NuclearPhysicsB (Proc. Suppl.) 6 (1989) 9-64
North-Holland,Amsterdam
ON UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS
LORENTZ GROUP*
By E. WIGNER
(Received December 22, 1937)
I. Om<)m aND ~ C T ~ - P . L ~ T I O N
oF THE PROW.F.~
I t is perhaps t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l principle of Q u a n t u m Mechanics t h a t . t h e
s y s t e m of states forms a linear manifold, t in which a u n i t a r y sca/ar product is
defined, z T h e states are generally represented b y wave functions ~ in such a w a y
t h a t ~o a n d constant multiples of ~o represent the s a m e physical state. I t is
possible, therefore, to normalize t h e wave function, i.e., to m u l t i p l y it b y a
constant f a c t o r s u c h t h a t its scalar p r o d u c t with itself becomes 1. Then, only a
c o n s t a n t factor of m o d u l u s 1, t h e so-called phase, will be left u n d e t e r m i n e d
in t h e w a v e function. T h e linear c h a r a c t e r of t h e wave function is called the
superpceition principle. T h e square of t h e modulus of t h e u n i t a r y s c ~ h r
p r o d u c t (~, ~) of two normalized w a v e functions ~ a n d ~ois called t h e transition
probability from t h e state ÷ into ~,, or conversely. This is supposed to give t h e
probability t h a t a n e x p e r i m e n t p e r f o r m e d on a s y s t e m in the state ¢, to see
w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s t a t e is ~, gives t h e result t h a t it is ~. If there are two or
m o r e different experiments to decide this (e.g., essentially the s a m e experiment,
" Parts of the present paper were presented at the Pitteburgh Symposium on Group
Theory andQ-A-tum Mechanics. Cf. Bull. Amer. Math.Sot., 41, p. 306, 1935.
t The pcmibility of a future non linear character of the quantum mechanics must be
admitted, of course. An indication in this direction is given by the theory of the positron,
u developed by P. A. M. Dirac (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. S0, 150, 1934, el. also W. Heisenherg,
Zeits. f. Phys. 90, 209, 1934; 9t, 623, 1934; W. Heisenberg and H. Euler, ibid. 98, 714, 1936
and R. 8erber, Phys. Rev./~, 49, 1935; ~9, 545, 1936) which does not use wave functions
and is a non linear theory.
s Cf. P. A. M. Dirae, T#~ Prim=ip~ ofQ~z~um Med~ni~, Oxford 1935, Chapters I and
II; J. v. Ne,,m~nn, M ~ c h e . G ~ u z ~ g o f f e n d~rr ~t~z~enmec]uznik, Bedin IW2, pages
19-24.
' The wave functions represent throughout this paper states in the sense of the " H ~ n berg picture," i.e. a single wave function represents the state for all past and future. On
the other hand, the operator which refers to s measurement at a certain time I mmtains
this f u a imrameter. (Cf. e.g. Dirac, l.c. ref. 2, pages I15-123). One obtains the wave
function q',(0 of the 8chr6dinpr picture from the wave function cw of the Heisenberz
picture by ~,(0 - exp (--iHt/A)wl The operator of the Heisenbers picture is O(0 ezp(~Ht/~) Qexp (--~Hg/A),where O is the operator in the SchrOdinser picture wbieh does not
depend on time. Cf. also E. S e i z e r ,
Sits.4i. K6n. Preuas. Aksd. p. 418, 1~0.
Tho wave functions are complex quantitiM and the undetermined f~tors m t ~ m ~r~
eompimx also. Recmatly attempts have been made toward a theory with real wave runet/oraL Cf. E. Msjorsns, Nuovo Cim. 14,171,19~7 and P. A. M. Dirsc, in print.
Reprinted from Annalsof Mathematics,Volume40, No. 1, p.149 (1939).
10
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
performed at diffenmt times) they are all supposed to give the same result,
i.e., the t a m ~ t i n a prolmbility has an invariant physical seine.
The wave funetimm form a description of the physical state, not an invariant
however, since ths mine state will be described in different co6rdlnm.tesystems
by different wave functions. In order to put this into evidence, we shall aff~
an index to our wave functions, denoting the Lorentz frame oi rderence forwhieh
the wave f u n e t i ~ is given. Thus ~ and ~ . represent the same state, but they
are different functions. The first is the wave function of the state in the coordlnAte system /, the second in the co6rdinAte system l'. If ~ = ~,v the
state 9 behaves in the eo6rdinate system l exactly as ~ behaves in the co6rdln~te
sTstemP. I f ~ i s g i v e u , All~,are determined u p t o a e o u s t a n t factor. Because
of the invariance of the trandtion probability we have
(1)
l(~, ¢~) If = I (~., ÷,.) I"
and it can be shown* that the aforementioned constants in the ~ , can be chosen
in such a way that the ~ , are obtained from the ~ . b y a linear unitary operation,
depending, of course, on I and I°
(2)
~,. = z)(t', 0 ~ .
The unitary operators D are determined by the physical content of the theocy
up to a constant factor again, which c a n depend on I and I'. Apart from this
constant however, the operations D(l', l) and D ( ~ , l~) must be identieal if l'
arises from ! by the same L o r m t s tmndormation, by which ~ arises from St.
If this were not true, there would be a real difference between the frames of
reference I and /i. Thus the unitary operator D(l', l) = D(L) is in every
Lorentz invariant qn~ntum mechanical theory (apart from the constant factor
which has no physical significance) completely determined by the Lorents
transformation L which carries l into I' = L/. One can write, instead of (2)
(2a)
¢u
= D(L)~.
By going over from a first system of reference I to a second l' -- L J and then to a
third l" ffi L ~ l or directly to the third l" = - ( / 4 ~ ) l , one must o b t a i n - - a p a r t
from the above mentioned emmtsnt--~he ~ame set of wave functions. Hence
from
~ . . ffi D ( r ' , r)D(~',
~,.. = 1)(I", r ) ~
follows
D(e', 190(l', 0 = .D(~",
' g. WiEner, Gr,~plm,ilm~z mwl ihre Aswey,du~.n aufdie Ouanten=~./~m/E d~ A ~ pd~hrem. Brmmwhweil[ Iml, lalles2M-254.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
or
(3a)
D(/4)D(L,) ffi o~D(14L~),
where co is a number of modulus 1 and can depend o n / 4 and Lt. Thu~ the
D(L) form, up to a factor, a r e ~ n t a t i o n of the inhomogeneou~ Lorentz
group by linear, -nitary operators.
We see thuss that there corresponds to every invariant quantum meclmnical
system of equations such a representation of the inhomogeneotLq Lorentz group.
This representation, on the other hand, though not sutKcient to replace the
quantum mechanical equations entirely, can replace them to a large extent.
If we knew, e.g, the operator K corresponding to the measurement of a physical
quantity at the time t ffi 0, we could follow up the change of thi-~ quantity
throughout time. In order to obtain its value for the time t =. t~, we could
tr~ndorm the or;~n~! wave function vn by D(I', l) to a co6rdlnnte system l"
the time scale of which begins a time tl later. The measurement of the quantity
in question in this co6rdinate system for the time 0 is given--as in the original
o n e - b y the operator K. This measurement is indentical, however, with the
meamuement of the quantity at time tt in the or~'n,d system. One can say t h a t
the representation can replace the equation of motion, it cannot replace, ho~ever, connections holding between operators at one instant of time.
It may be mentioned, finally, that these developments apply not only in
quant~tm mechanics, but also to all linear theories, e.g., the MJc[well equations
in empty space. The only difference is that there is no arbitrary factor in the
description and the o, can be omitted in (3a) and one is led to real representations
instead of representations up to a factor. On the other hind, the ~__nltary character of the representation is not a consequence of the basic assumptions.
