide valuable information
to understand the replies and help researchers to understand the respondent’s
thinking.
The questionnaires were formulated to include questions of different orders and both
short questions and open-ended questions. The questionnaires were sent to participants
physically and they were collected physically by the rearcher. The ethical principles of the
research were considerd. The respondents were respected, both those who take it
seriously and those who do not. The respondents were encouraged to participate and
give their answers according to the knowledge they have about the topic in question. All
ethical considerations, as stipulated by the University of South Africa, were respected in
the conducting of this research and the questions were formulated in such a way as not
to give offence to the respondents. The respondents were assured that the research was
confidential and the outcomes will be used only for the purpose of the research.
The questionnaires were applied in two different ways, depending on the age of the
respondents and their ability to read and write. Young adults are able to read and write,
therefore, they were given a printed questionnaire to complete. Provisions were made for
senior citizens who are unable to read or write and they were interviewed rather than
being given a questionnaire to complete.
The research questionnaire used to collect data from the spondents identified for this
research is reproduced below.
3.2.1.1 Questionnaire questions
Instructions
Please answer all questions below. This task is intended solely for research purposes
and your response will be confidential. Please, do not write your name on the
questionnaire. If you need to add more information, use any paper.
52
Use a tick to indicate your personal information.
PART I
Gender
Male
Female
Place of residence
Village
Township
Age group
1829
3039
4049
50(plus)
Education
No formal
education
Primary
education
Secondary
education
Tertiary
education
Religion
Christian
Other religions
Occupation
Professional
Skilled
Unskilled
Unemployed
PART II
1. What
is
your
home
language?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Do you have a language to complement your home language? Give a reason for
your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
53
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..............………
3. Who taught you the language you gave as a home language?
………………………………......................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
4. Do you have a dictionary for your home language?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..….
5. If you intend enrolling at a university, would you consider taking your home
language as a subject? Give reasons
........................................................................................…………….………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. If your relative is intending to enrol for a degree, would you advise him/her to
consider Tshivenḓa as one of the subjects? Give reasons.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. What do you think is the role of your home language today and in the near future?
Explain
with
reasons
and
suitable
examples.
………...……………................................................…………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Have you this year ever read any literature in your first language for interest’s
sake?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Do you think native (Tshivenḓa) literature should be encouraged? Give reasons
.……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
54
This questionnaire was sent to different people speaking Tshivenḓa as their first language
– people who are able to read and write, of different genders and having different levels
of education. The purpose of this questionnaire is to detect the development and
deterioration of Tshivenḓa as a language and to assess the amount of interest and
knowledge that native speakers have about their language.
The questionnaires were sent to more than twenty-five people, both males and females.
Only sixteen completed responses were returned. Of those returning responses, ten
(62.5%) were female. Seven of these (70%) were secondary students, one (10%) a
university student, and one (10%) a professional lady. Six of the respondents (37.5%)
were male. Of these, three (50%) had a profession, while the remaining three (50%) had
only secondary education.
The respondents come from Nzhelele, Vuwani, and Ṱhohoyanḓou (Mphaphuli). The
respondents were also divided into four age groups. Nine of them (56%) were aged
between eighteen and twenty-nine, two (12.5 %) between thirty and thirty-nine, four (25%)
between forty and forty-nine years of age. The final group was aged over fifty years. Only
one (6.25%) of these respondents returned a completed questionnaire.
The education levels of the respondents were divided into normal formal education,
primary education, secondary education and tertiary education.
Results
In the group “no formal education”, no questionnaires were returned; in the group
“primary education”, no questionnaires were returned; in the group “secondary
education”, seven respondents (43, 7%) returned questionnaires. Eight (50%) of the
respondents had a tertiary education and one member (6.3%) of this group did not return
his/her questionnaire.
The respondents indicated that they belonged to two religions. Fourteen (87.5%) listed
Christianity while two respondents (12.5%) listed “other religions”. Respondent
occupations were divided into four groups: professionals, skilled, unskilled and
55
unemployed. Eight (50%) of the respondents indicated that they were professionals, four
(25%) were skilled, three (18.7%) were unskilled and four (18, 7%) were unemployed
3.2.1.2. Part two of the questionnaire
The first question reads: Which language is your home language?
All the respondents were native Tshivenḓa speakers.
Question 2a reads: Do you have a language to complement your home language?
Ten (62, 5%) of the respondents indicated that they had a second language to use in
case Tshivenḓa could not serve the purpose. Three (18, 8%) respondents indicated that
they used solely their first language while three (18,8%) did not respond to the question.
Question 2b requested the respondents to give a reason for the answer they have given
in question 2a.
Respondents B and F did not answer the previous question (2a), and they did same with
question 2b. Respondents l and P answered “No” to the previous question (2a) and did
not motivate their answers. Respondent A indicated “No” to the previous question and
gave as her reason that she was proud of her first language. Respondents C and D
indicated that they had a second language with which they supplemented their first
language in case it could not be used to give an answer in a particular situation.
Respondents E, F, H, I, J, K, M, N (50%) indicated that they had English as a second
language because it is an international language. Respondent O indicated that he had
English as a second language in order to be able to help his children with their homework.
Question 3 Who taught you the language you gave as a home language?
Respondents A,C,D,E,F,H,I,K,P (56,3%) indicated their homes as the transmitters of their
first language. Respondents B, L, M and N (25%) gave their teachers as the transmitters
of their home language. Respondent G (6, 3%) did not answer the question. Respondent
H (6.3%) maintained that his colleagues were the main role players in transmitting his
home language. Respondent J (6.3%) has indicated his community as the transmitter of
56
his home language. Respondent O (6.3%) indicated that both his parents and teachers
were responsible for transmitting her first language.
Question 4 Do you have a dictionary for your home language?
Respondents C, I, K and L (25%) indicated that they had dictionaries for their first
language while the remaining 75% of respondents had no dictionaries for their first
language.
Question 5a If you are intending to enrol at a university, would you consider taking your
home language as a subject?
Respondents A, B, D, E, F,G, H, J, M, N, O and P (75%) indicated that they did not want
to learn their first language for professional purposes, while respondents C, I, K and L
(25%) indicated that they use their first language for professional purposes.
Question 5b: Give a motivation for answers given in 5a.
Respondents A, B, C, D, I, J and P (43.8 %) indicated that they would rather learn English
than their home language. Respondent A indicated that there was no need for the home
language to be studied. Respondents B and C (12.5%) indicated that their home language
was not important because it was not career oriented. Respondents I and J (12.5%)
indicated that English was important because it is an international language. Respondent
P indicated that Tshivenḓa as a language did not have enough reading materials.
Respondent E indicated that she would follow a course in her first language so that she
would be able to teach other people. Respondent F indicated that she would study the
language in order to resuscitate her first language from extinction. Respondents G and H
indicated that they would study their first language in order to retrieve the knowledge and
history of the language. Respondent K indicated that she would study her first language
because she wanted to be a teacher. Respondent L indicated that her language should
be studied because it was a heritage language. Respondent M indicated that she would
like to study her home language because language is a vehicle of thoughts. Respondent
N wanted to study his home language in order to maintain his culture. Respondent O
57
wanted to study his home language because it is a heritage language which is
disappearing.
Question 6a If your relative is intending to enrol for a degree, would advise him/her to
consider Tshivenḓa as one of the subject?
Respondents A, B, I and J (25%) said “No” as an answer here and hence would not advise
any of their relatives to enrol to study their home language. Respondents C, D, E, F, G,
H, K, L, M, N, O and P (75%) indicated that they would advise other people to enrol to
study their home language in an institution of higher learning.
Question 6b. The question requested respondents to motivate the answers given in
question 6a.
The first part of the answer will indicate the responses of those who answered “No”to
question 6a.
Respondent A indicated that English offered good opportunities in life that it could not be
compared to their home language. Respondent B indicated that only those who want to
be teachers could take Tshivenḓa as a subject in the higher learning institutions.
Respondent I indicated that English was an international language and should be given
preference over the home language, while respondent J indicated that Tshivenḓa as a
school subject was very difficult.
The second part of the answer indicates those who chose “Yes” as an answer to question
6b.
Respondent D indicated that he would encourage a person to pursue Tshivenḓa as a
home language if that particular person had an interest in the language. Respondents E,
G, K and E (25%) indicated that they would encourage other people to consider
Tshivenḓa as a subject only if they wanted to become teachers. Respondents F, H, M
and N (31%) indicated that they would encourage other teachers to learn their home
language (Tshivenḓa) so that the knowledge, culture and history of the language would
be maintained. Respondents O and P maintained that they would encourage other people
to consider studying their home language in order that it might be revitalised.
58
Question 7 : What do you think is the role of your home language today and in the near
future?
Respondents C and D did not respond to the question. Respondent A indicated that her
home language was good only for communication, while respondent B indicated that it
was only good up to Grade 12. Respondent D indicated that, since people had deviated
from the ancestral lifestyle, the home language should also be dismissed. Respondent G
indicated that Tshivenḓa was not good for career purposes. Respondent I indicated that
Tshivenḓa should be maintained because it was part of her heritage.
Respondents E, F, J, K and N (31%) indicated that Tshivenḓa as a language was
disappearing because the native speakers were not proud of it. Respondent L indicated
that her home language was good only for teaching youth. Respondent G believed that
the home language should be maintained because there was culture in it. Respondent O
indicated that the home language was important and should be respected for reasons of
pride, culture, history and traditional value. Respondent P indicated that his home
language had no future, waste of time, and rarely used to communicate globally on
technology.
Question 8: Have you this year ever read any literature in your first language for interest’s
sake?
Respondents A, B, D, E, H, K, M, N, and P (56%) indicated that they had never read any
books in their home language, while respondents C, F, G, I, J, L, and O (43.7) have
indicated that they did/had read books in their first language.
Question 8b wanted the respondents to motivate the answers they gave in question 8a.
Eight (50%) of the respondents (A, B, E, F, H, I, K, and M) did not motivate their answers.
Respondents G and L indicated that they read books in their home language in order to
gain knowledge. Respondent J indicated that he read a book in his home language in
order to maintain his culture. Respondent C read books in his home language to revive
past memories. Respondent O indicated that he enjoyed reading novels and poetry in his
home language.
59
The respondents listed below indicated their reasons for not reading books in their home
language.
Respondent D indicated that English provided enough reading materials while her first
language did not. Respondent N, like respondent D, maintained that there were no
publishers of the native language and that there were no libraries in the area. Respondent
P, like respondent D, indicated that there were no reading materials available
Question 9: Do you think native (Tshivenḓa) literature should be encouraged?
Only respondent B (6.3%) suggested that literature in the home language should not be
encouraged. In addition, she maintained that English should be considered over the first
language. All the other respondents (93.8%) suggested that literature in the home
language should be developed.
Respondent A indicated that the native language should be developed because it was
able to give guidance and help in solving some problems. Respondent C maintained that
literature would ensure the survival of the language and make it popular. Respondent D
indicated that native literature should be developed for the sake of people who speak that
particular language. Respondents E, F, and K indicated that native literature would
develop knowledge of the language. Respondent G indicated that literature would enrich
culture and knowledge of the language. Respondent H indicated that literature would give
guidance to the native speakers of the language.
Respondents I and J indicated that literature was the heritage of the language.
Respondent L maintained that literature was good for those who enjoyed different skills
in that language. Respondent M suggested that literature should be developed, but gave
no reason. Respondent N maintained that the literature of a language gave pride to its
native speakers and that incentive should be given to people able to write in the language.
Respondent O indicated that literature could develop the history and traditions of native
speakers of the language.
3.2.2 Collection of data by interview
60
An interview is a purposeful interaction between two or more people. It may be face to
face or through the help of technology (e.g. telephone, Skype and internet). Valuable
information is gathered through an interview and ideas are shared between the
participants as they contribute equally to the unfolding of a topic. An interview may be
guided (structured) or allowed to flow freely (unstructured). Unstructured interviews allow
respondents to give more information on matters that the interviewer has not thought
about. The more interesting the topic, the more questions are asked. Open-ended
questions give enough rooms for the respondents to give more information about the
topic. Some of the crucial information given by the respondents forms an interesting part
of the research although they are not catered for on the list of questions to be asked to
the respondents.
Webster (1984:770) defines an interview as a meeting at which information is obtained
(by, for example, a reporter) from somebody. Du Plooy (2001:175) defines an interview
as follows:
An interview is a transitory relationship between an interviewer and an interviewee.
It is transitory in terms of its duration and question and answer type of conversational
exchange… . The interview is free to deviate and ask follow-up questions based on
the respondents’ replies – especially if the replies are unclear or incomplete.
An interview may also be structured so that it easily gives clear and direct answers to the
questions asked by a researcher.Tracy and Blackwell (2007:6) write:
Through interviews and participant observation, researchers examine romantic
partnerships, friendships, customer service encounters, superior-subordinate and
doctor patient relationships (Real, Bramson and Poole 2007), learning why people
engaged in such a relationships, the way their interactions emerge and change ,
and they evidence their feeling for each other.
Interviews and questionnaires are supportive to each other. A good interview warrants
good preparation and good question formulation. Bouder (2011:168) writes: “An interview
is an opportunity for you to get information about beliefs, perspectives, and views from
the participants.”
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Mantsha (2002:2) says: “The interview is a verbal interaction in which a researcher
obtains information, relevant to a specific research aim, in speaking with a subject. The
interaction can be face-to-face or it may be conducted by other means, such as the
telephone, (Maddi, 1992).” Ross (1992), cited by Mantsha (2002:2) distinguishes between
structured and unstructured interviews as follows:
In structured interviews, questions are carefully worded and presented in a
prescribed order, whereas in unstructured interviews, questions are phrased in
such a way that they allow the person considerable latitude in responding. The
research conducted for this study made use of unstructured interviews as a tool
for gathering information.
For the interviews, three main respondents considered various aspects of language
changes. Respondent Q, was a teacher interested in language change in education.
Respondent R was interested in the disappearance of royal heritage and the migration of
the Vhavenḓa to various places looking for jobs, and the final respondent concentrated
on royal heritage and cultural heritage as an area in which language is disappearing. The
respondents interviewed were not given the questionnaires; however the questions which
were asked supported the questions on the questionnaires. Respondents were given
enough room to demonstrate their areas of interest regarding language demise. Some
questions emanated from the manner in which different respondents answered the
questions and this made each interview a unique experience.
3.2.2.1
Interview respondents
Details of the respondents interviewed appear below along with their responses.
Respondent Q was a male teacher. He was fifty years old at the time of the interview and
had more than thirty years’ experience teaching Tshivenḓa at secondary level. He had
taught the following syllabi: Netted: 550 (before democracy), OBE (Outcomes-based
Education), NCS (National Curriculum Statement) and CAPS (Curriculum Assessment
Policy Statements). He was asked (given that he was a teacher) to comment on the
62
development of Tshivenḓa as a language from the time he was a student to the present
day and to predict the future of the language. He said:
Pupils are no longer interested in their home language; they pass other subjects
than their mother tongue.
He maintained that, during his time as a student, nobody could ever fail their first language
as happens in the modern era. He also indicated that sound changes (Tshanduko dza
mibvumo) and phonetics which were problematic to first language students had since
been removed from the syllabus. He indicated that present-day pupils could not
understand figures of speech and maintained that the language had become overly
simplified when compared to his time as a student. He indicated that people are unable
to pass; even if literature were removed from the lower grades and grammar were no
longer to be taught.
Respondent R was a male old-age pensioner living in Vhuṱuwangadzebu (Dzanani). He
had also lived previously in Vhuxwa ha Mapungubwe and on farms around Waterpoort
as well as having worked in Johannesburg for several years. He had also previously lived
in Rustenburg, Rethabile and Brits. Respondent R was a member of the Mphephu royal
family. He referred to the Vhavenḓa as “our people”– indicating that he is a member of a
royal family, and indirectly he is a leader of Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group and he strongly
support the leaders in the royal family (Mphephu royal family).
Respondent R was asked to comment on the development and deterioration of Tshivenḓa
as a language.
He maintained that the activities of the people who speak the language, things they do
when they are happy and proud, would contribute to the language they speak. He said:
There are so many of our people (Vhavenḓa) in Rustenburg, Rethabile, Brits and
the farms around the area. They are very proud to be associated with the people
they live with; they speak their language and less of our language. They are well
developed and rich, they have mansions and they have forgotten their language,
they rarely go back to their home villages.