The increase in generality, obtained by the present calculus, as compared
with the usual tensor theory, consists in that no assumpticms regarding the
field nature of the undedying equations are n_ece~m___ry. Thus more general
equations, as far as they exist (e.g., in which the eo6rdinate is quantized, etc.)
are also included in the present treatment. It must he realized, however.
that some assumptions concerning the continuity of space have been made by
assuming Lorents frames of reference in the classical sense. We should like to
mention, on the other hand, that the previous remarks concerning the timeparameter in the observables, have only an explanatory character, and we do not
make assumptions of the kind that measurements can be performed instan-
tanemmly.
We shall endeavor, in the ensuing sections, to determine all the continuo~ ~
unitary representations up to a factor of the inhomogeneous Lormts group.
i.e., all continuous systems of linear, unitary operators satisfying (3a).
' E. Wiper, I.e. G~m4~erXX.
' The e ~
d e i m i ~ o n o f the eontinuoume ~ t e r
of a rq.pr~ent~xtionup t o a fartor w i l l
be given in 8eetiou SA. The definition of the inhomo~neous I~>r~ntz group is eontnined
in Seetiom4A.
11
12
L:P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
2. COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS TRE.a.TMENT8 AND SOME I ~ E D I A T E
SIMPLIFICATIONS
A. Previous treatments
The repre~ntations of the Lorentz group have been investigated repeatedly.
Tile first investigation is due to M a j o r a n a / w h o in fact found all representations
of the class to be dealt with ill the present work excepting two sets of representations. Dirac ~ and Proca 8 gave more elegant derivations of Majorana's results
and brought them into a form which can be handled more easily. Klein's
work 9 does. not endeavor to derive irreducible representations and seems to be
in a less close connection ~dth the present work.
The difference between the present paper and that of Majorana and Dirac
lies--apart from the finding of new representations--mainly in its greater
mathenmtical rigor. Majorana and Dirac freely use the notion of infinitesimal
operators and a set of functions to all members of which every infinitesimal
operator can be applied. This procedure cannot be mathematically justified
at present, and no such assumption will be used in the present paper. Also the
conditions of reducibility and irreducibility could be, in general, somewhat more
complicated than assumed by Majorana and Dirac. Finally, the previous
treatments assume from the outset tlmt the space and time co6rdinates will be
continuous variables of the wave function in the usual way. This will not be
done, of course, in the present work.
B. Some immediate simplifications
Two representations are physically equivalent if there is a one to one correspondence between the states of both which is 1. invariant under Lorentz
transformations and 2. of such a character that the transition probabilities
between corresponding states are the same.
It follows from the second condition s that there either exists a unitary operator
S by which the wave functions ~c,~ of the second representation can be obtained
from the corresponding wave functions ~m of the first representation
(4)
~("~ -- 8 ~ ("
or that this is true for the conjugate imaginary of ~(2~ Although, in the
latter case, the two representations are still equivalent physically, we shall, in
keeping with the mathematical convention, not call them equivalent.
The first condition now means that if the states ~(i), ~ ) = ~g4,m correspond
to each other in one coSrdinate system, the states Dm(L)~ (~) and Dm(L)~, cs)
correspond to each other also. We have then
(4a)
D(2)(L)4,(~) --- SD(I~(L),~(I)= 8Dm(L)8-1,~ (z).
: E. Majorana, N uovo Cim. 9, 335, 1932.
P. A. M. Dirac, Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 155, 447, 1936; AI. Proca, J. de Phys. Rad. 7, 347,
1936.
' Klein, Arkiv f. l ~ t e m . Astr. och Fysik, 25A, .No. 15, 1936. I am indebted to Mr.
Darling for an interesting conversation on this paper.
E.P. Wigner/ Unitary representations of Lorentz group
As this shall hold for every 4,(2), the existence of a unitary ,5 which transforms
D ~" into D ~" is the condition for the equivalence of these two repre.-~'ntations.
Equivalent representations are not considered to be really different and it will
be sufficient to find one sample from every infinite class of equivalent representations.
If there is a closed linear manifold of states which is in~,ariant under all
Lorentz transformations, i.e. which contains D(L)~/if it contai,~ ~. the linear
manifold perpendicular to this one will be invariant al~. In fact. if ~ belongs
to the second manifold, D(L)~o ~11 be, on account of the unitary character of
D(L), perpendicular to D(L)~' if ~' belongs to the first manifold. However,
D(L-S)~ belongs to the first manifold if ¢ does and thus D(L)~owill be orthogonal
to D(L)D(L-~)~ -- ~,~ i.e. to all members of the first manifold and belong itself to
the second manifold also. The original representation then "decomposes"
into two representatiotm, corresponding to the two linear mauifolcL~. It is
clear that, conversely, one can form a representation, by simply "adding"
several other representations together, i.e. by considering a.~ states linear
combinations of the states of several representations and assume t h a t the states
which originate from different representations are perpendicular to each other.
Representations which are equivalent to sums of already kno~m representations are not really new and, in order to master all representations, it will be
sufficient to determine those, out of which all others can be obtained by "adding"
a finite or infinite number of them together.
Two simple theorems shall be mentioned here which will be proved later
(Sections 7A and 8C respectively). The first one refers to unitary representations of any closed group, the second to irreducible unitary representations of
any (closed or open) group.
The representations of a closed group by unitary operators can be transformed
into the sum of unitary representations wi~h matrices of finite dimerL~ions.
Given two non equivalent irreducible unitary repre~ntations of an arbitrary
group. If the scalar product between the wave functions is invariant under the
operations of the group, the wave functions belonging" to the first represontation are orthogonal to all wave functiorm belonging to the second repre~ntation.
C. Classification of ,,-;tary representations accordin s to yon No-,re,nand Murray ~°
Given the operators D(L) of a unitary representatiom~, or a representation
up to a factor, one can consider the algebra of these operators, i.e. all linear
combinations
a,D(LO -4- a2D(I4) -4- asD(14) + ...
of the D(L) and all limits of such linear combinations which are bounded
operators. According to the properties of this representation algebra, three
el&~es of unitary representations ean be distinguished.
t, F . J. M u r r a y a n d J. v. N e u m a n n , Ann. of M a t h . $7, 116, 1936; J . ~'. N e u m a n n , t o be
p u b l i s h e d soon.
13
14
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
The first class of in'educible representations has a representation-algebra
which contains all bounded operators, i.e. if q, and ~ are two arbitrary states,
there is an operator A of the representation algebra for which A¢~ ~ ,p and
A~' = 0 if ~' is orthogonal to q,. It is clear that the center of the algebra conrains only the unit operator and multiply thereof. In fact., if C is in the center
one can decompose C~ = ot¢, + ,~' so that ~' shall be orthogonal to ¢,. However,
~b' must vanish since otherwise C would not commute with the operator which
leaves ¢/invariant and transforms, every function orthogonal to it into 0. For
.similar reasons, a must be the same for all ~. For irreducible representations
there is no closed linear manifold of states, (excepting tbe manifold of all states)
which is invariant under all Lorentz transformations. In fact, according to the
above definition, a @' arbitrarily close to any ~ can be represented by a finite
linear coinbination
a,D(L,)~ + a.,D(Ia)¢, 4- . . . 4- a,,D(L,,)~b.
Hence, a closed linear invariant manifold contains every state if it contains one.
This is, in fact, the more customary definition for irreducible representations
and the one which will be used subsequently. It is well known that all finite
dimensional representations are sums of irreducible representations. This is
not true,~°in general, in an infinitenumber of dimensions.
The second class of representations will be called factor/a/. For these, tile
center of the representation algebra still contains only multiples of the unit
operator. Clearly, the irreducible representations are all factorial, but not
conversely. For finite dimensions, the factorial representations m a y contain
one irreducible representation several times. This is also possible in an infinite
number of dimensions, but in addition to this, there are the "continuous"
representations of Murray and yon N e u m a n n ) ° These are not irreducible as
there are invariant linear manifolds of states. O n the other hand, irisimpossible
to carry the decomposition so far as to obtain as parts only irreducible representations. In all the examples known so far, the representations into which
these continuous representations can be decomposed, are equivalent to the
original representation.
The third class contains all possible unitary representations. In a finite
number of dimensions, these can be decomposed first into factorial representations, and these, in turn, in irreducible ones. Von N e u m ~ n n TM has shown
that the first step still is possible in infinite dimensions. W e can assume,
therefore, from the outset that we are dealing with factorial rel~resentations.
In the theory of representations of finite dimensions, it is sufficient to determine only the irreducible ones, all others are equivalent to sums of these. Here,
it will be necessary to determine all factorial representations. Having done
that, we shall know from the above theorem of yon Nemnann, that all repre~ntations are equivalent to finiteor infinitesums of factorial representations.
It will be one of the results of the detailed investigation that the inhomogeneous Lorentz group has no "continuous" representations, allrepresentations
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
call be decomposed into irreducible ones. Thus the work of Majorana and
Dirac appears to be justified from this point of view a posteriori.
D. Classification of unitary representations from the point of view of
infinitesimal operators
The existence of an infinitesimal operatgr of a continuous one parametric
(cyclic, abelian) unitary group has been shown by Stone." He proved t h a t the
operators of such a group can be written a.~ exp(iHt) where H is a (bounded or
unbounded) hermitean operator and t is the group parameter. However, the
Lorentz group has many one parametric subgroups, and the corresponding
infinitesimal operators H~, H 2 , - - - are all unbounded. For every H~ an
everywhere dense set of functions ~ can be found such that H,~ can be defined.
It is not clear, however, that an everywhere dense set can be found, to all
members of which every H can be applied. In fact, it is not clear that one
such ~ can be found.
Indeed, it m a y be interesting to remark that for an irreducible representation
the existence of one function ~, to which all infinitesimal operators can be applied,
entails the existence of an everywhere dense set of such functions. This again
has the consequence that one can operate uSth infinitesimal operators to a large
extent in the usual way.
PROOF: Let Q(t) be a one parametric subgroup such that Q(t)Q(t') ffi Q ( / + t').
If the infinitesimal operator of all subgroups can be applied to ~, the
lim C~(Q(t) - 1)~
(5)
t--0
exists. It follows, then, that the infinitesimal operators can be applied to R¢
also where R is an arbitrary operator of the representation: Since R-~Q(t) R is
alse a one parametric subgroup
lira Ct(R-~Q(t)R -- 1)~ -- llm R-~.Ct(Q(t) - 1)R~
#--0
t--0
also exists and hence also (R is unitary)
-
t--0
Every infinitesimal operator can be applied to P~ if they all can be applied to ~,
and the same holds for sums of the kind
(6)
atRia, + ~
W . . . -t- a,,R,s,.
These form, however, an everywhere dense set of functions if the representation
is irreducible.
If the representation is not irreducible, one can consider the set No of such
wave functions to which every int~uite~nal operator can be applied. This set is
t~ M. H. Stone, Proc. Nat. Aead. I6, 173, 1930, Ann. of Math. 35, 643, 1932, also J. v.
Neumann, ibid, 35, 567, 1932.
15
16
E.P. Wigner / Unitao, representations of Lorentz group
clearly linear and, according to the previous paragraph, invariant under the
operations of the group (i.e. contains every Pun if it contains ~). The same
holds for the closed set N generated by No and also of the set P of functions
which are perpendicular to all functions of N. In fact, if ~,, is perpendicular to
all ~, of N, it is perpendicular also to all R-t~, and, for the unitary character of
R, the R~p is perpendicular to all ~,, i.e. is also contained ill the set P.
We can decompose thus, by a unitary transformation, every unitary representation into a "normal" and a ':pathological" part. For the former, there is
an everywhere dense set of functions, to which all infinitesimal operators can be
applied. There is no single wave functions to which all infinitesimal operators
of a "pathological" representation could be applied.
According to Murray and yon Neumazm, if the original representation was
factorial, all representations into which it can be decomposed will be factorial
also. Thus every representation is equivalent to a sum of factorial representations, part of which is "normal," the other part "pathological."
It will turn out again that the inhomogeneous Lorentz group has no pathological representations. Thus this assumption of Majorana and Dirae also
will be justified a posteriori. Every unitary representation of the inhomogenous
Lorentz group can be decomposed into normal irreducible representations. It
should be stated, however, that the representations in which the unit operator
corresponds to every translation have not been determined to date (el. also
section 3, end). Hence, the above statements are not proved for these representations, which are, however, more truly representations of the homogeneous
Lorentz group, than of the inhomogeneous group.
While all these points may be of interest to the mathematician only, the new
representation of the Lorentz group which will be described in section 7 may
interest the physicist also. It describes a particle with a continuous spin.
Acknowledgement. The subject of this paper was suggested to me as early as
1928 by P. A. M. Dirae who realised even at that date the connection of representations with quantum mechanical equations. I am greatly indebted to him
also for many fruitful conversations about this subject, especially during the
years 1934/35, the outgrowth of which the present paper is.
I am indebted also to J. v. Neumann for his help and friendly advice.
3, SUMMARY OF ENSUINO SECTIONS
Section 4 will be devoted to the definition of the inhomogeneous Lorentz
group and the theory of characteristic values and characteristic vectors of a
homogeneous (ordinary) Lorentz transformation. The discu.~sion will follow
very closely the corresponding, well-known theory of the group of motions in
ordinary space and the theory of characteristic values of orthogonal transformations.12 It will contain only a straightforward generalization of the
methods usually applied in those discussions.
x2Cf. e.g.E. Wigner, l.c. Chapter III. O. Veblen andJ. W. Young, Projectioe Geometry,
Boston 1917. Vol. 2, especially Chapter VII.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
In Section 5, it will be proved that one can determine the physically meaningless constants in the D(L) in such a way that instead of (3a) the more special
equation
(7)
D( L~)D( L2) = -t-D( L~L~)
will be valid. This means that instead of a representation up to a factor, we
can consider representations up to the sign. For the case that either L~ or L2
is a pure translation, Dirac t~ has given a proof of (7) using infinitesimal operators.
A consideration very similar to his can he carried out, however, also using only
finite transformations.
For representations with a finite number of dimensions (corresponding to an
only finite number of linearly independent states), (7) could be proved also if
both L~ and L~ are homogeneous Lorentz transformations, by a straightforward
application of the method of Weyl and Schreier. ~' However, the Lorentz group
has no finite dimensional representation (apart from the trivial one in which the
unit operation corresponds to every L). Thus the method of Weyl and Schreier
cannot be applied. Its first step is to normalize the indeterminate constants in
every matrix D(L) in such a way that the determinant of D(L) becomes 1.
No determinant can be defined for general unitary operators.
The method to be employed here will be to decompose every L into a product
of two involutions L = MN with M 2 = N ~ = 1. Then D(M) and D(N) will be
normalized so t h a t their squares become unity and D(L) ffi D(M)D(N) set
It will be possible, then, to prove (7) without going back to the topology of the
group.
Sections 6, 7, and 8 WIU contain the determination of the representations.
The pure translations form an invariant subgroup of the whole inhomogeneous
Lorent,. group and Frobenius' method t~ will be applied in Section 6 to build
up the representations of the whole group out of representations of the subgroup,
by means of a "little group." In Section 6, it will be shown on the basis of an as
y e t unpublished work 2' of J. v. Neumann that there is a characteristic (invariant) set of " m o m e n t u m vectors" for every irreducible representation. The
irreducible representations of the Lorentz group will be divided into four classes.
The m o m e n t u m vectors of the
1st class are time-like,
2nd c/as~ are null-vectors, but not all their components will be zero,
3rd c/ass vanish (i.e., all their components will be zero),
4th c/ass are space-like.
Only the first two cases will be considered in Section 7, although the last case
iz p. A. M. Dirae, mimeographed notes of lectures delivered at Princeton Univendty,
1934/35, page 51.
tt H. Weyl, Mathem. Zeits. tS, 271; 24, 328, 377, 789, 1925; O. Sehreier, Abhandl. Mathem.