He also indicated the importance of the language in keeping up the history of the
community, their origin, leadership and the right to claim the place in which they live. He
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maintained that different people occupy similar places at different times and that language
is crucial when people are at loggerheads about the ownership of an area.
He indicated that the Vhalemba failed to claim the leadership of the Vhavenḓa and the
ownership of the area because they did not have a language of their own. The Khoisan
(Vhakosha), he said, had not claimed the leadership of the area because they did not
have leaders. The Vhatwanamba (who were divided into three groups, Lishivha, Matshete
and Tshivhula) did not know the manner in which their leaders were buried and they did
not know their praises.
The Masingo were considered to be leaders because they knew how their leaders were
buried. (They were made to sit in a grave facing north, towards the area where they come
from – Mutumbukavhathu, the area where all people come from.) They also knew the
praises of the area. Tshivhula bvela dzwaini, mavhamboni, ḽa ha kuludzwani ḽa ha mvuvhu
yo midza ngwena mune wa maḓi. (It is praise poetry and it is not literal, it shows the
strength of Tshivula group.)
Respondent T was a female of over sixty years of age and who had lived in various royal
families and in Tshiendeulu and Dzanani. She knew about the lives of royal families
(vhakololo). In addition, she was able to link the relationship of the above families with the
Makonde, the dwelling place of Ṅwali (god). She maintained in her interview that
language cannot be a language without the history, culture and religion of the people who
speak that particular language.
Respondent T, like the previous respondents, was asked to comment on the development
and deterioration of Tshivenḓa.
Respondent T proved to be very fond of the word sialala (culture) when speaking of the
language. She maintained that sialala a i rengiwi nahone a i rengiswi (culture cannot be
bought or sold, we must live the way our ancestors used to do.) She also maintained that
people should not be encouraged to pay for the demonstrations of culture (realising that
their culture is fading, Vhavenḓa have choosen some dates in which they make
competitions on culture and an entrance fee is required).
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She was concerned about the way traditional leaders are handling traditional facilities
such as domba, vhusha and musevhetho. She maintained that those facilities mould the
behaviour of the people who speak the language and that they have the task of teaching
respect to the youth. She was concerned about traditional leaders who had left their
people to live in cities and towns. She also indicated that it was not only their people that
they had left, but also their culture and language, in order to speak English in towns
together with their children.
She indicated the importance of folklore, riddles, figures of speech and youth
entertainment in teaching the language. She also emphasised the importance of
mahunḓwane (children playing as they simulate real life in their families). She gave as an
example a story of a child who asked for tobacco from a passing old man. The man gave
the tobacco to the child and continued with his journey. The man disappeared, but the
child’s hand started to rot. The parents were called and they started to look for the old
man. After they found him and paid damages, life returned to normal again.
Respondent T also said: “Vhasidzana kha vha maliswe u thivhela vhuḓabaḓaba” (She
encourages arranged marriages for girls, believing that they are not responsible enough
to make choices and that their parents must be involved.) She felt that young people who
marry randomly are likely to ignore their language when they marry into other cultures.
She also indicated how justice and language are interrelated. Her feeling was that, the
less the knowledge of the language, the weaker the person would be judged judicially. In
the past, the king was the law and the language was used to execute the law. Today, the
language is removed from cultural laws and English is used instead of the native
language. This has the effect of weakening the power of a king or a chief.
3.2.3
Collection of data through observation
As already indicated, the research done for this study was on Tshivenḓa as a language
and thus was able to make good use of various available resources. The environment of
the speakers of the language provides more information than anything. Vhavenḓa as a
target group were studied; their activities were studied within their culture and setting. The
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way Vhavenḓa interact to each other and to other ethnic groups was studied. The
information gathered was used for analysis purposes. People may give false information,
but the environment is pure. For the purposes of this part of the study, people were
observed as they interacted within their environment and as guided by their culture. Baily
(1994:247) states:
The observational method is the primary technique for collecting data on nonverbal
behaviour. Although most commonly it involves sight of visual data collection, it
should also include data collection, via other senses/such as hearing, touch and
smell.
Webster, M (1984:1012) defines observation as: “An act of recognizing and recording a
fact or occurrence often with the help of scientific instrument.” Du Plooy (2001:147)
defines observation as:
Research that involves a face-to-face situation, between the researcher and the
subject, necessitates observation and, in certain instances, participation on the part
of researcher. Observation can be made of observable behaviour and patterns of
interpersonal communication, with references of variables such as duration and
frequency. Observations can also focus on the quality of certain communication
behaviours, the kind of people involved, and the socio-temporal context or setting.
Through observation, a researcher can discover information which a target group is not
ready to share or divulge.
Researchers may be prompted to undertake observation by any of the following triggers:
their own curiosity, incidental observation and experience in life – any of which may lead
to purposeful observation and provide a reason for research to be undertaken.
Observation can be defined differently depending upon the procedure by which a
researcher wants to conduct his or her research – for example, a researcher may disclose
or hide his other presence. This section will focus only on the type of observation used in
the research for this study (i.e. participant observation). Bodemann (2013:16) maintains
that: “Participant observation means total immersion. It may also mean action when called
upon by the conscience and his host. But such action must be taken in integrity.” Tracy
and Blackwell (2007:1) write:
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Actors respond as if they were dealing with a colleague or a friend rather than a
researcher which may encourage candor and openness. Being a complete participant
allows insight into motivations, insider meaning, and implicit assumptions that guide
actions but rarely play part (also known as the “participant as obsever” (Gold,
1958:220), the active participant (Spadley, 1980:60) or the active member
researcher).
Monahan and Fisher (2013:41) maintain that:
Through participation, the field researcher sees first hand and up close how people
grapple with uncertainty and confusion, how meaning emerges through talk and
collective action, how understandings and interpretations can change over time. In
all these ways, the fieldworker close to other daily lives and activities heightens
sensitivity to social life as process
Li (2013:137) writes: “Having the same racial and cultural background as a researcher is
usually advantageous in fieldwork.”
The procedure for observation followed here was to use the messaging service WhatsApp
to determine the amount of knowledge of Tshivenḓa. Only women were used in this case.
Three different languages were used, i.e English, Tshivenḓa and newly inoverted
WhatsApp language. Each respondent was expected to indicate her knowledge for each
language and how the language she chooses is jnterfering with the usage of her primary
language (Tshivenḓa). Six words were chosen and divided into two groups. These were
then sent to females of different ages.
The words were: mutuli and guyo (for grinding maize); nkho (clay pot); Muḓinḓa
(messenger); muḓonḓe (tassels) and mponze (tassels). These words fall into one of two
groups, according to their function.
The first respondent was a lady, aged twenty seven. She answered “Lois (exclamation to
indicate the word is difficult, it is a Whatsup terminology) doesn’t know deep Venḓa. The
second respondent, aged thirty, was a mine worker. She answered: “Ndi cou bala”
(meaning“I do not know”). The third respondent, aged thirty-five, answered “A thi zwi
ṱalukanyi” (I do not know/ it is a difficult question). The fourth respondent was aged forty.
She managed to explain all the words except muḓode and nkho. The last respondent was
over fifty years old and she answered: “Mutuli ndi wa thanda –mutuli (Wood utensil used
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to grind maize) is made of wood, guyo ḽi tou vhumbiwa kana ḽa itiwa nga tombo - guyo
(maize grinding stone is made by clay or from stone). Mvuvhelo i tou vhumbiwa nahone i
shuma u shela zwinwiwa, izwo zwinwe? (The clay pot is moulded and is used to store
drinks).
The same words were given to four men of various ages (28, 30, 31 and 52) to explain.
The youngest of them failed to explain only the word nkho (clay pot). The rest of the men
gave correct interpretations of the words.
The life and culture of the Vhavenḓa have changed completely – both their environment
and their lifestyle have also changed. They live in a modern environment shaped by the
dominant (western) culture. There is no reason to be rigid against change and the
changes have been gradual and unconscious. The utensils used by the Vhavenḓa have
adopted their names from the people who introduced them (for example. plates, oven,
braai). The borrowing of words has become so intensive that the original language has
become diluted and completely dependent on dominant languages such as English.
Words specific to the culture of the original language –such as luhura (fence, usually of
thorn), khavho (calabash), bunga (toilet), are gradually forgotten.
When Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group adopt new words from other ethnic groups, they start
to loose the vocabulary of their language. The paragraph above indicated how new words
were adapted to Tshivenḓa as a language and how the original Tshivenḓa words have
been dismissed from everyday usage of the language. Vacabulary of the English people
and Afrikaners who are economically strong in South Africa is gradually replacing
Tshivenḓa vocabulary. Vhavenḓa have changed their life-style and they have adopted
the words of their role-model languages i.e. English and Afrikaans.
Many things affecting the use of Tshivenḓa in the community were observed by the
researcher. It has been indicated in the previous chapters that the Vhavenḓa are a very
small group and that the fact that they enjoyed living in mountainous areas for strategic
reasons has worked against them. They have been squeezed into areas where they
cannot easily expand unless they mix with other tribes and learn to speak their languages.
The areas within the borderline between the Vhavenḓa and other tribes do not have
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schools (e.g. Roṱovhowa and Ṱovhowani near Phaphazela). These two villages have their
children enrolled in Xitsonga schools and have adopted Xitsonga as their first language.
They are thus completely lost to their first language. Vhavenḓa who are attending schools
with other ethnic groups gradually adopt the language of their neighbours as their primary
language and they gradually dismiss their first language.
The influence of the Charismatic church is also very important. Decent youth are modelled
in the church where the pastor, the seniors and the elders are the role models. The church
– as introduced by English-speaking missionaries – continues to overshadow the youth
with this language. English has a special role in the church with spiritual youth using it as
a medium of instruction. All youth in church should understand and speak English. The
church closes its doors to elderly people who cannot speak English –they cannot enjoy a
sermon but can attend only to increase the number of the congregants and shout as they
hear others. English has become spiritualised. People who speak English in church are
admired. Interestingly enough, even those who cannot cope with English as a school
subject speak English in church. Meanwhile, Tshivenḓa, together with its religion, is totally
ignored.
The church in a particular area must encourage the people of the area to speak their own
language. Vhavenḓa should encourage each other to maintain their culture. They should
speak their language in church. The church must keep the culture of its people. The
changes made in church should not destroy other peoples’ culture. The church should
strengthen the culture of its congregants. Good things of the culture must be maintained
while bad things should be replaced by the activities which are spiritually accepted.
The church condemns African religion, which means that children are taught to reject their
religion. This reduces the completeness of an African being. In religion, there is wisdom
and respect with both the living and the dead being respected equally. All the taboos are
meant to guide the youth on how things are done in a particular culture. People who do
not follow their religion will automatically forget their culture. Each religion is acquired with
a particular culture.
Chritianity do not tolerate other culture, (monotheism). African
religion calls for family members to come together, eat together and share family
problems. People who have lost their religion and culture have a distorted version of their
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first language. Language and culture are inseparable. Each language is ment to fulfil the
needs and the activities of the people speaking that particular language. A language
fading, fade together with the activities of the people who speak that particular language.
A newly acquired language may not fulfil the needs of the faded language.
The wealth of our forefathers was measured by the number of livestock they owned, the
space they had available to be cultivated for food production, and their wisdom in using
proverbs, idioms and other supporting figures of speech to solve their environmental
problems. Today people are dependent on certificated knowledge to prove their
capabilities in particular fields. Both parents and their children prefer English over their
own language. They believe that anyone who can understand English can also master
and understand any other subject matter quickly.
Private schools are increasing in number with both parents and their children admiring
the role of private schools more than that of public schools. Children from private schools
speak better English than those from public schools. Children speaking good English
have power when competing on the labour market. They speak with confidence and
conviction in their interviews. Both rich and educated families take their children to private
schools in towns which were formerly reserved for whites. Parents want their children to
speak English because English gives advantage over those who do not know English.
People who know English are first preference at job market.
It may be politically destructive to indicate that the Republic of Venḓa was, in the past, a
hive in which Tshivenḓa as a language and its culture flourished and well enjoyed.
Ṱhohoyanḓou has remained the labour market for people who speak the language. The
unity in their motto (Vhuthihi ha Venḓa – Unity in Venḓa) influenced them to work harder.
This feeling is represented among the group studied for this research in their wish to
maintain the previous names of their towns and to transfer some of their names to towns
which were formerly reserved for whites. Examples of this are Louis Trichardt becoming
Makhado, the name taken from Biaba (Baobab), a town in Tshiṱuni. The group studied
has maintained the names used for towns and streets rather than considering them the
legacy of apartheid (racial discrimination). The end of the Republic of Venḓa has seen
more professionals being moved away from Ṱhohoyanḓou to Polokwane, Pretoria,
70
Johannesburg and other cities. As the Vhavenḓa have moved away from their home town
to other cities and towns, the number of people who speak the language has been
reduced and they have mixed with other ethnic groups and eventually learnt to speak the
languages of these groups.
The South African national anthem includes only four important South African language
groups while Tshivenḓa and some of the other native languages are ignored. Gone are
the days that the target group used to sing Mune wa dzitshakha (Father of nations). The
South African national anthem is sung in English, Afrikaans, isiZulu and Sesotho. The
minority languages thus have to forge unity within their own special languages.
Languages have political influence; people who want to be politically viable often need to
acquire new names. Limpopo is always led by the Basotho ba Leboa; Ramatlodi, Moloto,
Mathale, and Mathabathe. There is no room for other tribes. Politically, people are united
according to a particular ideology; however, they are also sub-divided according to their
ethnicity. There are some ethnic groups who are considered only as supportive to the
superior cultures of the organisations. Below are examples on how ethnicity was used for
political discrimination. The cutting down and removal of Ṋemadzivhanani from PAC, is a
good example of a brilliant leader who was always subjugated to a supportive role
politically. The pushing away of Ramaphosa in favour of Thabo Mbeki to deputise the
president Nelson Mandela is also a clear case on how people from minority are squeezed
to the benefit of the special tribes and their language. Interesting enough, Ramaphosa
was called back for a supportive role to keep the people of Limpopo in favour of African
National Congress after realising that the role played by Kgalema Motlatle and Julius
Malema faded in ANC. The more the people speak a language, the more the political
power they have and thus the more they extend their influence to others. The minority
groups are thus gradually absorbed into the majority.
The role of the media is very important with radio, television, and social media taking up
a lot of time of the youth. In the past, parents and extended families were the guardians
and transmitters of the language, culture and values but the media has taken over these
roles. The youth of today spend their time studying, listening or watching the media, or
71
communicating through the media. Most media use English as a language and people
listen to and speak the language of the media in preference to their first language.
Traditional games also used to encourage the acquisition and use of Tshivenḓa as a
language. The Vhavenḓa, like all other African tribes, are a drumming culture. They had
their ways to keep themselves happy, helping each other to do common work. Now,
however, both parents and children spend their time on radio and television. Dzunde (a
group assembled by the king or chief to plough the fields), madavha (association of
helping each other), tshikona (male dance), malombo(religious dance), tshifasi (children’s
dance), mabambelo (swimming pools), malende (type of dance when people are drinking
African beer and celebrating during different functions), tshigombela (female dance at the
chief’s kraal), musangwe (African type of boxing without gloves), maliso (tending to
cattle), ndode (girls’game using small stones), khadi (skipping rope), ruvheki (youth game
played like cricket), thedzane (game played using a sharp knife), khororo (golf), kept
Tshivenḓa alive and entertained the people. The media – with the western games they
have introduced– have, however, taken over the role of the Tshivenḓa in the
entertainment arena.
Marriage determines the future of the language – the stronger the family, the better the
chance that a language has to survive. In the past, the Vhavenḓa believed in marriage as
a family responsibility and young men were supposed to marry their cousins. These
cultural marriages allowed the extended families to survive. The women were more
focused on their families than they are now and did not bother to follow their husbands to
the towns and cities where they went for work. The language spoken in a family is
dependent upon the person who is stronger in the family, be the father or the mother.