Seminar Hamburg, 4, 15, 1926; 5, 233, 1927.
ts G. Frobenitm, Sitz. d. K6n. Pretum. Akad. p. 501, 1898, I. Sehur, ibid, p. 164, 1906;
F. Seitz, Ann. of Math. S7, 17, 1936.
17
18
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
may be the most interesting from the mathematical point of view. I hope to
return to it in another paper. I did not succeed so far in giving a complete
discussion of the 3rd class. (All these restrictions appear in thp previous
treatments also.)
In Section.7, we shall find again all known representations of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group (i.e., all known I,orentz invariant equations) and two
new sets.
Sections 5, 6, 7 will deal with tile "restricted .Lorentz group" only, i.e. Lorentz
transformations with determinant 1 which do not reverse the direction of the
time axis. In section 8, the representations of the extended Lorentz group will
be considered, the transformations of which are not subject to these conditions.
4. DESCRIFrION OF THE [NHOMOGENEOUS LORENTZ GRouP
A.
An inhomogeneous Lorentz transformation L = (a, A) is the product of a
translation by a real vector a
!
(8)
x~ = x, + a,
(i: = 1.2, 3, 4)
and a homogeneous Lorentz transformation A mfith real coefficients
4
(9)
& = )-':
ksl
The translation shall be performed after the homogeneous transformation.
The coefficients of the homogeneous transformation satisfy three conditions:
(I) They are real and h leaves the indefinite quadratic form - x ~ - x] - x32 + x~
invariant:
(10)
AFA'=
F
where the prime denotes the interchange of rows and columns and F is the
diagonal matrix with the diagonal elements - 1, - 1, - 1, + 1 . - - ( 2 ) The determ i n a n t l A~ I = 1 a n d - - ( 3 ) A~ > O.
W e shall denote the Lorentz-hermitean product of two vect<~rs x and y by
(11)
{x, y} = --x~y~ -- x~y~ -- x~y3 + x~y4.
(The star denotes the conjugate imaginary.) If {x, x} < 0 the vector x is
called space-like, if {x, x} = 0, it is a null vector, if {x, x} > 0, it is called timelike. A real time-like vector lies in the positive light cone if x~ > 0; it lies in the
negative light cone if x4 < 0. Two vectors x and y are called orthogonal if
Iz, Yl
0.
On account of its linear character a homogeneous Lorentz transformation is
completely defined if Av is given for four linearly independent vectors @~,
V(2), !/(z), V(4).
=
From (1t) :rod (lO) it follows that Iv, wl = {Av, Aw} for every pair of vectors
v, w. This will be satisfied for every pair if it is satisfied for all pairs v(~), vok)
E.P lCigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
of four linearly independent vectors. The reality condition is satisfied if
(Av~°) * ffi A(v(°*) holds for four such vectors.
The scalar product of two vectors z and F is positive if both lie in the positive
light cone or both in the negative light cone. It is negative if one lies in the
positive, the other in the negative.light cone. Since both z and y are time-like
~x4t 2 > l z l l * + l x z l ~ + l x s l ~ ; ly41~ ~ l y t l 2 + l y : l s + l Y a l 2. Hence, by
Schwarz's inequality I z~y41 > I z~Y~ -F ziy2 -F z~ys ] and the sign of the scalar
product of two real time-like vectors is determined by the product of their
time components.
A time-like vector is transformed by a Lorent~. transformation into a time-like
vector. Furthermore, on account of the condition A~ > 0, the vector v(°)
with the components 0, 0, 0, 1 remains in the positive light cone, since the fourth
component of Av(°) is a , .
If v(s~ is another vector ts in the positive light cone
{vcu, v~°~} > 0 and hence also {Av(~, Av(°)} > 0 and av ~t~ is in the positive light
cone also. The third condition for a Lorent~. transformation can be formulated
also as the requirement that every vector in (or on) the positive light cone shall
remain in (or, respectively, on) the positive light cone.
This formulation of the third condition shows that the third condition holds
for the product of two homogeneous Lorents tran~ormations if it holds for both
factors. The same is evident for the first two conditions.
From AFA' = F one obtains by multiplying with A-~ from the left and
A~1 = (A-t) ' from the right F = A-tF(A-~) ' so that the reciprocal of a homogeneous Lorentz transformation is again such a transformation. The homogeneous Lorentz transformations form a group, therefore.
One easily calculates that the product of two inhomogeneous Lorentz trAnsformations (b, ~ and (c, N) is again an inhomogeneous Lorentz transformation
A)
(12)
(b, M)(c, N) = (a, A)
where
(12a)
=
= b, + Y'.
i
i
or, somewhat shorter
(12b)
A = MN;
a = b + Me.
B. Theory of characteristic values and characteristic vectors of a homogeaeous
Loreatz tranMormation
Linear homogeneous transformations are most simply described by their
characteristic values and vectors. Before doing this for the homogeneous
Lorents group, however, we shall need two rules about orthogonal vectors.
~" Wherever s confusion between vectors and veetor eomponents appears to be po~ib]e,
upper indices will be used for distinguishing different vectors and lower indices for denoting
the components of a vector.
19
E.P. Wigner/ Unitaryrepresentationsof Lorentz group
20
[11 I/" Iv, w} = 0 and Iv, v} > O, then {w, to} < O; if Iv, to} = O, It,, t,} = O,
then to is d.ther spa~-like, or 1~aralld to v ( ~ , r {to, to} < O, or to = cv).
PsooF :
(13)
V4to4 = *,l tot "~ t , ~
"]- t , * ~ .
By 8ehwarz's inequality, then
(14)
Iv, I' I to, l" - ( Iv, I' + I~ I' + Iv, I')( I to, 1' + l ~ l" + ! ~ I').
For I v, 1' > I vt I~ q- I t~ 12-t- I t~ 1' it follows that I w, [' < [ wt ]~ -t- 1lo, [' -t- [to, 1'.
If l t,, 1' --- Iv, [2 -I- [t~ I~ + Iv, [~ the second inequality still follows if the inequality sign holds in (14). The equality sign can hold only, however, if the
first three components of the veetors t, and to are proportional. Then, on
aeeount of (13) and both being null vectors, the fourth components are in the
same ratio also.
[21 I f four vectors t,<u, vc'.), v<a), vco are mutually orthogonal and linearly independent, one of them is time-like, three are space-like.
PRooF: It follows from the previous paragraph that only one of four mutually
orthogonal, linearly independent vectors can be time-like or a null vector. I t
remains to be shown therefore only that one of them is time-like. Since they
are linearly independent, it is possible to express by them any time-like vector
4
V(t) ~ E ~/~ v(k)t--I
The scalar product of the left side of this equation with itself is poeitive and
therefore
t~
~zkV(k)~
~ akv~k~} > 0
or
(15)
k
[ ~. r {v'~', vc"] > 0
and one {v<~>,v<k~} must be positive. Four mutually orthogonal vectors are not
necessarily linearly independent, because a null vector is perpendicular to itself.
The linear independenee follows, however, if none of the four is a null vector.
We go over now to the characteristic values X of A. These make the determinant I A -- Xl [ of the matrix A -- M vanish.
[3] I f 7~ is a rAara~ri~ic value, X*, ),-* and ),*-~ are characteristic values also.
PRooF: For X* this follows from the fact that A is real. Furthermore, from
[ A -- Xl [ ---- 0 also [ A' -- ),1 [ = 0 follows, and this multiplied by the deterraimmts of AF and F -'t gives
I~l.
14'-
xtl.
l e l - * = I ~d~A'r-' - XAI = Ix -- XA I ---- 0,
so that X-~ is a characterktic value also.
[41 The ~ / ¢
n~tors v, and ~ bdona/n¢ to two ~
X, are ~
if X~)~ ~ 1.
m/~
Xt and
E.P. l~igner/ Unitary representationsof Lorentz group
PROOF:
{v,, ~ } = { a n , , A~} = {x,v,, x ~ }
ffi x~xfln, , ~ } .
Thus if {vt, vs} # 0, X~X, ffi I.
[5] I f th~ modulus of a charaderiaic mlue X is l x l ~ 1, the corresponding
eharader~ie vector v is a null aeetor and X itself real and positive.