Peer pressure is also a contributory factor. Young men believe that a man who marries
within his tribe is not clever and that he is afraid of challenges from other tribes. Hence,
young men who want to be considered strong and to be admired marry women from
other cultures. Wives and children from these families are likely not to be considered
within the family as part of the family and they thus develop new branches more likely to
be connected with the lineage of the mother.The number of people who would
otherwise grow up speaking Tshivenḓa is thus reduced.
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The economy and the subsistence lifestyle are also contributing factors. People are
forced to move to the areas where their livelihoods will be provided for. People moving
from their former areas also reduce the power of the language there. The Vhavenḓa have
always depended on farming – both animal and crop production. The amount of space
available to neighbouring tribes forces them to move to the neighbouring tribes and to
speak their languages together with their families.
Birth rates and death rates are also important. The more people are born the better the
future of the language while, conversely, the more people die, the weaker the chances of
survival for the language. In the olden days, Vhavenḓa women used to have seven
children and more, depending upon their individual fertility. Today things have changed
and women have one to three children. In the past, men were not bothered with the
number of children they had and would father as many as their women were ready to give
birth to. Today, however, men are also conscious of role in child-raising. The effect of the
HIV and AIDS pandemic is also threatening the survival of the language with more youth
dying before they develop their languages. They do not have recreation facilities and they
spend more time on sex. Sex has both positive and negative contribution to the
development of the language. Sex ensures that more children are born and the language
will flourish, the negative side of sex is that people who are involved in sex depending
upon their knowledge about sexual diseases are infected and their life-span is reduced
such that the future of the language is negatively affected. Children are the future of a
language and the lower the numbers of children being born, the lower the numbers of
people who will speak that language in the future.
The divide and rule policy contributed towards the death of Tshivenḓa as a language.
Vhavenḓa were robbed of the people who boosted their numbers and their language.
Other ethnic groups who lived within Vhavenḓa were removed from the area occupied by
Vhavenḓa. Some of Vhavenḓa had to be removed from their areas in order to create a
space for other ethnic groups. The people removed from their land were deprived of
preserving their language. This created opportunities for new tribes to replace the former
inhabitants of such areas. Vhavenḓa around Malamulele, Pundamaria and the area
around Kruger National Park to Giyani were replaced by Vatsonga.
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Each and every person has a dream and it seems as if most dreams are incomplete if not
fulfilled overseas. Countries like the USA and Britain – which are less discriminatory
against blacks are likely to receive more blacks. South African blacks go there for
schooling but are then absorbed into the culture and the lifestyle of their host countries
and never come back. Phalaphala FM is the radio for Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group, it
interviews Vhavenḓa who are working and living in other areas. Through internet, the
Vhavenḓa who are overseas sometimes communicate to the viewers of Phalaphala FM.
Although the statistic of the people who migrated to other countries for economic reasons
cannot be given here, Phalaphala has given enough proof that people speaking
Tshivenḓa are migrating to other parts of the world. The USA is the role model for most
South Africans. Nursing and teaching are said to pay well in the United Kingdom, more
and more of our youth are lost in pretext that they are looking for better paying jobs. Youth
are also given scholarships to further their studies in France and India. They are booked
by international companies and they are gone. Lovemore Ndou is a talented boxer from
Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group, and he is lost to Australia because he is good in boxing.
He has lost his roots and he can no longer speak his first language, his children are not
to be mentioned at all. Talented people choose to compete outside their culture. The
people who acquire a foreign citizenship are lost from our ethnic group and will not play
a role in developing their first language.
3.3
Conclusion
Three different methods were used to collect data and these methods supported each
other in different ways. They all indicated the level and the rate at which the language is
changing. Middle-aged people and senior citizens were noted to be concerned that the
language is fading. A questionnaire was used to channel and determine the amount of
knowledge required and the questions in it required both short answers and open-ended
responses. People indicated that they love their language, but that they are bound to
ignore it for economic reasons.
In the face-to-face interviews, the questions were unstructured and allowed a respondent
to indicate his or her knowledge of the language. Most respondents indicated a language
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as a package of words spoken or written and recording the lifestyle, wisdom, culture and
history of a particular tribe. The people interviewed commented mostly on culture and
religion and indicated that culture is fading.
The observation phase indicated different activities happening within Vhavenḓa as tribe,
both consciously and unconsciously, and the globalisation taking place as regards
language development. This observation discovered that the activities in the rural areas
and those in the urban area are similar. These similarities ensure that the language used
in the urban areas influences the language used in the rural areas. The domination of the
rural by urban has negatively influenced the development of Tshivenḓa as a language.
This chapter calls for something serious to be done before Tshivenḓa completely fade.
The speakers of the language confirmed that the language is disappearing and have
indicated their reasons for adopting other languages. The senior citizens, traditional
leaders, and the government must encourage the usage of the language by the youth
before it disappears. The value of the language must be uplifted. Youth must be
encouraged to explore the advantages of using Tshivenḓa as their heritage language.
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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1. Introduction
This chapter analyses the data collected in Chapter Three. The responses of participants
and information observed will be analysed in detail. Boudah (2011:234) states the
following about data analysis:
To begin open coding, the researcher should read through observation, interviews,
and other data line by line, highlighting information that indicates items of interest to
the study focus…. As the researcher compared incident to incident, it became clear
that some of the labels overlapped, occurred across settings, and did not allow for
clear definition of categories.
Tracy and Blackwell (2007:185) also indicate how a researcher is supposed to handle
the data collected during research:
Analysis activities also include gathering, ordering, printing, and sometimes
reformatting the data…. A popular schema is to order the data chronologically,
interspersing field notes, interviews, and documents by order of their collection or
constructing.
Dunn (2013:270) discusses the analysis of data as follows: “By data analysis, I refer to
systematic collecting and examining observation to answer a question, search for
patterns, or otherwise interpret some research findings.” It is not possible for a researcher
to have gathered all possible information during the data collection stage. He is likely to
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discover more interesting additional information as he proceeds with the research
analysis.
Scholars study, in a systematic way, how things are done. They then write a conclusion,
but still continue to add more meaning to their findings. Tracy and Blackwell (2007:200)
writes: “Researchers should gather additional data to fill out the emerging theoretical
contribution.”
4.2. Analysis
The aspects which will form the basis of the analysis in this chapter are culture, education,
politics, technology, and religion. Culture is the context in which the language is spoken.
Technology is taking over the social aspects of the youth. Christian religion is very
important as it is struggling to overpower the heritage of traditional religion and the
understanding of life as a whole.
4.2.1. Culture
Culture, like religion, cannot be separated from the people who speak a particular
language. People who adopt another language will change their behaviour and adopt
certain behaviours from the culture of the adopted language. Culture is learnt bit-by-bit,
acquired gradually and then comes to form part of the life of an individual. Culture
determines the way a person thinks, behaves, plans, and the way he or she makes his or
her choices – it may thus impose stereotypical behaviours on individuals. Africans are
very proud of their cultures as a means of identification; they keep their clerical names
and their history of origin, notwithstanding that there are other factors that influence native
speakers to deviate from their language and culture. People love their cultures, but the
changes around them compel them to change.
The discussion on culture will revolve around typical African families, traditional
institutions, African religion and the adopted languages which compete with the language
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being studied. The discussion will focus on the views of the respondents, as indicated
during data collection, and will include commentary by the researcher.
Various scholars who have tried to define culture are listed below. Their definitions have
the following themes in common: mind conditioning and usage, groups of people sharing
particular values and beliefs, and similar types of behaviour. Our discussion will be based
on culture as indicated by the scholars mentioned below.
A human being is incomplete if he is considered only scientifically; culture is imperative
to know and understand the thinking and the behaviour of a person who is supposed to
be studied. Tracy and Blackwell (2007:3) asserts: “Man is an animal suspended in webs
of significance, he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs, and the analysis of
it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretative one in
search of meaning.”
Ralston (1995:715) quoted by Mantsha (2002:10) defines culture as follows:
[It] is a collective programming of mind that distinguishes the members of one
category of people from those of the other; it is a mindset or mental framework
resulting from shared values, beliefs, symbols, and social ideas. Culture influences
thought either directly, through socialization of the individual within a culture, or
indirectly, as the individual learns the language of culture.
Therefore, when learning a language, an individual’s thought processes may be
subconsciously influenced by the culture of that language (Roper, 1992). The author
further indicates that when the individual responds to an instrument that assesses values,
that individual’s reported values might be influenced by the language and culture in which
the instrument was written.
Karp and Yoels (1993:136) say:
Our culture becomes so familiar to us at an early stage that we tend to take it for
granted. We normally do not question what we do and why we do it. Everyday life
appears to be a reality which requires expectations. It simply exists ... We generalize
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which behaviors are proper in a given situation. Indeed, social life would be chaotic
if we have to question at length the meaning of every behavior before we engage in
it … The complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, customs, and other
capabilities and habits acquired is shared in common members of the society. A
culture provides a blueprint for living which is transmitted to future generation.
Karp and Yoels, above, indicate the importance of the environment and culture in the
process of assimilating a language. Language cannot be assimilated in isolation from the
culture in which it is spoken.
Respondent T is the proponent of culture in this section; she is supported by respondents
O, G, and L. Speaking specifically of Tshivenḓa, she maintains that language and culture
are inseparable. People who do not follow the culture of the language cannot speak the
language accurately. Culture facilitates the transmission of the language. She further
indicates the connectedness between the families, the chiefs and kings (traditional
leaders) and their ancestral gods as the bases of culture. She indicates that the
interference of other cultures has destroyed the role of the original culture. People who
respect the traditional leaders, their institutions, their ancestors and their gods are the
only people who are proud of their language. She maintains that the legendary tribe has
deserted their gods as much as their guidance. Each culture has a type of god to worship
and the fading of culture dethrones the power of the cultural gods.
Language is functional when it is supported by the culture in which it exists. People who
are proud of their culture will feel proud to use their language. People who reject their
culture are likely to do away with their language
Respondent T believes that marriage should be between people of the same culture. She
said:
Culture is maintained by the people who marry within their culture, cross-cultural
marriage does not guarantee the survival of the culture, in fact, it is too much
destruction to the culture. The future of cross-cultural families is unpredictable. The
families are likely to be without values, parents compete within themselves and
children are left to take sides.
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When people of the same culture are married, the future of a language is guaranteed.
Culture is preserved at its best. When people of different languages are married, one of
their languages must be compromised.
Youth have problems today; they cannot establish a clear purpose for marriage. The
traditional purpose of marriage was starting a new family which would properly intersect
with the original family – a family which would respect the views of the elderly people, a
family which will be generous to the in-laws, a family in which children are members of a
bigger family by all possible means. The children are guided and taken care of by all
members of a family. The achievement of one family member is the achievement of the
whole family because they support each other; there is no member of a family who is too
rich or too poor. The children belong to a family and not to an individual. A family has a
responsibility to guide and to teach its youth. This ensures the generational transmission
of values, language and beliefs.
The youth of today are well educated and independent. They are well salaried and
capable of managing their own lives without other family members. They are not bothered
as to who to marry, nor do they ask about the long-term consequences of their marriages.
It is true that village girls do not share similar characteristics with townships girls and with
girls from the cities. Both girls from the cities and the townships are full of energy and they
keep their word. They are determined to force life to the direction of their choice. They
are strong enough to put down a highly-educated person. They forget that: The most
beautiful rose has some thorns. While they enjoy the beauty and the fragrance of their
flowers, their language, culture and identity are wrestling with the thorns of the beautiful
flowers. The future of the language is fully guaranteed when people of the same culture
are married.
Generally, girls from the villages and homelands are generous; they listen to the wisdom
of the elderly and the in-laws. They are always ready to sacrifice. These good qualities
are not enough to entice young men from their ethnic groups. Young men face peer
pressure to choose lovers with specific qualities. They choose women in the same way
as they choose the cars they drive – everything must look beautiful. They do not mind
about their heritage. They forget everything about their homes, their language and their
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culture. The youth who adopt other languages reduce the number of the people who
speak Ṱshivenḓa. They are not proud of their heritage language and identity.
The reliance on the nuclear family has also played a major role in the destruction of the
language. Tshivenḓa as a language did not have a dictionary; however, the meaning of
each word was well understood. Extended families and neighbours helped each other to
face any challenges. Today’s children are more socially controlled, they do not go to the
river to swim or to fetch water, and they do not collect wood or tend to livestock and fields.
They watch television (in which English is mainly used). This encourages them to love
and understand English better than their first language
In the past, urban areas were known for access to facilities such as water, electricity,
good roads and shops. Today, however, such facilities are found even in the villages.
This ensures that life in the rural areas is similar to life in the urban areas. Presently,
chiefs receive salaries for being leaders. However, some people who believe in equality
before the eyes of the law start to reject them. Some of the traditional leaders have also
left their villages to live in towns. Traditional leaders, like their subjects, want their children
to study and learn English so that they can compete in the world.
Traditional leaders should understand their roles as the watchdogs of culture. People from
urban areas should be able to differentiate between the lifestyle available in rural areas
and that available in the cities. If the city lifestyle is adopted in the villages, the cultural
heritage of the people will be affected negatively.
Some of the traditional institutions that form part of Tshivenḓa culture include murundu
(initiation school for boys), musevhetho (initiation school for girls), vhusha (initiation
school for young women) tshikanda and domba (initiation schools for both young women
and young men). These institutions were highly regarded in the past as they determined
acceptance in particular areas and people who had attended them were highly valued.
However, these institutions are outdated now. People prefer to go to schools, colleges,
technikons and universities. The wisdom of these institutions has been left to perish in
favour of universal knowledge. Traditional institutions were the storehouses of Tshivenḓa
terminology. The youth used to learn language through participating in these traditional
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institutions. With the disappearance of traditional institutions, the Tshivenḓa language is
disappearing too.
Tshivenḓa has a proverb which says “Shango ḽa shaya thovhela ndi muḽano” (A country
without a leader is doomed). This proverb clearly indicates the readiness of the people to
be led. The question is, who is supposed to lead? Traditional leaders are born into their
positions. Those leaders who are not educated are prone to taxing their subjects heavily
and, as a result their subjects start to reject them in favour of civic organisations. This
eventually leads to the subjects refusing to participate in traditional activities. As people
start to understand democracy, they reject the role of the chiefs. In the past, the chiefs
filled an important role in protecting their people from cultural extinction. They determined
the direction of their people and, through them, culture was also forced onto the people.
The reunification of South Africa into a democratic country, however, has ensured that all
people are equal before the law and the power of traditional leaders is now guided by the
Constitution
4.2.2. African religion
This discussion will try to indicate the way Africans lived before they were subjugated by
the imperialistic religion. It will indicate how different families lived under the guidance of
their gods and also how the traditional leaders deviated from their supernatural guidance.
It shows how the power of imperialistic religion helped the imperial governments to
destroy language and cultural identity, and make African languages, Tshivenḓa in
particular, disappear.
African religion is a way of life, it prescribes the roles of the youth, male members of
families, women who marry into families and women born into the families. Aunts, in
African religion, are priests because they keep every utensil used while conducting a
religious ceremony and they give whatever guidance is needed. In this way they connect
a family with its ancestors. This is a form of identity which is very important to the
Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group. Christian imperial ideology has eradicated the power of
African religion. This was achieved in a number of ways – for example, many school
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pupils were punished every Monday for not going to church. Christianity was both
consciously and unconsciously forced into children. The ties between the ethnic groups,
their ancestors and their gods were broken. This means that the youth of today have
never experienced their ethnic religion; they do not understand it and they do not know it.
People who do not follow their religion have already lost an important aspect of their
identification, so much so that even their language is distorted. There are activities which
are important to their lives but which they do not follow and they are incomplete members
of their ethnic group.
The kings and the chiefs were directly linked to their gods. Their families conducted
miraculous activities to qualify for their connectedness to their ancestral guidance (for
example, when a leader was installed, when calling for the rain, and visiting their sacred
places.). The leaders have deviated from the normal ways of doing things and now do
things naturally without the guidance of their gods. People who are not the rightful heirs
take the thrones. The gods and their guidance have disappeared. The government has
taken over the control and guidance of royal activities. The Vhavenḓa, as an ethnic group,
has changed drastically. An ethnic group which does not do things the way their ancestors
used to are people with a new identity and thus have no reason to use their language the
way it is supposed to be used.
The respondents in this study acknowledge the power of Christianity over their ancestral
religion. They like their religion but they do not have the support of their children who are
the future of their language. Very few people can demonstrate their love for religion in
public. The youth are conditioned to go to church without asking. Each parent wants the
children to be educated and education and Christianity are inseparable. By sending their
children to school, parents allow them to acquire Christianity over their ancestral religion.
As Dwane (1985:25) asserts: “We have been made not only to look European in outward
appearance by our manner of dress, but more seriously, to think, speak, and behave
European.” Christianity is transmitted together with English as a language and scripture
readings and singing are done mostly in English. All this leads to the deterioration of
Tshivenḓa competency.
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4.2.3. Economy
An ethnic group with money will keep their pride and identity. People without money are
trampled, they lose their pride and dignity, and they work for those with money. They
move from their homes looking for jobs. People who speak the language of the employer
are rewarded with management positions and this encourages them to learn the language
of an employer and then using it as their own.
Economic factors, like politics, have a tendency to encourage the migration of people from
their rural areas to the cities where they are gradually absorbed into the mainstream
language. Mantsha (2002:33) cites Moller (1995) who states: “From his discussion of
man’s hierarchy of needs, follows the importance of environmental factors for the
satisfaction of the basic needs.” Atkinson, Self, Wheeler and Graham (2013:41) write:
“Aristotle observed that humans have a natural tendency to form social units. Individuals
come together to form households, households to form cities.” Whoever mixes with other
people gradually becomes a member of their group, by all possible means. Respondent
R indicated that people who go to cities in search of jobs and better life are completely
absorbed into their host languages. They ignore their own language in favour of a local
language. The requirement of international human rights laws that ensure that all human
beings should be treated equally enables youth to travel through various countries in
search of greener pastures.
Youth who get the opportunity to travel to other countries looking for jobs are enticed by
the life of their new area, they forge permanent membership by speaking the language
and adopting the lifestyle of the new country and they forget their parents at home, their
own language and their community. They struggle to suppress nostalgia. They establish
families in foreign countries and the children born of this type of families become
permanent citizens of the new country and they will be proud of that country rather than
of the country of their parents.
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4.2.4. Education
Under this sub-heading the role of education in developing Tshivenḓa as a language and
the identity of the people who speak the language is discussed. The stakeholders
(teachers, principals, education planners, authors of books used in schools and parents)
in education are responsible in protecting the language. If each of them is sensitive to the
needs of the language and the people who speak it, the language will be maintained.
Education is not a matter of choice; it is both necessary and compulsory. It is therefore
important to indicate that all those who have gone to school will understand the language
in which they were educated.
Education determines the future of each individual person. Achieving educationally gives
hope for a better future and both parents and children are more concerned about the
future than about protecting language and culture. People may have collective feelings
as a tribe; however the individual’s actions matter most. In many instances indigenous
Africans view the role of English as very important because it is used for teaching and
learning, as the language of labour and as an international language. English has
emerged as the dominant language over the African languages.
The respondents in this research recorded their feelings about their native language in
the questionnaire. Those who were positive about their native language responded along
the following lines: They felt that it was important for Tshivenḓa to be taught at schools
so that it can be passed on to the next generation. They mentioned the heritage part of
the language. They also indicated that the language should be revitalised through
practical use and teaching. They maintained that language is important in maintaining the
knowledge and history of the native speakers. They believed that language is a vehicle
of thoughts and, therefore, that people are denied the privilege of thinking if their language
is allowed to fade. They also recommended that the language concerned should be
studied by those who want to be teachers.
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All languages are important as each language that develops does so to serve a particular
need. Any language is the pride of the people who speak it and should thus be
maintained. No reasonable person can be proud of inheriting a language which is foreign
by origin. Foreign languages are kept for education and economic reasons. Foreign
languages are also important to control communication barriers.
Unlike the above paragraph, this paragraph will indicate the views of those respondents
who did not consider the growing of their native language as important. They maintained
that, as we have deviated from the lifestyle of our grandparents (ancestors), the native
language is completely useless and is no good for career purposes – the speakers are
not proud of it at all. They also argue that the African languages do not have enough
reading materials. English, on the other hand, was seen to have enough reading
materials.
Languages cannot do things in similar ways; one language might have a single word for
a particular problem, while another language has to use a long-winded explanation for
the same thing. However, interaction between languages cannot be ruled out completely
and different languages will always share information. A common language will always
breach the gap of knowledge between different languages. Tshivenḓa, as a language,
should be used at home and institutions were the Vhavenḓa are in the majority. However,
English cannot be removed from use by the Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group as it is a
language used for education.
The respondents quoted above ironically indicated the desire of native speakers to
encourage the development of their language. Seventy-five percent indicated that their
language should be maintained and developed. Seventy-five percent also indicated that
they would encourage other people to study the language for career purposes while they,
however, did not want to study the language themselves. The economic power of a
language determines the role and the future of that language. Tshivenḓa, as other
indigenous African languages of South Africa, is a developing language which its
speakers do not view it as a language having economic power.
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Respondent Q concentrated on the manner in which Tshivenḓa as a language is planned
for by the government. The government is destroying the language with both students
and teachers unsure of the units to deal with, with syllabi changing time and time (i.e.
R550, OBE, NCS and Caps). Units of the language, such as phonetics (which made
Tshivenḓa a very difficult course to pursue), and literature (in some grades) were removed
or oversimplified and figures of speech are rarely used.
Career choices have changed drastically since the attainment of South Africa’s
democracy. Previously, teaching, nursing and careers in the police were the best careers.
The youth of today have taken another direction; they follow careers which were rarely
followed by blacks previously. They want careers which will allow them to compete both
nationally and globally. They see Tshivenḓa as a language as holding them back because
they are not aware that career choices of studying an indigenous African language have
widened, for example, people can be translators, terminologists, lexicographers,
interpretors, language technologists, language planners; in addition of being a teacher.
Considering the view expressed by the respondent above, we can deduce that the more
that changes are experienced in education, the more frustrating it becomes. Parents, like
teachers, play a role in teaching their children. Not all parents are educated and not all
can cope with the demands of changes. If parents cannot read stories to their children, if
they cannot make riddles or teach figures of speech to their children, if the folktales are
no longer educational, the role of parents in educating their children will be taken over by
the media. School education and parents’ education must link to each other.
Education in the schools of today has developed into a competition. Schools compete
with each other regarding producing pupils who can speak English fluently. Principals
discourage both teachers and students from using their vernacular languages to
communicate at school. Schools are being turned into institutions where English is
promoted over and above the vernacular languages. Pupils who speak Tshivenḓa at
school are denigrated. Those who are competent in science, mathematics and commerce
and English are considered as assets to these institutions. This type of negative
motivation kills the African languages.
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The respondents also indicated that there is a reduction in the amount African literature
taught at lower levels of the secondary schools. Literature is an example of the language
which is functionally used. Figures of speech are used functionally as it happens in daily
lives. When literature is reduced, the pupils are denied to experiment with the language
as it is used functionally. Daily language is not full of rules, but guided by the context upon
which the language is used.
The Department of Basic Education also encourages schools to handle interviews and all
government correspondence in English. A teacher who is going to teach Tshivenḓa is
interviewed in English and thus a teacher who knows English better is likely to win a post
against a teacher who knows Tshivenḓa well. This gives double the advantage to the
people who know English well. They are hired when English personnel are wanted as
much as when the vernacular language personnel are wanted. This type of action from
the government does not encourage the development of African languages – Tshivenḓa
in particular.
4.2.5. Social media
This sub-heading will discuss how different people speaking the same language gradually
– but at different paces – come to lose their first language. From the researcher’s
observation, males and females do not automatically fit into the same roles. The roles
that each gender plays are important for the development and keeping of the first
language. Males at early age are shy and reserved, they spend most of their time with
elderly people and this allows them enough chance to master their first language.
Females are more social than males and communicate in different languages – mostly
English –which currently is the prerequisite for socialising. Boys are sensitive to mistakes
and are shy to demonstrate their ability to speak other languages. Girls are not afraid to
explore. They enjoy speaking and exploring in English. This difference deprives boys of
a valuable time to learn other languages. Girls enjoy being applauded and receiving
commendations. This is also revealed in different school gatherings where girls are more
likely to deliver speeches, act in dramas and sing in English than boys.
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As indicated above, the following scholars support that there are some differences
between males and females. Chiranjeev, Jacob and Natarajan (2006:146) assert:
Initially, gender role theory described the expectations and contribution of men and
women … Consequently, early feminists’ critiques of community were invaluable for
documenting the uneven roles men and women played in rural communities.
Giddens (2006) comments:
While sex refers to physical differences of the body, gender concerns the
psychological, social, and cultural difference between males and females. The
distinction between sex and gender is fundamental, since many differences between
males and females are not biological.”
Although Karp and Yoels (1993:136) did not concentrate on language preservation (which
is the subject of this research), they did indicate that there are special characteristics
which differentiate males from females. They write:
Much early socialization is directed towards recognizing the significance of gender
and proper behaviours associated with sexual differences ... Gender is one attribute
that is ordinarily considered to be fixed and unchangeable. This piece of information
pervades our lives in countless ways.
Women of various ages participated in this research and their knowledge of their home
language was assessed. From the study it was realised that many of them lack the correct
orthography in their first language (Tshivenḓa). Below are words chosen with which to
assess the home language knowledge of women of different ages and educational
backgrounds. Mutuli (wood utensil for grinding seeds), nkho (big clay vessel for storing
water) and guyo (seed-grinding stone/wood), all of which are home utensils, used in the
kitchen. Muḓinḓa (messenger), muḓonḓe (tassel) and mponze (tassel) are agricultural
terms. These terms were explained in Chapter Three of of this research project. The first
respondent – who was twenty-seven years old – did not know a single one of the words
and she indicated that they were too difficult for her. All she knew was a chat language
(cell phone language), and her comment was, “Lois doesn’t know, deep Venḓa.” If a
twenty-seven year old woman cannot understand a single word of the above, what about
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those who are younger than she is? Youth are more concerned about technology than
other things. They are concerned with the languages which allow them to communicate
with various communities of the world.
The second respondent said: “Ndi cou bala”. This respondent was thirty years old, and
she managed to use her first language. However, it was mixed with chat spelling (cou
instead of khou), and had an incomplete verb (bala instead of balelwa). The sentence
reads correctly as: “Ndi khou balelwa.” These two respondents are similar because they
do not know the meanings of the words given to them, and they are different because the
first respondent used one-hundred-percent chat language while the second respondent
mixed both chat language and her first language. They seemed not to be familiar with
Tshivenḓa orthography.
The two paragraphs above show that some African languages speakers are careless with
the rules governing the language usage in both written and spoken language. It also
indicates that the youth have been drawn into technology and that they cannot be
redeemed. This worsens their chances of learning Tshivenḓa orthography. The study also
reveals that the kitchen used by the Vhavenḓa today is completely different from the
cultural kitchen of times gone by and, in this context, that new terminology has taken over
from the original Tshivenḓa terminology.
The study also shows the power of the new economy over and above the subsistence
economy. In the past, the youth were supposed to help their parents with farming. Today
people depend on the wage economy. New vocabulary is needed to replace the outdated
vocabulary. The language we speak today is not similar to the language spoken by our
ancestors and it will not be the same as the language that will be spoken by our
grandchildren. Each and every aspect that changes in our lives will automatically change
the type of language we speak. Although new terminology comes with the development
of underdeveloped languages, correct orthography should always be maintained.
The last respondent managed to give the meaning of all the words except nkho and
muḓonḓe. The experience with these respondents clearly suggests that the older you are,
the more knowledge of your native language you have, and the younger you are, the less
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your knowledge of your native language. This reveals the gap that exists between senior
citizens and the youth. The same experiment was conducted on the male respondents
who were of similar ages to the women (i.e. 28, 30, 31 and 52 years of age). All the males
managed to give all the answers correctly except the youngest of them who failed to give
the meaning of the word nkho. This difference indicates how males and females socialise.
The most interesting aspect concerning the last of the female respondents is her age.
She was over fifty years of age at the time of the survey and a teacher by profession. She
had grown up in an area where Tshivenḓa is the sole language spoken. However, her
knowledge was equivalent to that of each of the four men who lived at Tshikonelo village
where both Tshivenḓa and Xitsonga are spoken equally. This suggests that males can
maintain their culture even if they are mixed with other cultures.
4.2.6. The role of Parents
The discussion under this sub-heading will focuses on the manner in which parents
champion the future of their children. Life is full of competition. Parents have the
responsibility to make sure that their children are properly prepared for future competition.
There are hierarchies in life; those at the lower levels of each hierarchy will automatically
be less well paid. Parents try to prepare their children to take their places at the betterpaying levels. English, as a language, is important for this reason. Children who speak
English are likely to have advantage academically over the students of their age who do
not speak English. Later, in the job market, candidates who are fluent in English during
interviews are preferred, surpassing those who may have better knowledge of the work,
but who are not fluent in English. Parents take their children to schools where English is
used as the language of instruction. These are often boarding schools and this leads to
children automatically losing touch with their families, communities and culture.
Bottery (1992:1) is a scholar who demonstrates the power of competition and the reason
why parents are afraid for their children’s future. Parents spend a lot of money taking their
children to the most expensive private schools in the hope that they will become better
people in the near future. He writes:
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The functions of bureaucracy were seen as two-fold: to impose upon society the
kind of order which perpetuates its domination, and to conceal this domination by
means of unending flow-filling, task division and constant supervision. With a
population unable to see the wood for the trees, the dominating group maintains its
grip on the rein of power ….. This force is omnipresent but mysterious, for none can
pin-point precisely the people involved. The effect is corrosive alienation of
individual citizen from the process of the government, the feeling of helplessness
before a force not fully understood and beyond control.
For example, there are families that prepare their children for leadership roles. The Bush
family in the USA and the Mbeki family in South Africa will be admired by some members
of the society for doing so. Children see their parents as role models. Parents want their
children to be the best of the best. They want their children to be considered good
examples, to be over and above “the measuring stick”. It is not surprising that Thabo
Mbeki became the president of South Africa and that his younger brother (Moeletsi) is
considered highly. They were brought up by a leader with the intention that they must
become leaders themselves. Every parent who is educated wants his child to excel. It is
not surprising that Thabo Mbeki was schooled in Britain. He has a British accent and he
is well accepted all over the world. His achievement is admired by all parents.
Achievements such as this encourage parents to take their children to schools with
hostels far away from their homes so that they can learn to speak English and thus
compete with native English speakers. Some children are taken overseas for their
schooling and there their parents’ parenting skills and mentoring are substituted for by
teachers and caretakers. They are lost to their country of origin, and when they come
back they realise that they do not fit into the culture of their parents.
Reich (1986:220) indicates that parents in Canada encourage their children to adopt
English over and above their first language. He writes:
Many immigrants want their children to learn English so that they can succeed in
the dominant, English-speaking culture. Accepting the melting point philosophy,
they do not expect their grandchildren to know their language”.
This indicates that the first language is abandoned whenever there are enough reasons
or incentives to do so. This trend of language shift is also seen among the Vhavenḓa;
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they take their children to English medium crèches which are led by Zimbabweans or
Ghanaians. Middle class citizens take their children to schools headed by the churches –
mostly Roman Catholic churches. The role of the parents in dealing with language cannot
be ignored. All the factors mentioned above lead to children losing interest in their own
language.
Kroes (2006:238) also shows how other languages are ignored in job market. This
discussion has already shown how economy is a determining factor in whatever choices
we make in our lives. Kroes writes:
The vast majority of job opportunities require communication skills in languages
other than the African languages and that mean either English or Afrikaans or both
depending on the environment … English is regarded as the language that will
facilitate communication with the world at large. It is also known as the language of
wider communication.
Hence, parents take their children to private schools in order to communicate competently
in English.
4.2.7. Politics
Politics is an integral part of our lives. Our lives are guided by the ideology and the
behaviour of the people living with us. This sub-heading will focus on the languages
preferred by some South African politicians. The role of Tshivenḓa as the language of the
minority will also be discussed. The national anthem – which is made up of four languages
– and the effect of excluding other languages such as Tshivenḓa from it will be
considered. The behaviour of individual politicians as they try to forge acceptance by the
majority is also very important.