From Iv, v} ffi {An, An} ffi [ X lfln, v} the {v, v} ffi 0 follows immediately for
I X ! ~ 1. If h were complex, X* would be a characteristic value also. The
characteristic vectors of X and X* would be two different null vectors and,
because of [4], orthogonal to each other. This is impossible on account of [1].
Thus X is real and v a real null vector. Then, on account of the third condition
for a homogeneous Lorentz transformation, X must be positive.
[6] The charaderistic value X of a charaderislic vector v of ~ngth null is real and
positive.
If X wqre not real, X* would be a characteristic value also. The corresponding
characteristic vector v* would be different from v, a null vector also, and perpendicular to v on account of [4]. This is impossible because of [1].
[7] The e h a r a d z ~ / e vector n o$ a eomp/c.z eharaaer~/e m/ue X (the modulus of
tohich is 1 on accour~ of [5]) is ~rpace-|/ke- Iv, v} < 0.
PRoof: X* is a characteristic value also, the corresponding characteristic
vector is v*. Since 0.*)*X = )I ~ 1, {n*, v} ffi 0. Since they are different, at
least one is space-like. On account of {v, n} ffi [v*, v*} both are space-like. If
all four characteristic values were complex and the corresponding characteristic
vectors linearly independent (which is true except if A has elementary divisors)
we should have four space-like, mutually orthogonal vectors. This is impossible,
on account of [2]. Hence
[8] There is not more than on~ pair of conjugate comple.z eAaraderistic mlus~,
if A has no elementary didsors. 8imilarIF, under the m n ~ condition, there is
rug more than one pair X, X-t of charaderistie values whose modulus is differem
from 1. Otherwise their characteristic vectors would be orthogonal, which
they o~mnot be, being null VectOle8.
For homogeneous Lorentz trsndorraatious which do not have elementary
divisors, the following possibilities remain:
(a) There is a pair of complex characteristic values, their modulus is .1, on
account of [51
(le)
x, ffi x: = x~';
I x, I = Ix11 ffi 1,
and also a pair of. characteristic values ks, X~, the modulus of which is not 1"
These must be real and positive:
(16n)
M ffi XTx;
M ---- X~ > 0.
The ch~racteriatic vectors of the eonjugLte complex characteristic value8 are
conjugate complex, perpendicular to each other and spex~-like so that they can
be n o r m ~ s e d to --1
,, = ~ ;
(17)
In,,~}
I~, v,I = I,',, n~'t ffi o
= l~,~l
ffi - I
21
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
22
those of the real characteristic values are real nml vectors, their scalar p r o d u c t
can be normalized to 1
v~ =
(17a)
va
v,--- v,
{vz,v,}
=
I
{v,, v,} --- [v,, v,} = 0.
Finally, the former pair of characteristic vectors is perpendicular to the latter
kind
(17b)
_{v,, v,} -- {v,, v,} -= {v,, v,} = {~s, v,} = O.
I t will t u r n o u t t h a t all the other cases in which A has no elementary divisor
are speeial ses of (a).
"
O
,
A
FxG. 1. Position of the characteristic values for the general case a) in the complex plane.
In case b), k~ and ),, coincide and are equal 1; in c u e c), ),l and ),s coincide and are either
+1 or - 1 . Incase d) both paire),z =ffi)~ ffi=I and ~ - ).ffi~- 4-1 coincide.
(b) T h e r e is a pair of complex characteristic values ),1, )~s -- ),~'z -- ),~,
),1 ~ ),*, [ ),11 -- [ ),s I -- 1. No pair with I k~ I ~ 1, however. T h e n on a c c o u n t
of [8], still )~ -- Z* which gives with I k, ! = 1, k8 = + 1. Since t h e p r o d u c t
),l~zk~ ffi 1, on account of the second condition for homogeneous Lorentz
transformations, also )~ = ~ = ± 1. T h e double characteristic value -4-1 has
two linearly i n d e p e n d e n t characteristic vectors v, a n d v, which can be a s s u m e d
to be perpendicular t o each other, {v3, v,} = 0. According to [2], one of the
four characteristic vectors m u s t be time-like a n d since those of ),1 a n d ),, are
space-like, the time-like one m u s t belong to + 1 . This m u s t be positive,
therefore ~ -- ~ = 1. O u t of the time-like a n d space-like vectors [s a, va} -- - 1
a n d {s4, v4} •ffi 1, one can build two null vectors v, -{- t~ and v , - ~ . Doing
this, case (b) becomes t h e special case of (a) in which t h e real positive characteristic values become equal ~ = ),71 = 1.
(e) All characteristic values are real; there is however one pair Xz -- X~,
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
23
k~ ffi )`~t, the modulus of which is not unity. T h e n {ca, ~} ffi Iv4, v,| ffi 0
and h > 0 and one can conclude for ),~ a n d ),ffi, as before for h a n d h t h a t ),~ ffi
).2 -- 4-1. This again is a special ease of (a); here the two characteristic values
of modulus 1 become equal.
(d) All characteristic values are real and of modulus 1. If all of t h e m are + 1 ,
we have the unit matrix which clearly can be considered as a special case of (a).
T h e other case is )`t = )`2 = - 1, ~a = k4 = -F 1. T h e characteristic vectors of
kt and ),s must be space-like, on account of the third condition for a homogeneous
Lorentz transformation; they can be assumed to be orthogonal a n d normalized
to - 1 . This is then a special case of (b) a n d hence of (a) also. The cases
(a), (b), (c), (d) are illustrated in Fig. 1.
T h e cases remain to be considered in whien A has an e l e m e n t a r y divisor.
We set therefore
(18)
A,v, = ~,v, ;
A, to, = ~,to, -t- v..
It follows from [5] that either I k, I = 1, or Iv., v,} ffi 0. We have Iv,, to,} ffi
{ / ~ . , A.to.} = I X. ]ffi{v., to.} -F {v,, ~.}. F r o m this equation
(19)
I*., v.} = 0
follows for l k , l ffi I, so that (19) holds in a n y case. It follows then from
[6] that k, is real, positive and v., to. can be assumed to be real also. T h e last
equation now becomes {v,, to, } .ffi X,2 {v,, t0,} so t h a t either ~, ffi I or {u,, to, } ffi 0.
Finally, we have
{to., to.} =
{ A.to. , A.to.} = x.{to.,
2
to.} + 2X.lto., v.} +
Iv.,
This equation now shows that
(19a)
even i l k . ffi I.
normalized to
(19b)
{to.,
v.} ---- 0
F r o m (19), (19a) it follows tb_at to. is space-like a n d can be
{to., w.} = --1.
Inserting (19a) into the preceding equation we finally obtain
(19e)
~. ffi 1.
[9] I f A, has an elementary divisor, all its characbn~tic roote an6 1.
From (19c) we see t h a t the root of the e l e m e n t a r y divisor is 1 a n d this is at
least a double root. If A had s pair of characteristic values ~ ~ 1, Xs •ffi X~-l,
the corresponding characteristic vectors ~ a n d ~ would be orthogonai to ~o a n d
therefore space-like. On account of [5], then I ).t I - I ~ I •ffi 1 a n d { ~ , ~} ffi 0.
Furthermore, from {to,, ~} ffi { A.w.. A.~} ffi ),l{to.. ~ } + Xd~.. ~} a n d from
{v., ~ } = 0 also {to., ~ } ffi 0 follows. T h u s all the four vectors ~ , ~ , ~., to. would
be m u t ~ ! l y orthogonal. This is excluded b y [2] a n d (19).
ILP Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
24
Two cases are conceivable now. Either the fourfold characteristic root has
only one characteristic vector, or there is in addition to v, (at least) a n o t h e r
characteristic vector vl. Ill the former case four linearly independent vectors
v , , w , . z , , x, could be found such that
A,.v,. = v,
A , w , = w , + v,
h , z , = z, + w,
h,x,
= x , + z,.
However {v,, x,} = {h,~,, h,x,] = {v,, z,} + {v,, z,} from which {v,, z,} = 0
follows. On the other h a n d
Iw., z.} = {A.w., A~.} = {w., z.} + Iw., w.} + {v., z.} + {v., w.}.
This gives with (19a) a n d (19b) { v , , z,} = 1 so t h a t this case m u s t be excluded.
(e) T h e r e is thus a vector v~ so t h a t in addition to (18)
(18a)
A,vl = vx
holds.
F r o m {w, , vl} = { A , w , , A,vt}" = {w, , vl} + {v, , vt} follows
(19d)
{v,, v,} = 0.
Tile equations (18), (18a) will remain unchanged if we add to w , a n d vta multiple
of v , . W e can achieve in this way t h a t the f o u r t h components of both to, a n d
~, ~'anish. Furthermore, vl can be normalized to - 1 and a d d e d to w , also with
a n a r b i t r a r y coefficient, to make it orthogonal to vl. Hence, we can assume t h a t
(19e)
v. = w . = 0;
{to., v~} = o.
Iv,, v~} = - 1 ;
We can finally define the null vector z, to be orthogorml to w, and v~ and have a
scalar product 1 with v,
(190
{z,, z,} = {z,, w~} = { z , , vl} = 0;
{z,, v,} = 1.
T h e n the null vectors v, and z° represent the m o m e n t a of two light b e a m s in
opposite directions. If we set A , z , = av, + bw, + cz, -4- dvt the conditions
{z°, v} = { h , z , , A l l give, if we set for v the vectors v,, w , , z,, vt the conditions
c = 1;b = c ; 2 a e - b
2-d ~ =0;d=0.
Hence
h~°
---- V.
A.W. = W. +
V~
(20)
h,v~ = v~
h,z, = z, + w, +
½v,.
A Lorentz trmmformation with an elementary divisor can be best characterized
by the null vector v° which is invariant under it and the space part of which
forms with the two other vectors to, and vl three mutually orthogonal vectors in
ordinary space. The two vectors w, and v~ are normalized, 0z is invariant under
A. while the vector v° is added to w° upon application of A°. The result of the
application of A, to a vector which is linearly independent of v,, to. and v~ is,
as we saw, already determined by the expressions for h,z°, h°tOoand A,vz.
The A.(7) which have the invariant null vector v. and also to. (and hence also
25
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
vt) in common and differ only by adding to w, different multiples 7v, of t,,,
form a cyclic group with "v -- 0, the unit transformation as unity:
•~.(v)A.(V') = A°Cv + ~').
The Lorentz transformation M(a) which leaves vt and w° invariant but replaces v, by ow, (and z. by a-~z,) has the property of transforming A,(~,) into
m (,,) A°(~,) M(~) -t = A.(cry).
(+)
An example of A,(~) and M(a) is
A,(7)--
Ii100 i
M(a) =
•0
0
1
,y
0
0
-7
1-½72
-½75
0
,
½5
1+½,'I]
;
I[
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
½Ca + --~)
~(~ - --~) "
0
i(~-"-~)
~(~+"-~)
These Lorentz transformations play an important rSle in the representations
with space like momentum vectors.
A behavior like ( + ) is impossible for finite unitary matrices because the
characteristic values of M(a)-~A,(~,)M(,,) and A,(~,) are the same--those of
Ao(~a) ---- A,(-:) ~ the a th powers of those of A°(7). This shows very simply that
the Lorentz group has no true unitary representation in a finite number of
dimensions.
C. Decomposition of a homogeneous Lorentz transformation into rotations and
an acceleration in a given direction
The homogeneous Lorentz transformation is, from the point of view of the
physicist, a transformation to a uniformly moving coordinate system, the origin
of which coincided at t = 0 with the origin of the first coordinate system. One
can, therefore, first perform a rotation which brings the direction of motion of
the second system into a given direction m y the direction of the third axis-and impart it a velocity in this direction, which will bring it to rest. After
this, the two coordinate systems can differ only in a rotation. This means that
every homogeneous Lorents transformation can be decomposed in the following
way 17
(21)
A
=
RZ8
IT Cf. e.g.L. Silberatein, The Theory of Rdaliviqt. London 1924, p. 142.
LP. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
26
where R and 8 are pure rotations, (i.e. R , = Rz, = S , = S,, = 0 f o r i ~
4
a n d R , = 84, = 1, a l s o R ' = R -l, 8' = 8 -l) and Z is an acceleration in the
direction of the third axis, i.e.
000
Z =
1
0
0
O
a
b
0
b
a
with a 2 - b' = 1, a > b > 0. The decomposition (21) is clearly not unique.
It will be shown, however, t h a t Z is uniquely determined, i.e. the same in e v e r y
decomposition of the form (21).
In order to prove this mathematically, we chose R so t h a t in R-IA = I the
first two components in the fourth column I~, = I~4 = 0 become zero: R -1
shall bring the vector with the components -~-~4, h2~, A34 into the third axis.
T h e n we take I u = (h~, + A~4 + h~,) t and I,~ = A , for b and a to f o r m Z ;
t h e y satisfy the equation I ~ - I~, = 1. Hence, the first three components of t h e
fourth column of J = Z - I I = Z - t R - I A ~ l l become zero a n d J ~ = 1, because of
J~, - J14 - J ~ - J~, = 1. Furthermore, the first three c o m p o n e n t s of the
fourth row of J will vanish also, on account of J l , - J~t - J ~ - J~s = 1, i.e.
J = 8 = Z - t R - ~ A is a pure rotation. This proves the possibility of t h e decomposition (2i).
T h e trace of A A' = RZ2R -l is equal to the trace of Z 2, i.e. equal to 2a 2 +
2b 2 + 2 = 4a 2 = 4b 2 + 4 which shows t h a t the a a n d b of Z are uniquely determined. In particular a = 1, b = 0 and Z the unit m a t r i x if h A ' = 1, i.e. A-a
pure rotation.
I t is easy to show now that the group space of the homogeneous L o r e n t z
transformations is only doubly connected. If a continuous series A(t) of
homogeneous Lorentz transformations is given, which is u n i t y both for t -- 0
and for t = 1, we can decompose it according to (21)
(21a)
A(t) = R(t)Z(t)S(t)..
It is also clear from the foregoing, t h a t R(t) can be assumed to be continuous
in t, except for values of t, for which h~ = A24 = A34 = 0, i.e. for which h is a
pure rotation. Similarly, Z(t) will be continuous in t and this will hold even
where A(t) is a pure rotation. Finally, S = Z - ~ R - I A will be continuous also,
except where h(t) is a pure rotation.
Let us consider now the series of Lorentz transformations
(21b)
A.(t) = R ( t ) z ( t ) ' z ( t )
where the b of Z(t) ° is s times the b of Z(L). By decreasing s from 1 to 0 we
continuously deform the set hi(t) = A(t) of Lorentz transformations into a set of
rotations lh(t) = R ( t ) S ( t ) . Both the beginning A0(0) = 1 a n d the e n d h,(1) -- 1
of the set remain the unit matrix a n d the sets A0(t) remain continuous in t for
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
all values of s. This last fact is evident for such t for which A(t) is not a rotation: for such t all factors of (21b) are continuous. But it is true also for to
for which A(t0) is a rotation, and for which, hence Z(t0) = 1 and A,(t~) = Al(to) ffi
A(t0). As Z(t) is everywhere continuous, there ~11 be a neighborhood of to
in which Z(t) and hence also Z(t)' is arbitrarily close to the unit matrix. In
this neighborhood A,(t) = A(0. 8(t)-tZ(t)-tZ(t)" 8 ( 0 is arbitrarily close to
A(t); and, if the neighborhood is small enough, this is arbitrarily close to
=
Thus (21b) replaces the continuous set A(t) of Lorentz transformations by a
continuous set of rotations. Since these form an only doubly connected manifold, the manifold of Lorentz transformations can not be more than doubly
connected. The existence of a two valued representationm shows that it is
actually doubly and not simply connected.