Politics is a game of mind, whereby those in power mobilise and try to convince their
prospective followers concerning a particular ideology. Many politicians do not
communicate with their fellow people in the African languages, but use English. They can
only greet in African languages and address the people in English. Politicians are more
concerned about their standing butter than the interests of the people.
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Since 1994, South Africa has been led by presidents from the amaXhosa, Basotho and
amaZulu ethnic groups. IsiXhosa and isiZulu are related, and presidents from these ethnic
groups struggle to speak Sesotho when addressing Basotho. It is rare to find them
speaking Tshivenḓa as a South African language to show that it coexists with other official
languages. Leaders are likely to read messages of good wishes at Easter, Christmas and
New Year; interestingly enough, the manner in which they read Tshivenḓa clearly
indicates that they do not know it, they do not understand it and they do not rehearse
before they present their speeches to the media. The reading of Tshivenḓa becomes a
joke on the media such as radio and television. So many questions are asked by the
speakers of the language.
Languages are like teams in a knockout competition, they eliminate each other as they
push towards national and political recognition. Tshivenḓa, Sesotho sa Leboa and
Xitsonga are the main languages which are used in Limpopo. They compete with each
other for recognition. If a Muvenḓa calls you Mutshangana or Mutonga it means that you
have behaved in a most unacceptable manner. If you have behaved in an acceptable
manner you will be called Mutsonga.
The historical generational attitude of the
neighbouring languages is that of denigrating each other. It takes a strong person to
speak his or her first language among his or her neighbours.
Vatsonga and Vhavenḓa learn to communicate in Sesotho sa Leboa because they seem
to be in minority. Interestingly enough, Basotho ba Leboa are not prepared to learn
Tshivenḓa and Xitsonga. Hence, communicating in the language is not reciprocal but
biased towards the majority people. Any Vhavenḓa in this situation will communicate
competently in Sesotho sa Leboa because they are naturally capable of learning other
languages, whereas people from other ethnic groups have a problem in learning
Tshivenḓa as a language.
Nationally, African languages which are dominating are Nguni languages and Sotho
languages. Tshivenḓa and Xitsonga remain minority languages.
Each ethnic group, whether big or small, is characterised by people who are brilliant. What
should they do in order to be recognised? Cyril Ramaphosa is an icon and his character
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politically is therefore a matter of interest. He comes from Vhavenḓa, one of the minority
ethnic groups which have weak voting power. Although he has brilliant ideas as a South
African and a politician, by virtue of him coming from a minority ethnic group he is bound
to buy favour from the majority ethic groups by speaking their language.
The question: “When did you last hear Ramaphosa speaking in his first language?” The
question was asked to four different people; a member of a royal family, a tender
entrepreneur, a security practitioner and a teacher. Each of these respondents answered
the question in such a way that their occupations were safeguarded. The first respondent
did not answer at all. The royal family is not independent; it depends on the government
for remuneration, therefore, the power of a monthly salary stops them from commenting.
Kings are culturally dependent on gifts rather than a salary. The present government has
given them a privilege which they cannot afford to lose. The tender entrepreneur simply
answered, “You are mad, I think you have forgotten to take your tablets”. The security
practitioner, like the others, was afraid to answer, and said “Do you ask me things you
read from newspapers?”. Each of the first three respondents knew the answer but they
avoided giving it.
The fourth respondent answered differently from the others. The teacher answered: “He
is like our children, he speaks English.” There are two different generations who speak
English in equal measure for various reasons. Ramaphosa speaks English in order to
become an acceptable member of his political group. Our children speak English so that
they play an active role in the present economy.
Democracy is leadership chosen by the majority. Politicians from minority groups are very
weak in a country where tribal affiliation and language are easily recognised. Brilliant
ideas from minority groups are not considered. It is difficult for a member of a minority
group to become a leader. What happens to a brilliant leader who may be denied an
opportunity to play a role in the country of his birth? A prospective leader may choose to
use English or another majority language. Those who choose to be negative are likely to
disconnect themselves from the nation and will try to instigate others with similar beliefs
to fight for recognition. Those who choose a positive way of solving the problem will try to
become closer to the group of the majority tribe. They share their properties with them
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even if they know that they will be economically destroyed. They denounce their former
families. They tend to marry into the tribe of the majority so that they are accepted and
they speak the language of the majority.
Kroes (2006:236) discusses how Jacob Nhlapo indicated the reciprocity between a
language and politics; the more that people speak a particular language, the better their
political power. People who are in a minority are politically deprived, they are dependent
on the mercy of the majority to survive, and they denounce their languages in order to
conform to the majority. He cites (Msimang, 1992):
As early as 1994, Jacob Nhlapo proposed a standard Nguni, which would combine
the four Nguni languages into one powerful group of about 20 million speakers with
much greater political clout. The same could be considered for the three main Sotho
groups (Kroes, 2006:236).
When Nhlapo talks of 20 million out of approximately 47million people against a
Vhavenḓa tribe that is just over a million strong, one wonders about the future of the tribe
within the nation. This brings us to the view expressed by respondent R who complained
that the people of his tribe are scattered everywhere in the towns and cities and they have
forgotten their people, language and culture. This refers specifically to those Vhavenḓa
who live in cities such Johannesburg and who claim that they are not related to other
Vhavenḓa who are found in the north. They say that they would rather be associated with
the Basotho and amaZulu – so much so that they speak their languages.
The paragraph above clearly indicates that there are people in the majority tribes who are
sensitive about the inequality of the people of South Africa. It also indicates that if brilliant
people from the majority groups are put together they can successfully plan the total
eradication of the minority languages. The statistic also indicates that the government
must be serious about the minority languages.
4.2.8. Media
The discussion here focuses on young presenters who are content to present their radio
and TV programmes, but lack in Tshivenḓa orthography. These presenters are role
models for youth who are listening to their programmes. The youth accept the wrong
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usage as correct. The language of the presenters becomes the common usage of the
language and the proper usage of the language is forgotten. Listeners, especially learners
of the African languages accept the usage as correct. Tshivenḓa programme presenters
who are not well trained in the usage of Tshivenḓa contribute to the demise of the
language.
Presenters are human beings, they have beliefs and attitudes and they carry their
attitudes to the work situation. A presenter with a wrong attitude about a particular
language, especially presenters who feel confident in communicating in English, have a
tendency to attack and denigrate African languages on the media while the whole country
is listening. One language becomes a joke to the people speaking another language.
Young people easily assimilate the wrong usage of the language.
Television is a medium which is watched by the majority of South Africans, no matter
which language they speak. This causes languages to be brought closer to each other
and the effect of this connectedness is very important. Dramas are very important in
mixing different languages together. Plays should be performed to the extent that all the
languages of the nation are comfortably represented and not denigrated. Actors speaking
the minority languages should feel free to demonstrate their culture and knowledge of
their ancestral heritage and wisdom. The media should guarantee that no language
survives only at the mercy of other languages.
The media have revealed a potential to develop and denigrate people speaking a
particular language. Radio and television are the most popularly known types of media in
our society. Newspapers are also important type of media, however they are expensive
for each family to buy every day and concentration and the ability to read is needed in
order to derive meaning. IsiZulu and Sesotho are always portrayed as “better” languages
in dramas, together with English. To those who have watched dramas such as Muvhango,
Aridumeli and Stokvel. The role played by Bobo in Muvhango, Tsutsuma in Aridumeli and
Tshamano in Stokvel are more than fun and entertaining. Their roles indicate the status
of their language in the media. They are characters who play inferior roles. They are
portrayed as people who do not think properly. They are always used and controlled by
characters speaking other languages, yet they still remain happy. Consider the role
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played by Dr Mongezi who tampers with the high security of the royal family. The portrayal
reveals him a clever umuZulu than the Vhavenḓa. We have already indicated that in any
joke there is a notion of truth. This role of the media impacts badly on the development of
language. It discourages the youth in our multilingual society from using their languages.
Their pride is destroyed so that they resort to using other languages so as to hide their
language inferiority.
The media have revealed a weakness in meeting their obligation of developing the
language in the field of sport. There are enough terms available to use in sports, but terms
used on the radio and on television are not indigenous. Bune, thedzane, mufuvha,
muravharavha, tsetsetse and others were traditional/native games played among the
Vhavenḓa. u xa (being defeated) , u lala na bune (u lala na tshikhuthu) (being defeated
in swing games), u ṱiḽa (u ṱa) (having failed), u khinkha (move slightly), Makhwa
(punishment for being defeated), vhulwi (punishment for being defeated) and so on were
common terms used in sports. These words have disappeared from the language
completely. The games played today are completely different from native games and new
terms are required. The traditional games are no longer played, having been replaced by
the games that are supported and displayed by the media.
The word or phrase u thuba (win a war) is frequently used instead of the word win
(winning a game). The real meaning of the word is to defeat, taking ownership of children,
wives and livestock and taking men into slavery. Hence, the word has been reduced in
meaning. There are no equivalents for the word to be used in car racing, horse racing,
athletics and similar pursuits because these are not indigenous in origin. Commentators
resort to borrowing.
Tshivenḓa is not economically used when commentating in soccer. Long sentences are
used instead of words and phrases, for example, mutalo wa phanḓamudavhi (centre line),
thaho ya ndaṱiso (free kick), thaho vhunwo (goal kick), thaho ya ndaṱiso (penalty). This
indicates that it is simpler, easier and more enjoyable to speak and listen to English than
it is to listen to Tshivenḓa. The new games indicate that there is not enough terminology
for the games played today and that the traditional games have no role to play. The
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Vhavenḓa, therefore, are compelled to use the language that does have enough
terminology for games which are common today.
4.2.9. Religion
This sub-heading focuses on the context within which the language is spoken. The
context of the language forms a base within which the language is better understood.
Christianity as a religion has changed the lifestyle of the Vhavenḓa. Their relationships to
each other have changed, as have the size of their families. Their marriage style has also
changed. In the past they were polygamous, but Christianity expects them to have only
one wife. The effect of this change has damaged the development of Tshivenḓa as a
language.
Polygamy is a type of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman.
Polygamy ensured big families in which people helped each other. If a woman from
another culture is married into a polygamous family, she is bound to abide by the lifestyle
of the rest of a family. This is different from the case in a nuclear family, where a woman
from another culture can dominate and determine the family values and language based
on her culture. For example polygamous families ensured that cultural inheritance would
be transmitted from generation to generation. Polygamous families also ensure that
children born of them are kept within the culture, even if their mother passes away or
decides to go back to her parents’ community. Christianity has instigated a family in which
a man is married to only one woman. Under Christianity, men with more than one woman
were excommunicated or denied the right to be leaders. In contrast, it is believed by
Vhavenḓa that the more women you have, the more wisdom you have. Indeed, in
traditional Vhavenḓa society, a man with more women qualified for a role as judge in a
community court.
The Bible insists the unity of the two blessed in marriage and that the rest of the family is
left without a role to play in a new family unless this is negotiated. Africans believe in a
family where brothers, uncles, aunts, grandparents and their families are members of one
big family. They all share common problems and they are all educators of all members of
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the family. Extended families ensure that all children belong to a family, whether their
biological parents are present or not. The teaching of the language and other values of a
family are very important aspects of life in this type of family. Cultural identity is completely
maintained and preserved. Christianity practises love in a different way than the Africans
used to practice, however, making brotherhood more important than neighbourhood.
In the past, some youth who were connected with missionary stations got used to English
as a language. They were the first to be educated. They adopted the life of the
missionaries. Some of them completely denounced their cultures and languague to live
like their missionaries. The programs of European churches exchanging visitor with
churches in Venḓa also encouraged youth to migrate to Europe. The more you know
English, the better you feel and the more you feel your first language is not important.
Today, English is the medium in which church sermons are conducted in charismatic
churches. The use of English in the church deprives the Vhavenḓa of their language.
Tshivenḓa should be used in all churches were Vhavenḓa are the only people in the
church. English can be used in cases where there are other ethnic groups who cannot
understand Tshivenḓa, and whose language cannot be understood by the Vhavenḓa.
4.3
Language preservation
Language change cannot be stopped but it can be minimised. This paragraph
acknowledges that language and culture will continuously change. Royal institutions must
understand their role as the custodians of African cultures. They must preserve their
heritage for the sake of the people they lead. Traditional leaders should discuss their
cultural heritage with the elders so that those who do not want to contribute are not
offended.
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4.4
Conclusion
This chapter has analysed the disappearance of Tshivenḓa as a language. The data
collected from the respondents revealed that the speakers of the language are aware of
the impending extinction of their language. They all feel that their language and culture
should be preserved. However there are factors that are so much more important in their
lives that they deliberately ignore their desire to revitalise their language. The economy
is directly and indirectly contributing to the disappearance of African languages in general
and Tshivenḓa in particular. People migrate to the towns and cities to work so that they
can uplift their socio-economic status. Politicians are at work building their profiles so that
tomorrow they will be able to climb higher and higher. Pastors prefer English so that the
elite and the youth are convinced to fill the churches to the brim. This ensures better
offerings. All these actions promote the use of English in public arenas over the use of
African languages.
The youth do not like to pursue careers which involve Tshivenḓa as a language. They
follow better paying careers which involve English. Parents want to prepare a better future
for their children and they therefore choose schools in which their children are taught
English first before they study their first language. Parents want their children to achieve
better careers so that they can earn better salaries. Principals in this sense are the
servants of the parents, ensuring that they carry the mandates of the parents. The more
English is taught the more the pupils will acquire competency to compete in the labour
market.
Technology such as the use of cell phones is also an important factor. The youth want to
communicate quickly using words economically and they introduce languages which they
use more frequently than their first language. The new language ensures that they are
better placed with their peers. Some of these factors can be corrected while some have
caused permanent damage to the language. This chapter, then, has provided a summary
of the causes of the fading of African languages, and Tshivenḓa in particular.
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CHAPTER 5
FINDINGS
5.1. Introduction
This chapter outlines and discusses the findings of this research. The data collected and
an analysis thereof will be used to arrive at findings for the research project. The
interpretation and analysis of the data detailed above have revealed a lot of information
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regarding language, identity and language preservation with reference to African
languages. Information from the questionnaires, interviews, observation and from books
has equipped us with the necessary knowledge on how to handle issues regarding the
Tshivenḓa language. The analysis of data undertaken has included many aspects of life
– including the religious, economic, social, political and educational angles.
5.2. Findings
The findings in this section will be discussed under the following headings: religion,
economy, education, technology, birth rate, social factors, extended families, intercultural
marriages, job market, royal heritage, politics and identity, and sport.
5.2.1. Church
The research has shown that current church pastors among the Africans prefer to use
English rather than indigenous African languages for preaching purposes, specifically
churches comprised of many youth. Modern priests, especially in charismatic churches,
associate English with high status. It is common to find both the congregants and priests
sharing in Tshivenḓa as a language, but conducting their church sermon in English.
African religion, which is predominantly led by the elders using their own African
(Tshivenḓa) language, is no longer favoured. The church, like other institutions in
business, is in competition. It is ready to copy and to use any innovation as long as it
increases the number of church members. From the researher’s observation, the church
today is more concerned with money than with preaching the word of God. It is more
concerned with prosperity. English symbolises prosperity in church. People in the church
understand the English Bible better than a Bible written in their own African languages.
Each church is struggling to increase its membership and to compete with neighbouring
churches. The church is ready to do anything to boost its popularity and favour with the
people. Using English as a medium of preaching in the church suffocates the African
language as the owners of the church try to win popularity. The youth imitate what priests
practice. Preaching to fellow Africans, Vhavenḓa in particular, does not encourage the
youth to love their African languages. They turn to look down upon them, thereby culling
their development.
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5.2.2. Education
Education is a key to success. Parents want their children to go to school and they try to
prepare a good future for them. Children may also have ambitions to become better
people in future. Culture and language are surpressed on the pretext that the future is
more important than keeping the language. This aspect will be discussed under the
following themes: economy, socio-economic status, school principals, and appointment
by the Department of Basic Education, school hostels, literature and technology.
From the researcher’s observation, with the introduction of the modern economy, many
Africans leave their homes and go to work in towns, cities and on farms. When they leave
their villages they tend to adopt languages of the people of their host towns, especially
languages favoured by their employers. In many instances such people will try to learn
English and Afrikaans which are considered as language of economy. It has been
discovered that employees who are fluent in the language of their employers are likely to
be rewarded with managerial positions. The employees will struggle with a foreign
language so that they are considered for promotions. Some of the employees leave their
homes to live with their employers. Employers want employees who understand their
language so that it becomes easy to communicate their duties perfectly. An employee
who understands and speaks the language of the employer is chosen to be a middle man
between an employer and the employees. There are many people living on farms and
who no longer have homes other than their work stations. They speak the language of
their employers. They learn the language of the employer and they are admired for
speaking a western language. Africans and the Vhavenḓa in particular, have abandoned
practising their traditional economy. This is accompanied by looking down upon their
languages. They are presently dependent on working for other people for their livelihood
and their daily life. Their land is occupied to the extent that they do not have space to
cultivate or to keep livestock. In the past they used to be self-sufficient and they did not
mix with other people. The present economy forces them to surrender their economic
freedom to the whites, which leads them down on their languages. This practice renders
their language as unimportant. Children are encouraged to learn other languages such
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as English and Afrikaans for the purpose of getting employed. Fluency in English and
Afrikaans is seen as a ticket to a better job and life. The economic conditions in South
Africa do not encourage the development of African languages. Instead the development
of languages such as Tshivenḓa is slow. Gradually, the Vhavenḓa like other ethnic groups
are becoming globalised. This globalisation has an effect on native languages. Ngara
(1985:43) states:
The influence goes so far as to affect the speaker’s performance in his mother
tongue. African speakers of English tend to be poor speakers of African languages
and are characterised by the process called code-switching, whereby the native
speakers of the surbodinate language can hardly sustain a conversation in his own
language and is compelled to use language chunks of English every now and then,
a problem that does not arise when he is speaking English. Because African
education is conducted in European languages, we assume the psychology and
attitude dictated by those languages even when we are speaking our own
languages. What this means is that the influence of a dominant language on a
surbodinate one is a reflection of the impact of the culture of the ruling race which
gradually erodes and replaces that of the subject race, even in the way the
colonised people think and use their language.
Education is the most important aspect of life in society. Members of society get to know
their culture and language through education. However, education is presently the
greatest contributory factor in language demise. Generally, education is taken as an
important vehicle towards future prosperity. Every parent wants his or her child to go to
school and they want them to be taught through the medium of English. This aspect links
very well with the aspects of economy discussed above. Parents want their children to be
taught in English for the purpose of getting better jobs. The greater population of South
African children who are of school going age are taught through English as medium of
instruction. The pride of speaking English and of being accepted globally influences
language shift. The profiles of leaders who are from minority groups are also measured
by the ability to speak English and the African languages of the majority ethnic groups,
like isiZulu, isiXhosa and Sesotho fluently. Language shift is both conscious and
unconscious. People who are educated and who can speak English have special
privileges over those who cannot speak English. They are employable and they can move
to any place. They are competent in interacting globally. With the introduction of the
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democratic government in 1994, many private schools came into being. Even government
schools, previously reserved for whites, opened to Africans. Ever since, people who are
economically stable have been removing their children from public schools to enrol them
in private schools. They want their children to be fluent in English as this language is
important for job market. It is believed that children with a good command of English will
not struggle to understand the subject matter at school. English provides a better
opportunity for students as, even if they are not good in Mathematics and science, they
can still follow other subjects. However, children from poor families keep their ethnic
language (in this discussion, Tshivenḓa). The richer Africans become, the more they
denounce their languages to adopt English. Those who have already adopted English as
their first language will not come back to their ethnic group even if they can become
bankrupt; they will keep their newly-adopted language. This tendency does not contribute
towards the development of African languages. The new generation is not encouraged to
love their culture and languages. This is contrary to what used to happen during the period
of apartheid when different African ethnic groups were encouraged to develop their
indigenous African languages. Subjects at primary school were taught in African
languages.
Currently, school principals encourage their pupils to speak English within the school so
that they can become fluent. It is believed that, when they speak English, they will be
considered intelligent learners who speak English well and are highly considered. They
are given the role of leading other pupils. They are further considered as good examples
and, at times, they are given opportunities to win gifts from the school. This encourages
pupils to speak English at the expense of developing the African languages
The researcher observed that, language teachers, especially those teaching Tshivenḓa,
do not play enough of a role in the development of the language. As specialists in the
language, they are expected to teach learners properly. However, they do not teach
Tshivenḓa seriously because it is taken as a simple subject. This does not encourage
learners to love the language. Some subjects, such as African languages, are given to
teachers who have not specialised in the teaching of the language and they therefore fail
to teach them properly. African languages should be taken as seriously as any other
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language if we want to instil love of the language and culture. All languages should be
spoken equally in the school. Learners should be proud to speak their own indigenous
languages. The government has allowed all the languages to be equally considered.
Teachers must see African languages as being important as any other subject, and they
must speak Tshivenḓa in schools, they must reject the order given to them that English
should be the only language used to communicate at schools.
The job market in education is not generalised to other occupations, it is unique. This
paragraph will indicate the privilege of Tshivenḓa as a tool to impart knowledge. As many
more people are being educated presently, only the best people are considered for many
of the positions available. Thus, in order for one to be employed these days, one has to
undergo stringent interviews – and, in most cases, these interviews are conducted in
English. The ability to speak English and the knowledge of a work are together used as
main criterion for selection. People who speak English well are more likely to be employed
than those who cannot speak English. Therefore, the youth are encouraged to be
competent in English rather than their indigenous African languages.
It is interesting to note that even interviews for positions which need specialisation in
African languages, Tshivenḓa in particular, are conducted in English. Prospective
employees who cannot speak English well are not considered, even if they are good in
African languages. The panel teams chosen by principals do not realise the mistakes they
are making; they simply fulfil their obligations without questioning. Their task is to glorify
the person who has chosen them for the task. The language board is also not sensitive
about the problem. They are satisfied with the activities of their managers. The
government also fails to follow up on these issues. Even though government policies may
be good, if they are not monitored, they end up being in the hands of bad or incompetent
leaders. Teachers looking for jobs are, by nature, at a lower level than the people
conducting the interviews. Interviewees cannot dictate to panels the manner in which their
interviews are conducted. People who believe that their language is inferior will opt to use
a national language even if they are given the opportunity to use their first language.
It is common for wealthy people and middle class families among Africans to place their
children in boarding schools. At these schools, children of different ethnic and racial
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groups tend to mingle. In most cases, these children use English as the medium of
communication while African languages are relegated to the background.
Children who live in school hostels do not feel attached to their ethnic groups. Even after
they have completed their studies, they do not come home; they prefer to live in towns
and cities. They do not have family values and they do not appreciate family life. They
are so independent that even finding a partner to start a family with becomes a problem.
Those who marry mostly use English as a family language. Their parents are unaware
that they were starting a new generation of Africans (Vhavenḓa) whose first language and
culture would be English. Parents (as they become senior citizens) remain lonely as their
children are absorbed by the life style in cities and towns. Some parents put their children
into hostels because they are afraid of parenting their children. Parents love their children
so much that they cannot tell them when they are wrong. They put their hopes in other
people to guide their children through life. Some parents place their children in hostels
because they do not trust the local teachers. Some people enrol their children in hostel
schools because they do not trust the people with whom they live. They do not want their
children to compete with the local people whom they may consider inferior.
The whole situation affects the development of indigenous African languages, especially
Tshivenḓa. In this regard, children can hardly communicate in their first language and
English becomes their new first language.
Literature is a vehicle for language development in the community. It teaches the youth
about the culture of the community. African languages do not have many literary texts by
comparison with English and Afrikaans. Tshivenḓa as a language does not have enough
literary texts. The culture of reading among Africans is low and African language literary
texts were meant for school children. As a result, Tshivenḓa speakers rarely buy and read
literature in their own language. The government has also reduced the amount of
literature prescribed for secondary schooling. This lack of available literature made it easy
for the youth of today not having problems about identify themselves with their own
culture.
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Printing companies are not doing enough to encourage Vhavenḓa creative writers to write
Tshivenḓa literary works. Neither are the youth encouraged to write novels, dramas or
poetry. The youth of today do not enjoy reading Tshivenḓa books, preferring rather to
manipulate technology and play media games. Nor do they have a social place to gather
and demonstrate their ability to tell the stories they read. Indeed, they are always
absorbed in social media. The youth used to gather near the shops after school and on
weekends and holidays, telling stories they had read in different books. Poetry was
always heard being recited as boys tended to goats and cattle. Life changed completely
with the introduction of a modern technology. Children used to learn much about their
language and culture from the narration of folktales. Now, however, people have their
home theatres, PlayStations and telephones to keep themselves busy. Today, literature
is not considered for entertainment and personal enrichment, hence the youth know very
little about their language and culture.
5.2.3. Social factors
Language is a tool for communication. It can form and destroy relationships. People use
a language when they are happy and also when they are having problems. Social factors
are discussed below under the following themes: birth rate, interpersonal relationships,
extended family, intercultural marriages and sports.
With the introduction of various birth controls, the birth rate is seen to be declining. The
use of birth control to Vhavenḓa as an ethinic group increased after 1980. Vhavenḓa were
before 1980 suspicous of any birth control which is not native to their ethnic group. Birth
controls were seen as a cause of unfaithfulness, diseases and the fact that children were
seen as a blessing to Vhavenḓa as an ethnic group. Schools are also affected by the low
birth rates among Africans with some schools being merged and others having to close.
It is well known that children are the future of each ethnic group. Fewer children indicate
that the language is in danger of extinction. There are various reasons which contribute
to lowered birth rates. Among these is the fact that polygamy is gradually falling out of
favour. According to Western civilisation, polygamy is considered as pagan. When the
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Vhavenḓa become Christianised and educated they do not want to associate themselves
with polygamy.
Women used to compete with their co-wives, giving birth to please their husbands
(matakadza mbilu ndi ṅwana - a child is the joy of heart) meaning, people are happy to
have children. Women are today independent from their husbands and in-laws. They do
not compete by giving birth. They have nobody to glorify by giving birth and they decide
themselves on the number of children they want to have. The average number of children
born by Vhavenḓa women has dwindled from seven to just over three.
Economy is a determining factor in how many children people choose to have. Every
parent wants his or her child to have everything in life. They want their children to have
enough food to eat, a good education, enough resources to explore the world, and
clothes. Parents need wonderful houses and cars. Life is expensive. When there are
fewer children, parents are able to cope with life. The money which would previously have
been used to support very big families is now used in small families. However, this means
that the number of future speakers of the language is reduced. The reduction in the birth
rate among the Vhavenḓa has had an effect on the development of the language. This
means that the passing of language and culture to other generations will be minimal.
Birth rates are two dimensional. When birth rates are high in a population, the future of
that population’s language is safe. When birth rates are low, the future of the language is
at stake. High birth rates are demanding economically. The ethnic group concerned
becomes poor and it becomes a problem for them to achieve their goals and to compete
with other ethnic groups. Parents have to make their choice.
The Vhavenḓa are one of the minority groups in South Africa. Vhavenḓa sympathise with
people who cannot speak their language. They are also shy to speak their language in
areas where the languages of the majority are spoken and they quickly adapt and speak
the languages of other ethnic groups around them. Ironically, it is possible to find two
people of the same ethnic group (Vhavenḓa) speaking isiZulu or Sesotho to each other.
They greet each other using a language popular in the area where they are. They do not
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try to determine the language spoken by the next person. They speak Sesotho and isiZulu
in buses, taxis and market places.
Tshivenḓa is used as a joke by those who want to denigrate people speaking other
languages. The Vhavenḓa who are not strong enough to withstand the pressure of
mockery from other ethnic groups gradually hide themselves and start talking one of the
languages of the oppressors. Vhavenḓa are not proud of speaking their language in cities
as they speak other languages, including languages of their lovers. This eventually leads
to intercultural marriages. Feeling inferior regarding identifying oneself as a Muvenḓa
does not assist in developing Tshivenḓa as a language.
With the introduction of Western culture, extended families are no longer considered
important in the life of Africans – something that is especially true for the Vhavenḓa.
Extended families used to be of help among the Africans in many ways, including the
development of language. It is true that each family uses a particular language to
communicate. Members of each family become teachers, teaching their language to the
children. An extended family ensures that elderly people support each other in the
upbringing of their children. It is not binding for children to learn the language from their
parents, but it is true that the language is learnt from every member of a family. Both the
economy and Western education have changed the family structures of the Vhavenḓa.
People today depend on nuclear families. Children will not gain much regarding the
acquisition of language from their parents and siblings, especially if their parents are
modernised to the extent that they speak a language of other ethnic group in a family
setting. Children learn to look down on their own language and they use languages of
other ethnic groups to communicate with their fellow Vhavenḓa speakers.
Historically, the Vhavenḓa were used not to get married to people from other ethnic or
racial groups. They married within their ethnic group. Such marriages ensured that their
language and culture were maintained. This was so because each ethnic group stayed in
its own territory without the interference of other. However, people now intermingle in
residential areas, in their places of work, in schools and even while using social amenities.
As a result, the youth of today have deviated from the will of their ancestors and marry
whomever they want. This type of marriage affects the development of Tshivenḓa
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negatively. The newly-formed families speak two languages and one of the languages
suffers. In this language suffocation, it is Tshivenḓa which suffers. The youth are more
interested in their happiness as couples than in the value of family as maintained
culturally.
Economy determines the type of woman a man will marry. Beautiful women are likely to
be married by wealthy people. Most beautiful women are only ready to be married by men
who are economically powerfull to ensure that they are well provided for. They prefer men
with tender care. Vhavenḓa men tend to be led by their women and they forget their
heritage language and ignore their culture. They consider their culture as vehicles for
oppression and consider themselves as agents of change within their families. Children
grow up without practicing their language and culture and they are completely lost to their
ethnic group.
These matters are also affected by elite sports such as soccer, boxing, athletics and
rugby. Wealthy countries such as France, Australia and Britain are likely to invite athletes
and give them permanent citizenship in their countries. Athletes are in need of a good life
and money. They go to these new countries, start speaking new languages and never
come back. Their children are thus lost to their ethnic group. Athletes acquired from Africa
are used for different continental competitions like the Olympics and the world cups. They
get better salaries than South Africans here at home. Schools in which elite sports are
played are likely to receive more blacks. Games such as rugby, cricket and hockey are
played best by schools which are predominately white. Blacks who are schooled in such
institutions are likely to be chosen by coaches for various sporting codes when they
balance racial discrimination on sports. Hence, it is not always talent that determines
those who are chosen to play elite sports, but rather a privilege of exposure. Wealthy
families are always privileged to be accepted within the white race group.
5.2.4. Socio-political aspects
Politics have a tendency to control peoples’ behaviour. People are influenced by their
leaders to behave in such a way that they will be accepted within their society. They are
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afraid of being rejected; they comply even if they do not understand. People speaking the
same language in a particular area behave the same way and share similar beliefs and
values. Politics will be discussed under the following themes: royal heritage, modern
politics and space.
Since time immemorial, traditional leaders have been considered as the custodians of
language and culture. The traditional leaders of today, however, have renounced their
role as the custodians of language and culture because they have become westernised.
People living in what were traditional villages have become democratised to the extent
that they reject orders from their traditional leaders. Kings, chiefs and headmen have all
allowed royal institutions to disappear – the same royal institutions that were once the
pride of Vhavenḓa. Vhusha, musevhetho, murundu and domba were once the pride of
Vhavenḓa. These institutions were valuable for imparting terminology and cultural matters
to the rising generations. All of them have disappeared under the pretext that there is not
enough time for traditional practices.
The supernatural (zwifho and zwitaka) activities which were commonly performed at the
royal places have disappeared. The power of the royal heritage has thus been reduced.
People from royal families are today like (muthuphepho, musiwana) ordinary people.
Traditional leaders are not playing their roles and the secrets of the royal places have
been done away with.
Misanda (royal villages) used to have their own language (Luambo lwa musanda).
Commoners knew this language, but they used it only when they visited the royal places.
The language worked as a form of security and visitors were easily detected. People who
did not understand this language and the setting of the royal place were scrutinised using
the same language when they visit. Today, however, traditional leaders live in towns and
cities and they compete with their subordinates. They are no longer respected by their
subordinates unless they are economically strong. Indeed, they can hardly speak their
own royal language. Traditional leaders have abandoned their responsibilities, which led
to the loss of a wealth of knowledge, including the language.