We can form a new group~ from the Lorentz group, the elements of which are
the elements of the Lorentz group, together with a way ACt), connecting A(1)
= A with the unity A(0) = E. However, two ways which can be continuously
deformed into each other are not considered different. The product of the
element "A with the way A(t)" with the element " I with the way I ( 0 " is the
element AI with the way which goes from E along A(0 to A and hence along
AI(t) to AI. Clearly, the Lorentz group is isomorphic with this group and two
elements (corresponding to the two essentially different ways to A) of this group
correspond to one element of the Lorentz group. It is well known,TM that this
group is holomorphic with the group of unimodular complex two dimensional
transformations.
Every continuous representation of the Lorentz group "up to the sign" is a
singlevalued, continuous representation of this group. The t r ~ f o r m a t i o n which
corresponds to "A with the way A0)" is that d(a) which is obtained by going
over from d(E) = d(A(0)) -- 1 continuously along d(a(0) to d(A(l)) ffi d(a).
D. The homogeneous Lorentz group is simple
It will be shown, first, that an invariant subgroup of the homogeneous Lorents
group contains a rotation (i.e. a transformation which leaves z, invariant).-We can write an arbitrary element of the invariant subgroup in the form R Z 8
of (21). From its presence in the invariant subgroup follows that of 8 . R Z 8 . 8 -~
= 8 R Z = T Z . If X , is the rotation by T about the first axis, X , Z X , ffi g-.l
and X , T Z X . -~ = X ~ T X . X . Z X ~
= X , T X , Z "~ is contained in the invariant
subgroup also and thus the transform of this with Z, i.e. Z--zX,TX,, also. T h e
product of this with T Z is T X . T X , which leaves z4 invariant. If T X , T X , = 1
we can take T Y . T Y , . If this is the unity also, T X , T X , ffi T Y , T Y , and T
commutes with X , Y . , i.e. is a rotation about the third axis In this case the
s' Cf. H. Weyl, Gruppt,ntheorie und Qua~m~.r~fdk, lst; ed. Leipzig 1928, pag~ 110-114,
2rid ed. Leipzig 1931, pages 130-133. It may be interesting to remark that e~entiaily the
same isomorphism has been recognized already by L. Silberetein, I.e. pages 148-15/.
27
28
KI~ Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
space like (complex) characteristic vectors of TZ lie in the plane of the first two
co6rdinate axes. Transforming TZ by an acceleration in the direction of the
first co6rdinate axis we obtain a new element of the invariant subgroup for
which the space like characteristic vector will have a not vanishing fourth
component. Taking this for RZ,S we can transform it with S again to obtain a
new SRZ = TZ. However, since $ leaves z4 invariant, the fourth component
of the space like characteristic vectors of this TZ will not vanish and we can
obtain from it by the procedure just described a rotation which must be contained in the invariant subgroup.
It remains to be shown that an invariant subgroup which contains a rotation,
contains the whole homogeneous Lorentz group. Since the three-dimensional
rotation group is simple, all rotations must be contained in the invariant subgroup. Thus the rotation by 7r around the first axis X , and also its transform
with Z and also
ZX,Z-'.X,
= Z.X.Z-IX,
= Z'
is contained in the invariant subgroup. However, the general acceleration in
the direction of the third axis can be written in this form. As all rotations are
contained in the invariant subgroup also, (21) shows that this holds for all
elements of the homogeneous Lorentz group.
It follows from this that the homogeneous Lorentz group has apart from the
representation with unit matrices only true representations. It follows then
from the remark at the end of part B, that these have all infinite dimensions.
This holds even for the two-valued representations to which we shall be led in
Section 5 equ. (52D), as the group elements to which the positive or negative
unit matrix corresponds must form an invariant subgroup also, and becjtuse the
argument at the end of part B holds for two-valued representations also. One
easily sees furthermore from the equations (52]3), (52C) that it holds for the
inhomogeneous Lorentz group equally well.
5. REDUCTION OF REPRESENTATIONS U P TO A FACTOR T O ~ w o - V A L U E D
REPRESENTATIONS
The reduction will be effected by giving each unitary transformation, which is
defined by the physical content of the theory and the consideration of reference
only up to a factor of modulus unity, a "phase," which will leave only the sign
of the representation operators undetermined. The unitary operator corresponding to the translation a will be denoted by T(a), that to the homogeneous
Lorentz transformation A by d(A). To the general inhomogeneous Lorentz
transformation then D(a, A) = T(a)d(A) will correspond. Instead of the
relations (12), we shall use the following ones.
(22B)
T(a)T(b) = ca(a, b)T(a + b)
(22C)
d( A)T(a) = ¢(A, a)T( Aa)d( A)
(22D)
d(A)d(I) = ~,(A, I)d(AI).
E.IE Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
The ~ are numbers of modulus 1. They enter because the multiplication
rules (12) hold for the representatives only up to a factor. Otherwise, the
relations (22) are consequences of (12) and can in their return replace (12).
We shall replace the T(a), d(A) by fl(a)T(a) and fi(A)d(A) respectively, for
which equations similar to (22) hold, however With
(22')
~(a, b) -- 1;
~0(A, a) -- 1;
,o(A, I) --- :1:1.
A.
It is necessary, first, to show that the undetermined factors in the representa$ion D(L) can be assumed in such a way that the co(a, b), co(A, a), co(A,/) become
a p a r t from regions of lower dimensionality--continuous functions of their
&rguntents. This is a consequence of the continuous character of the representation and shall be discuss~i first.
(a) From the point of view of the physicist, the natural definition of the
continuity of a representation up to a factor is as follows. The neighborhood 8
of a Lorentz transformation/4 ffi (/~,/) shall contain all the transformations
L = (a, A) for which I a, - b, I < 5 and [ A~ -- I ~ I < 5. The representation
up to a factor D(L) is continuous if there is to every positive number ¢, every
normalized wave function ~oand every Lorentz transformation L0 such a neighborhood ~ of Lo that for every L of this neighborhood one can find an fi of
modulus 1 (the f~ depending on L and ~o) such that (u,, u,) < ~ where
(23)
u,
=
(D(L,)
-
Let us now take a p o i n t / 4 in the group space and find a normalized wave
[unction ~o for which I (~o, D(Lo)~o) I > 1/6. There always exists a ~o with this
property, if I(~o, D(Lo)~0)[ < 1/6 then ~ -- a~o -!- ~D(L0)~o with suitably chosen
- and ~ will be normalized and I (~, D(Lo)~,) ] > 1/6. We consider then such
neighborhood ~ o f / 4 for all L of which I (~0, D(L)~o) J > 1/12. It is well
known ~' that the whole group space can be covered with such neighborhoods.
We want to show now that the D(L)~o can be multiplied with such phase factors
(depending on L) of modulus unity that it becomes strongly continuous in the
region ~.
We shall chose that phase factor so that (~o,D(L)v,) becomes real and positive.
Denoting then
(23')
(D(L~) - D(L))~o = U,,
the ( U , , U,) can be made arbitrarily small by letting L approach sufficiently
near to LI, if Lt is in ~. Indeed, on account of the continuity, as defined
above, there is an fl ---- e;' such that (u, u) < ~ i f L is s-~ciently near to LI
where
u
=
-
z~ This condition i8 the "separability" of the group.
34, 147, 1933.
Cf. e.g.A. Hunt, Ann. of Math.,
29
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
30
TRbing the absolute value of the scalar product of u with ¢ one obtains
i (9, V(Ia)¢~) - cos ,c(¢, D(L)~o) -- i sin ,~(~, DCL)~,) I -- I (~', u) [ ~_ V/~,
because of Schwartz's inequality. If only V~- < 1/12, the • must be smaller
than ~/2 because the absolute value is certainly greater than the real part, and
both (~, D(L~)¢) and (¢, D(L)¢) are real and greater than 1/12.
As the absolute value is also greater than the imaginary part, we
sin • < 12V~.
On the other hand,
U, = u-I- (e;" - 1)D(L)~,
and thus
(Uo, Go) t _~ (u, u) t + [e" - ] I -~ ~
(uo, uo) _~ 825
+ 2 sin ,/2
,.