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Politics is a matter of bread and butter, politicians quickly get richer, they control the
distribution of the wealth of the country, and hence, politics is the survival of the fittest.
No politian is allowed to play a role for the sake of being from the minority. The case of
majority versus minority encourages the minority to hide their identity and language in
order to forge unity and favour from the majority. It is rare if not impossible to find a
Muvenḓa who is a politician addressing his ethnic group using his or her first language.
Such people speak isiZulu, Sesotho and English to further their political ambitions. They
are known as Muvenḓa wa makhuwani (a Johannesburg Muvenḓa). Muvenḓa wa
makhuwani might have a Tshivenḓa surname, but he or she is not Muvenḓa because he
or she cannot speak Tshivenḓa fluently – or he or she feels embarrassed when speaking
Tshivenḓa. Vhavenḓa who live in Johannesburg are said to be a better breed than those
who live in rural Venda. People struggle to be accepted and forged their identity to be
accepted by other ethnic groups. In so doing, they sacrifice their language for the sake of
acceptance.
South Africa is becoming over populated by the day. There is no space reserved for any
single ethnic group. Sometimes an ethnic group may inherit a particular space; however
they are usually surrounded by other ethnic groups and, as such, have no space to
expand. They are bound to mix with other ethnic groups and they speak the languages
of their neighbours. This is a threat towards preserving their own language because it will
results in multilingualism.
The Group Areas Act 77 of 1957, Act 41 of 1950 or Act 36 of 1966 prevented ethnic
groups from living with each other. As these ethnic groups gradually increased in number,
they occupied all the space allocated to them and they gradually came closer to each
other again. This led to languages influencing each other.
People were also forcefully removed from their residential areas to give more land to white
farmers. However, the people who lost land were affected because people without land
cannot keep their identity, culture and language. The Vhavenḓa needed more space to
live and to farm (both for animal and crop production) and thus they were bound to move
to the areas occupied by other ethnic groups to practise their agrarian economy. This is
accompanied by learning the language of their host ethnic group. They also acquire the
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culture and language of the new place; and all this means that Tshivenḓa cannot be
preserved
5.2.5. Migration
Roux (1993:86) defines migration as:
… the process of moving out of (relocating from) one area of habitation into another
area. This physical mobility not only results in the alteration of demography of an
area, but also has social, economic and political consequences, which may be either
favourable or unfavourable.
People who are educated find it easy to migrate from city to city or from one country to
another. People who are educated are easily employed in other countries. There are
many people who have left this country to work in other countries. They enjoy life in their
new countries and they never come back home. They speak the languages of their host
countries and their children grow up in and identify themselves with the language and the
culture of the host country.
Most of the educated people who live the country to work or school in other countries find
it difficult to come back home. Even those who come back run into problems and cannot
cope with the lifestyle of their original ethnic groups. People who migrate to other
countries, even if they may later come back home, they have a tendency of feeling
superior over their own people. They feel they have achieved something great. The
saying Wa sa tshimbila u ḓo mala khaladzi (If you do not visit places, you will end up
getting married to your own sister.) meaning, travelling makes one knowledgeable in life.
They feel as if they have acquired new knowledge. People cannot be stopped from
travelling and changing their location, nor can they be forced to speak languages they
consider inferior. Migration has an effect towards the preservation of the language
because people tend to forget their own languages.
The same applies to those who migrate to the cities. Many Vhavenḓa who migrate to the
cities and towns abandon their own languages in favour of other languages. Sometimes
this emanates from an inferiority complex. Such people look down upon their own culture
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and language when they mingle with other ethnic and racial groups. This does not bode
well with the development of Tshivenḓa.
5.2.6. Career
This section will discuss the role of Tshivenḓa in the private sector. The role of this
language when dealing with the Department of Basic Education and the state is different
from its role when dealing with the private sector. The state is governed by rules while the
private sector can manipulate the rules in order to increase productivity. African language
speakers have been made to believe that languages cannot be a profession – except for
those who become teachers. Even if, at present, people can see that specialising in a
language can lead to a career (for example, lexicographer, translator, interpreter,
language planner) professions involving language (especially African languages) are not
challenging for the youth. The youth choose careers which are better paying. There are
few job opportunities which require Tshivenḓa as a field of specialisation. There are not
enough newspapers to offer jobs and teaching is the only place where youth can employ
Tshivenḓa in their professions. Education colleges have been closed and, today, teachers
are produced only by universities. Many students who further their education at
universities do not take Tshivenḓa as their specialisation subject. The number of teachers
of Tshivenḓa being produced has thus been reduced.
Language teachers at schools enjoy fewer privileges than teachers of Mathematics,
Physical Science, Life Sciences and Commerce. Language teachers are rarely promoted
compared to teachers teaching other subjects. Extra-classes with incentives are
organised for science and commerce teachers while teachers for Tshivenḓa as a
language are not considered. Teachers who can offer other subjects have the privilege
of teaching in cities and towns – even in areas where their language is not spoken.
Tshivenḓa as a subject cannot be enjoyed by a person who enjoys working with people
of different ethnic groups; it is situated in a particular area. People who speak Tshivenḓa
are found in Venḓa as their homeland. Vhavenḓa who live in other parts of the country
will speak the language of the majority. It restricts the power to move and to experiment
working with people of other ethnic groups. Vhavenḓa who want to work in other places
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must be ready to learn and speak other languages. The aspect of lack of opportunities
sketched above does not assist in development and preservation of Tshivenḓa as a
language.
5.2.7. Language attitude
The researcher will sketch the experience of musicians to illustrate the aspect of language
attitude. Irene Mawela (the mother of Rudzani Bellafonte Mawela) is a musician who
confessed that she was discriminated because she speaks Tshivenḓa and she wanted to
sing in her language but denied the opportunity by the people who were supposed to
have uplifted her. Irene Mawela was interviewed on Phalaphala FM on 29 September
2014. She confessed that she had been unfairly treated by both music companies and by
musicians. She indicated that, while she had sung with various music groups and played
a leading role, she had been denied the opportunity to sing in her first language. She said:
I have realised that apartheid (segregation) is not only for the whites against the
blacks; apartheid is also practiced by the blacks against each other. The Zulus did
not consider us as human beings. They called us Selwane. Their recording
companies could not offer you a recording platform as long as you were recording
in Tshivenḓa.
This indicates that each language should be considered seriously and that people should
not be discriminated because of the language they speak. All languages in the country
should be given a chance to develop freely.
Samuel Ramufhi, like Irene Mawela, is a musician. Ramufhi Samuel corroborated Irene
Mawela when he said:
The recording companies and radio stations playing our music had ill-treated us
(musians of Tshivenḓa). They did not help us grow. We are poor because we were
not properly paid for our efforts. Our music was not weighed to the level of other
languages. I went for a recording company in Johannesburg to claim some royalties.
I was paid R2, and felt like throwing it away, but I did not have enough money to pay
for the transport home.
The government must seriously monitor the development of each language. The
companies dealing with musicians must be monitored.
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5.3
Conclusion
As we have seen above, African languages and their cultures are threatened in many
ways. Because of the introduction of western civilization, it has become necessary for
individuals to preserve their language and identity. It is normal to have people of different
cultures and languages in a society. However, no language should be given an
opportunity to suppress other languages as English is doing at present. Although this is
often seen as an economic problem, it is a political one as well. During the time of
apartheid, people from different ethnic groups were happy to identify themselves with
their languages and cultures, especially in the rural areas. Even, though this was not the
same in the urban areas, it is true that the preservation of African languages and culture,
and that of Tshivenḓa in particular, was realised in the rural areas which was then called
Venḓa homeland and later the Republc of Venḓa.
The general finding of the research is that, African languages in particular are threatened
by many factors including, social, political, religious and economic factors.
CHAPTER 6
GENERAL CONCLUSION
6.1. Summary
This chapter will present a summary of and recommendations arising from this research
project. The fading of minority languages is a global issue and it should be tackled at
different levels of social development. Language change and demise cannot be
eradicated completely; however the problem should be made known so that precautions
can be taken. Language cannot be separated from the activities of the people speaking
the language.
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Chapter One provided an introduction to the research by way of highlighting the research
problem and the aim thereof. Key terms were defined, and research method towards the
study discussed.
In Chapter Two, various sources related to this research project were reviewed in order
to get more knowledge about the field. The scholars’ interest in the topic indicates that
the problem of language change is of great importance to the world today. More scholars
will continue to study the topic as technology and globalisation force homogeneity upon
all the people of the world
Chapter Three focused on the collection of data. Various research tools of collecting data
were given and explained. Data was collected through questionnaires, interviews and
observation. The interview questions were presented. The views of the people of different
ages were interpreted and grouped in the order of similarities and differences.
The data collected in Chapter Three was analysed in Chapter Four. Responses from
different people were compared to each other and a common meaning was created. The
respondents were divided into two groups: those who wanted the language to be
maintained and those who wanted the language to be done away with. None of the
respondents wanted to follow professions using their first language.
Chapter Five outlined the findings of the research by showing different problems
contributing to the demise of the language. The feelings and needs of the respondents
were discussed to illustrate the findings.
Chapter Six is the final chapter, which summarises the work done in all the other chapters.
Information from books, as well as observations, interviews and questionnaires is used
to outline the problems of the demise of the language. The chapter focuses on
recommendations. Various areas have been suggested for consideration if the language
is to be revitalized hereunder.
6.2. Recommendations
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The cause of the demise of the African languages and minority languages in particular in
South Africa is evident in the entire discussion. People should not fold their hands and
lose their culture and language; they have to do something in order to preserve them.
From the challenges sketched above, a number of suggestions and recommendations
are made below for the purpose of preserving African cultures and languages, particularly
of Tshivenḓa as a language and the culture attached to it.
6.2.1. The role of Tshivenḓa in the church
Priests in churches, especially in charismatic churches, must consider using vernacular
languages in preaching where their congregations are made up of people of the same
ethnic groups. The church should understand that the language of the community
concerned has a potential to carry across the meaning of a sermon. The church should
cater for people who cannot understand English. The preachers of the word of God should
understand that they are not denigrated for preaching in their first language. The English
Bible should be used to supplement the vernacular Bible only if it is lacking in an
explanation of a particular situation. Most churches also have crèches. They develop
young children. If the church is proud of its first language, then it will instil love for that
language in its congregants and among the children in the crèche.
6.2.2. The role of literature
Literature teaches language functionally and should not be removed from the syllabus.
Many themes in literary texts are educative, such as learning about the culture of the
people. Literature teaches people to read and to understand a written language. It gives
examples of language usage in context. It enhances vocabulary and provides different
ways of solving problems. Literature keeps history, and it entertains. It teaches the youth
to read and to derive meaning from a written language. Literature portrays the culture and
history of the writer. The beliefs and taboos of the Vhavenḓa are portrayed in literature.
The environment of the people who speak Tshivenḓa is also discussed and is made
known to the readers.
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People who love literature eventually learn to use the language both spoken and written.
Literature becomes a business and a platform on which people make their views known
to others. Literature suggests answers to the challenges found in life and allows readers
to gather information without disturbing other people. Vhavenḓa are encouraged to read
literature in order to learn more about their language and help in preserving it.
6.2.3. The role of printing companies
Printing companies should sponsor people who write books in African languages and
some incentive must be made available so that they write more books. Books must be
made available and produced more cheaply. Different activities must be held in a quest
to encourage people to read and to buy books. The youth must be encouraged to write
books and they should be guided on how to go about writing them in their indigenous
African languages. All genres, poetry, drama, novels, praises, riddles, folklore and
storytelling must be considered as they are all interesting parts of literature. People should
be given a chance to debate using their first language. Some incentives must be made
available for members of the youth who win such debates. All this will instil the love of
language in the youth.
6.2.4. The role of Department of Basic Education
Teachers who apply for positions to teach Tshivenḓa as an African language must be
interviewed in Tshivenḓa as a language. If teachers of vernacular languages are
interviewed in English, a better English teacher will automatically win a post over a good
vernacular teacher who is not fluent enough in English. The teaching of Tshivenḓa may
improve if teachers who are best in Tshivenḓa are employed. Qualified Tshivenḓa
teachers must be employed to teach Tshivenḓa because the language is important like
any other subject. The department must emphasise the teaching of Tshivenḓa literature
in addition to grammar and further explain the importance of learning an African language
to the pupils.
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6.2.5. The role of parents
Parents should avoid placing their children in school hostels, far away from the area in
which their language is spoken unless there is are social problems at home. Children who
are schooled at hostel schools have weak family values. They become independent of
their families. They do not feel attached to their families. They are lost to towns and cities.
However, parents who live in cities and towns may take their children to the school in
which their first language, for example, Tshivenḓa, is taught. This will expose them to
their first language and give them experience in it.
Parents should use African languages to communicate with their children. Most African
families today use English to communicate with their children. They believe that a
vernacular language will interfere with their ability to learn and speak English. Parents
should be proud of their first language and they should instil the desire to speak the
language in their children. Parents who live in cities and towns should encourage
members of their families to speak their language while they are at home. They must form
social groups in cities and towns where they can enjoy their language and culture. Parents
who speak the same language as other parents should group their children together so
that they are able to help each other with the acquisition of the language. Children
speaking the same language must have time to play together. They will feel united and
their desire to visit relatives at home will develop. They will soon feel that they belong to
a particular group and they will know and understand their origin. They will soon
understand that they are not from an inferior ethnic group. They will be proud of
themselves.
Parents living in towns and cities should always take their children to visit their relatives
in rural areas so that they develop an interest in their language and other aspects of their
cultural heritage. Children always have their own feelings about their language and their
feelings are supported when they see other people in the ethnic group who speak their
language.
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Urban parents must maintain their links with their relatives at their home areas. They must
participate in the activities of their families, societies such as burial society meetings and
thevhula (religious offering), marriage gatherings and birthday celebrations. Language is
taught both consciously and unconsciously. People will learn the language as they
communicate with each other. People who stay away from their home areas should
always visit their relatives. In Tshivenḓa they say: Venḓa u tshi pfuluwa u songo thutha
madumba, nga uri na hune wa ya zwa u dina u ḓovhuya (Home remains the best, when
you move away from Venḓa, do not destroy the walls of your houses for you may want to
come back home for some other reasons.)This proverb encourages people to be
generous to the people with whom they are living and not to be too much angry or
destructive because after anger life will continue, being responsible is better than being
sorry.
The Vhavenḓa should revitalise the spirit of social care and generosity to each other. The
language is better developed when people are united. There are many idioms and
proverbs which encourage people to be united. Muima wo ga shaka ndi nnyi? (Being
alone, who is your relative), meaning that people should be together. This encourages
the development of the language. Mutuka wa haya ha vhifhi (Your homeboy is always
nice). Muḓi ndi vhathu (It is good to have visitors in a family). Vhathu ndi mapfura vha a
ḓolwa. (People are oil, they are smeared, meaning people are important). These figures
of speech encourage the Vhavenḓa to be united, which in turn encourages the
development of culture.
6.2.6. The role of extended families
Extended families are very important in developing the language. Grandparents, parents,
aunts, uncles and cousins are the pillars of language acquisition. Extended families
ensure that children, even those from mixed cultures, are equipped with knowledge of
their language and, together with the parents of the children, help each other to teach
language and culture to the kids. Tshivenḓa is a language always spoken in context. It
cannot be predicted that dictionaries will ever serve a better purpose than the role played
by the extended families. As a child, especially children staying in urban areas where they
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are mixed with other racial and ethic groups, by communicating with extended family
members, he or she gains a lot of Tshivenḓa vocabulary. Parents should give their
children a chance to communicate with the extended families.
6.2.7. Patriotism and the development of Tshivenḓa
Patriotism should be instilled to the youth so that when they go to study in other countries
they are able to come back home. People cannot be stopped from travelling. People
should go to various countries for education, business, and sports and for touring;
however they must love their country in such a way that they come back home after they
achieved their goals. They must import knowledge to enrich their ethnic group. They must
understand that they do not acquire new knowledge to destroy their heritage language
and wisdom. People should admire them wherever they go. They should be good
ambassadors of their own culture.
6.2.8 Role of traditional leaders
Traditional leaders must revitalise culture and traditional institutions. Traditional leaders
are the champions of their heritage language. They ensure that the institutions supporting
language usage are active. People as subjects should respect their leaders. Leaders
must be fair enough to their subjects so that they are listened to. Institutions such as
musevhetho, domba, and murundu, make a speaker of Tshivenḓa proud because they
entail good vocabulary which should be known by each Muvenḓa. These institutions must
be reintroduced and made attractive to the youth by traditional leaders because they will
help in the preservation of Tshivenḓa.
6.2.9. The role of education
The discussion on the role of education will be divided into formal and informal education.
6.2.9.1. Formal education
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Parents and teachers help each other to educate the youth. Parents who are literate and
those who are illiterate, help their children to do their homework. Tshivenḓa as a subject
can be supplemented by the knowledge parents have as native speakers of the language.
When the syllabus keeps changing, both teachers and parents are frustrated. Parents are
not teachers, but they use the knowledge they have accumulated during their years of
schooling to help their children cope with their schoolwork load.
Teachers teaching scarce subjects such as mathematics, the sciences and commerce
subjects have more privileges than teachers who teach languages. They are promoted
quickly and they earn additional income. The value of Tshivenḓa as a language must be
lifted to compete with other subjects. The schools must learn to respect language
teachers – all subjects are taught using a language. The government may insist that
English should be used as a medium of instruction in class; however, teachers outside
their classes use Tshivenda for children who come with personal problems. This helps
them to understand the content of the subjects.
Schools must undertake surveys to determine the number of people enrolled with them
who speak Tshivenḓa. A school can offer more than one vernacular language. Parents
of children who speak Tshivenḓa must communicate with the various school governing
bodies and encourage them to introduce Tshivenḓa in their schools if there are Vhavenḓa
children. So far, this paragraph has referred to the situation in the townships and cities.
There are also borderline cases where people of different ethnic groups live together.
Due to ethnic nationalism (ethnic discrimination), children are denied the opportunity to
mix together and must either travel long distances to schools that offer their language or
resort to adopting a language of a neighbouring ethnic group. The government should not
wait for the people to demand this, but should see to it that all languages are offered if
there are pupils from these languages.
Crèches are the basic institutions in which language is taught. Parents must feel proud to
take their children to crèches where their first language is used as a medium of instruction.
Parents should refrain from taking their children to crèches where only English is taught.
Children should be allowed to develop their first language before they learn English.
Crèches should not be considered only as places to keep children safe while their parents
125
are at work, they should also be places of learning. Home language should be considered
a serious matter during early childhood development.
6.2.9.2. Informal education
Parents have an important role to play in educating their children. They should therefore
impart knowledge to their children that cannot be provided by the school. Praises are very
important in learning the culture of Vhavenḓa. Villages, chiefs and the king are praised in
a particular way. The media has taken over the teaching role which should be performed
by family. The media may try to teach cultural praises for a particular tribe, however they
lack any means of monitoring progress or of following upon their teaching. The media
acts as a reminder about cultural heritage rather than being a real custodian of culture.
For example, clan names indicate the origin of a particular group of people. A mountain
was used for strategic reasons against enemies – Vhakwevho vha Luonde (Vhakwevho
from Luonde). When one recites this praise, one traces the origin of a clan. An animal
which is a symbol of strength – Nguluvhe khulu dzi Luonde, zwibwamuṱaḓa zwi Luvhola
(Big pigs are at Luonde, whereas small pigs are at Luvhola). From this praise one gets to
know that different clans are found in different places. The clan name also indicates which
activities are acceptable or not acceptable to that particular clan. For example,
Vhakwevho do not eat pork, it is a taboo. Clan praises are a type of identity which should
not be forgotten – it should be taught by the family. When the youth learn about the origin
of their clan they also learn Tshivenḓa through acquiring traditional vocabulary.
6.2.10. The role of media
Music delivers a message to youth better than formal teaching does. People who are
competent in the language and in using sound system must use Tshivenḓa to
communicate with the youth. Music can be used to revitalise zwidade (infant poetry),
mafhuwe (work songs) and dzingano (folktales). People will discover how the wisdom of
the people is passed from generation to generation and the youth will realise that their
126
language is not inferior to other languages. People with studios must invest in people who
speak the minority languages.
Media is a very important instrument of transmitting the language. Radio presenters must
be able to use Tshivenḓa competently and must be able to choose their words accurately.
Radio presenters are role models to the youth because they imitate the way they use the
language and repeat this in the future. Radio presenters should instil a love of the
language in their listeners. People must enjoy listening to the radio. Listeners must feel
connected to their radio. A good use of language will help preserve Tshivenḓa.
Social media is here to stay and the youth cannot be stopped from using it. Teachers
must teach their learners to differentiate between social media language and standard
language. The youth have a tendency to use social media language in writing their school
tasks; it seems that they are addicted to the “economic” use of the language as
determined by social media. This, however, becomes a challenge to those youth who no
longer go to school. Adult education (Kha ri gude programmes) for those who are
interested in learning proper language use may help to correct the damage done by social
media.
6.2.11. The role of politics
Democratically, the issue of who is in the majority cannot be ignored – however, the
interests of the minority languages should also be considered and the minority ethnic
groups should not feel threatened. Democracy does not guarantee fairness, but it does
guarantee the power to lobby. The people who are part of minority groups, though, have
less power to lobby. Political parties should encourage members of parties to
communicate in the indigenous African languages if they are addressing sections of
Africans. For example, a Muvenḓa politician should address Vhavenḓa in Tshivenḓa.
Politicians should feel proud of their languages and use them to communicate with
speakers of those languages.
127
6.2.12. The importance of traditional games and infrastructure
Games are played in a particular area. Both the communities and the government must
make sure that there is a place specially prepared for the games. Things which are
required for playing different games must be provided for. Games are communicative in
nature and they are intended to entertain. Games are very important in teaching the
language and children should be provided with a space in which to play. African games
must be played at schools and during social gatherings and competitions must be
organised. Mufuvha is a game which is full of interesting terminology. This terminology
might be used literally or figuratively – for example U xa (defeat), u ṱula (removing), ndoma
(removing an important part of the game). This is also the case in games like tsetse as
well as in ruvheki/duvheki (a cricket-like game where a ball is kicked against the
opponent), mahundwane (father/mother/family simulation), bune (swimming games),
mudzumbamano (hide and seek), khadi (skipping rope) dzithai na mirero (riddles and
proverbs).
More libraries must be constructed and libraries must ensure that novels, poetry and
drama in the African languages are included in their catalogues. The youth department
of each library must employ people who specialise in children’s learning and in
supervising children. These staff members must be able to choose books according to
the children’s age and to explain the stories to the children. Schools must also have their
own libraries. Works of literature should be displayed for the children to read. Novels,
dramas and poetry books must be made available, even if they are not prescribed.
Parents who are willing to do so must sponsor the school libraries with books they
themselves used during their schooling. Business people should be encouraged to adopt
schools and to donate books and other educational materials.
The government have a role to provide for different languages. The government must
provide the infrastructure for the Tshivenḓa National Language Body. Tshivenḓa National
Language Body must be empowered to hire people to coin words. Many people are not
aware of Tshivenḓa National Language Body. Language has a tendency to oust certain
words while others are replaced or given new meanings. Words will also be coined to
come to grips with technology that is invented and established by other people. Tshivenḓa
128
National Language Body is not known to the people, and people do not contribute to the
work it does. People in the villages do not know that there are people who take care of
their language. Tshivenḓa National Language Body must be given every opportunity by
the media to discuss various issues pertaining to language. They must also create
advertisements to encourage people to speak their own language. The contributions
made by the Tshivenḓa Writers’ Association and the Tshivenḓa Music Association have
been valuable in the development of Tshivenḓa. There should be more support given to
these institutions and other organisations of this nature must be established.
6.2.13. The legal role of language and the development of Tshivenḓa
Language has legal connotations. Traditional courts are kept functional because each
ethnic tribe has its way to solve problems, a person may not be guilty, but can be found
guilty because of not knowing and understanding the wisdom used in a language of a
particular ethnic group. Traditional courts are used to solve problems which cannot be
brought for modern court trial. An example of legal language is: Ya longa kwanḓa yo nwa
(If an animal gets into a drinking trough, it has drunk the water), meaning, sometimes
assumptions are useful in solving problems. This means that if a person is directly or
indirectly involved in an activity, he or she should shoulder the responsibilty. In such a
case the outcome is evident and there is no need to prove the matter beyond a reasonable
doubt. Other examples are U farelwa lufhanga (to be forgiven). This suggests that not all
problems should be taken to court for arbitration; in other words, the culture suggests the
manner in which problems are solved. Vhuthu (Ubuntu) is considered when solving
problems and the problem is solved in such a way that the conflicting parties remain
friendly with each other. This usage of language should not be abandoned because it
helps in solving some of the community’s problems.
6.3. Limitations
129
People speaking a particular language (here, Tshivenḓa) may be aware that their
language is fading. As such, they can try to reconstruct their language or try to prevent it
from fading further. However; it is not possible to completely remove the language
impurities. There are some changes which cannot be stopped. Humans are social beings
and they cannot be separated from the activities of other people. People will mix, and
new cultures will be formed and the old cultures will be forgotten. New words will be
adopted and some common words will lose their meanings only to acquire new meanings
or, otherwise, disappear completely. Technology has encouraged globalisation and the
sharing of knowledge and information. It allows people to explore knowledge all over the
world. Therefore, the minority languages will adopt a language which is technologically
usefull and globally communicative.
6.3.1. Traditional leaders
Throughout this dissertation, traditional leaders (tribal leaders) have been referred to as
the custodians of cultural identity. Traditional leaders have always ensured that cultural
inheritance is carried from one generation to the next. The traditional leaders were the
authorities of their time and each tribe was self-sufficient. Traditional leaders had the
power to sanction their subjects to follow their cultural orders without question, but they
are no longer effective and they cannot fulfil their historical obligations. Traditional leaders
are hindered in fulfilling their obligations in two different ways: Firstly, the subjects of the
traditional leaders are flourishing economically and, secondly, they are becoming
independent from the pressure and sanctions of their leaders and can manage their lives
without their support. Each subject can manage his or her life without the fear of and
pressure from other members of a community. With everyone having the right to
associate with any person of his or her choice, language and culture are no longer given
serious consideration.
Westernised subjects regard traditional institutions as primitive and feel that they cannot
participate in institutions which were previously regarded as authority because they were
130
part of their culture. Madomba, musevhetho, and vhusha (initian schools) are referred as
primitive and a waste of time. Male circumcision has gradually come to be rejected
because of the health conditions in the institutions performing it and the high death rates
of the initiates. People today do not tolerate situations where people are ill-treated.
Holomisa (2007:117) writes:
The most unoriginal criticism levelled at the institutions, with respect to new South
African political ethos, is that it goes against all what the people believe in; its role
and constitution violate the principles of democracy, because incumbents are
unelected …
In the past, traditional leaders were the political leaders and the ultimate authorities of
their time. At present, however, they are politically subjugated and they do not have the
power to keep their culture pure. South African tribes are mixing with each other and tribal
boundaries are gradually being removed. Traditional leaders have become historical
symbols and are no longer effective. Their roles have been taken over by political leaders.
The traditional leaders reiceive salaries from the government which is led by the
politicians. Traditional leaders listen to the politicians for economic support. As a result
they have limited powers to preserve their languages. Holomisa (2007:121) writes:
The prerequisites for traditional leadership are a tribe and some land. You cannot
have neither, or have one without the other and still be a traditional leader. The land
over which a traditional leader rules has a history behind its acquisition. Almost
without exception, all tribal land was fought for by those who occupy it. Such wars
were fought either against other tribes who had subsequently been displaced in precolonial times or who fought against whites colonial settlers against whom (the land)
was successfully defended.
Stiglitz (2002:247) indicates that there is competition between traditional culture and the
way things are done in the present time. He indicates reasons why people want to move
out of their own culture and become international figures. He writes:
One of the reasons globlalisation is being attacked is that it seems to undermine
traditional values. The conflicts are real, and to some extent unavoidable. Economic
growth – including that induced by globalisation – will result in urbanisation,
undermining the traditional rural societies.
This section has tried to indicate that, when traditional leaders are removed from our lives,
they are removed together with their activities and their heritage and as part of the cultural
131
identity. People without culture do not know or enjoy their history. Their future is without
direction and they do not have a firm basis from which to control their lives. This section
has also indicated that what happens in life cannot be reversed. The disappearance of
the culture will ensure that a new culture is formed.
6.3.2. Democracy
Democracy is not a solution to the problems of the minority groups; however it silences
the minority on the pretext that they have participated equally with the majority. The
language of the minority (for example Tshivenḓa) and their activities are peacefully
subjugated. Democracy calls for competltion. The above sub-heading indicates how
democracy overpowered the traditional leaders. All leaders exploit democracy to acquire
their positions before they consider the importance of a language. Diamond (1994:48)
asserts:
Political culture may be defined as a people’s predominant beliefs, attitude, values,
ideas sentiments, and evaluation about the political system of the country, and the
role of the self in that system. Democracy is a system of institutionalised competition
for power … Democracy is not conducive to the redistribution of existing wealth and
assets, and vice versa.
If democracy cannot redistribute wealth, people will always forge unity with those who
control the wealth. Language as an identity is politically affected and democracy is in no
way a form of consensus. Democracy provides occupation for the politicians who come
to power with the help of the ethnic groups. Polititians representing the majority group
and their language will always trample over the minority languages. Democracy will
always force educated members of the minority groups to join the majority so that that
they are considered eligible to take part in the wealth of their nation.
As long as South Africa is divided into defferent ethnic groups, who are demographically
unequal, the majority will always have political power to control the minority groups. The
members from minority group who want to survive politically will always have to buy favour
or support from the politicians supported by the majority. Diamond (1994:183) writes: “It
has been argued that South Africa’s severe racial and ethnic divisions make the
132
consolidation of democracy in a common state impossible.” This statement accepted that
there are ethnic problems in South Africa, although there are also common areas of
interest sometimes. Diamond (1994:184) further outlines the attitude of a politician in
social settings. He writes: “As Crick argues, practicing politics does not require moral
consensus prior to or above politics … Nevertheless, for a divided society such as South
Africa, practising politics to resolve group-based conflict is an exceptionally difficult task.”
6.3.3. Globalisation
Globalisation is a force that cannot be limited or stopped. All people of the world are
affected and it ensures that the world is united in sharing information. Stiglitz (2002:9)
explains globalisation this way:
“What is this phenomenon of globalisation that has been subject, at the same time,
to such vilification and such praise? Fundamentally, it is the closer integration of the
countries and the people of the world which has been brought about by the
enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking
down of artificial barriers to the flow of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and (to
a lesser extent) people across the border”.
Globalisation destroys tribal and national boundaries, both physical and artificial.
Globalisation ensures that knowledge is disseminated cheaply and with ease. Health,
economy and education are the cores of globalisation. Technology accelerates
globalisation and a common language is important for globalisation to take place. In the
words of Stiglitz (2002:248):
Globalisation has helped hundreds of millions of people attain high standards of
living, beyond what they, or most economists, thought imaginable … Globalisation,
as it has been advocated often seems to replace the old dictatorships of national
elites with the new dictatorship of international finance.
133
Life is a competition; people will always choose to compete with the best. People will
always choose a language which allows them to develop into international figures. English
is presently a global language and other languages are not in the position to compete.
Christianity has developed into a universal religion. Christianity calls people all over the
world to unite. In Christianity, people are not divided according to race or ethnicity but
they are all encouraged to share the word of God. Therefore, the problem with language
demise can be detected and the solution can be outlined. Different ethnic groups in the
same church will use any language whether African or European as long as it is
understood by the majority; it may be the language of the minority. Language translation
may also be used to help people who do not understand a language which is being used
at the church. A church made of the people of the same ethnic group must use and
promote their ethnic language. However, people – whether in cities, towns or villages –
will always come together to share the word. Christianity and globalisation cannot be
separated. Despite all the problems and challenges of globalisation the Vhavenḓa should
try to keep their heritage language. They must speak their language among themselves.
134
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