(b) I t shall be shown next that if D(L)~ is strongly continuous in a region
and D(L) is continuous in the sense defined at the beginning of this section,
then D(L)~ with an arbitrary ~ is (strongly) continuous in that region also.
We shall see, hence, that the D(L), with any normalization which makes a
D(L)~, strongly, continuous, is continuous in the ordinary sense: There is to
every/,1, Eand t~,ry ~ a 5 so that ( U , , U÷) < ~ where
U, = (D(Lt) - D(L))~
if L is in the neighborhood ~ of Lx.
It is suttlcient to show the continuity of D(L)~ where ~ is orthogonal to ¢.
Indeed, every ~' can be decomposed into two terms, ~' = a~, + / t ~ the one of
which is parallel, the other perpendicular to ~. Since D(L)v, is continuous,
according to supposition, D( L )~ ' = ~d)( L )~ -t- tJD( L )~ will be continuous also if
D(L)~, is continuous.
The continuity of the representation up to a factor requires that it is possible
to achieve that (u÷, u,) < ~ and (u÷+,, u,~,) < ~ where
(23a)
u÷ = (D(L~) - fl÷V(L))~,
u÷~, = (D(L,) - fl,~,D(L))(÷ -t- ~o),
(23b)
with mfitably chosen fl's. According to the foregoing, it also is possible to
choose L and L~ so close that ( U , , U,) < E.
Subtracting (239 and (23a) from (23b) and applying D(L) -~ on both sides gives
(~÷ -
o,n,)q,
+
(1 -
~,~,)~, = 9(L)-%,~
-
~,÷ -
Uo)
The sr~lar product of the right side with itself is less than 9E. Hence both
]fl÷ - fl~+~[ < 3 2 a n d I1 - fl,~,[ < 32 or [1 - ft÷l < 0El- Because of
U , = u , - (1 - fl,)D(L)~, the ( U , , U,) t < (u÷, u÷)l -I- ] 1 - fl÷ i and thus
(U÷, U÷) < 49E.
E.P. Wigner/ Unitaryrepresentationsof Lorentzgroup
31
This completes the proof of the theorem stated under (b). It also shows that
not only the continuity of D(L)~o has been achieved in the neighborhood of Lo
by the normalization used in (a) but also that of D(L)~/with every 41, i.e., the
continuity, of D(L).
It is clear also that every finite part of the group space can be covered by a
finite number of neighborhoods in which D(L) can be made continuous. It is
easy to see that the w of (22) will be also continuous in these neighborhoods so
that is is possible to make them continuous, apart from regions of lower dimensionality than their variables have. In the following only the fact will be used
that they can be made continuous in the neighborhood of any a, b and A.
B.
(a) We want to show next that all T(a) commute.
From (22B) we have
T(a)T(b)T(a) -~ = c(a, b)T(b)
(24)
where
c(a, b) = ~(a, b)/t~(b, a)
(24a)
c(a, b) = c(b, a)-'.
and
hence
Transforming (24) with T(a') one obtains
T(a') T(a) T(b) T(a)-tT(a') -~ = c(a, b) T(a') T(b) T(a')-'
o~(a', a)T(a' A- a)T(b)~(a', a)-'T(a' A- a)-' = c(a, b)c(a', b)T(b)
or
or
c(a, b)c(a', b) -- c(a + a', b).
(25)
It follows~°from (25) and the partial continuity of c(a, b) that
('
(261
c(a, b) = exp 2 , i ~ a,f,(b)
)
gin|
and, since this is equal to c(b, a) -~ = e x p ( - 2 ~ ~ b,f,(a))
4
(27)
~ (a,.f,(b) + bJ,(a)) = n(a, b)
tt~!
where n(a, b) is an integer. Setting in (27) for b the vector • ~x~the X component
of which is 1, all the others tero and for f,(t c~)) -- - f , ~
h(a) = n(a, e °'~) + ~ aJ, x,
and putting this back into (27) we obtain
4
(28)
4
~ f~(a~b, q- b~o.) q" ~.. a,n(b, • ~'~) "b b,n(a, e ~'~) ffi n(a, b).
• .~--1
t--I
s. G. Hamel, Math. Ann. 60, 460, 190,5,quoted from H. Hshn, Theorie der redlen Funk-
tionen. Berlin 1921, pages ,581-583.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
32
Assuming for the components of a and b such values which are transcendental
both with respect to each other and the f,z (which are fixed numbers), one sees
that (28) cannot hold except if the coefficient of every one vanishes
(29)
f,~, + f~, = O;
n(b, e (')) = O,
so that (26) becomes
(30)
c(a, b) = exp (2ri,.~_l
~ f,~,a~,b,).
It is necessary now to consider the existence of an operator d(h) satisfying (22C).
Transforming this equation with the similar equation containing b instead of a
d(A) T(b)d(A)-'d(A)T(a)d(A)-'d(A)T(b)-'d(A)-'
= ~0(h, b)T(Ab)~o(h, a)T(ha)~(h, b)-lT(Ab) -t = ~0(A, a)c(hb, Aa)T(Aa),
while the first line is clearly d(A)c(b, a)T(a)d(A) ~ = ~0(A, a)c(b, a)T(Aa)
whence
c(b, a) = c(Ab, Aa)
(31)
t
holds for every Lorentz transformation A. Combined with (20) this gives
where n'(a, b) is again an integer.
As this equation holds for every a, b
w~
must hold also, for every Lorentz transformation. However, the only form
invariant under all Lorentz transformations are multiples of the F of (10).
Actually, because of (29), f must vanish and c(a, b) = 1, all the operators
corresponding to translations commute
(32)
T(a) r(b) --- T(b)T(a).
It is well to remember that it was necessary for obtaining this result to use the
existence of d(A) satisfying (22C).
(b) Equation (32) is clearly independent of the normalization of the T(a).
If we could fix the translation operators in four linearly independent directions
ecn, era, eCS~,em so that foreach of these directions
(33)
T(ae('~)T(be(')) = T((a 4- b)e ('))
be valid for every pair of numbers a, b, then the normalization
(33a)
T(ale (1~ + ate (t) + aaem "+ a4em) .= T(ate°))T(o.~(S))T(a~(8~)T(a4e(4~)
and (32) would ensure the general validity of
(34)
T(a)T(b) = T(a + b).
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
33
As the four linearly independent directions e<1~, . . . , e<~ we shall take four
null vectors. If e is a null vector, there is, according to section 3, a homogeneous
Lorentz transformation 21 A, such that AS -- 2e.
We normalize T(e) so that
(35)
d( h,)T(e)d( A,5-~ -- r(e)".
This is clearly independent of the normalization of d(h,).
for all (positive and negative) integers n
(35a)
We further normalize
d( hJ'T(e)d( A.)-" --- T(2"e).
It follows from this equation also that
(365
T(2"e) ffi = d(ho)'T(e)~d(h.)-" -- d(h,)'d(A,) T(e)d(h.)-~d( A°)-" = T(2"+te).
This allows us to normalize for every positive integer k
(35b)
T(k.2-'e) -- T(2-'e) ~
in such a way that the normalization remains the same if we replace k by 2"k
and n by n -t- m. This ensures, together with (36), the validity of
(36a5
T(ve)T(~) --- T((v -t" ~)e)
d( AJT(~)d( A,) -~ = T(2ve)
for all dyadic fractions v and u.
It must be shown t h a t if vl, vz, vs, . . . is a sequence of dyadic fractions,
converging to 0, lira T(v,e) = 1. From T(a). T(O) ffi ~(a, O)T(a) it follows t h a t
T(0) is a constant. According to the theorem of part (AS(b), the T ( ~ ) , if
multiplied by proper constants P, will converge to 1, i.e., by choosing an arbitrary ¢, it is possible to make both (1 - ~T(v¢5)¢ ffi u and (1 - ~l,T(ve)).
d(A,)-tv, = u' arbitrarily small, by making v small. Applying d(A.) to the
second expression, one obtains, for (36a), that (1 - fl, T(2ve))~o = d(A,)u" is
also small. On the other hand, applying T(ve) to the first expression one sees
that (T(ve) - l~T(2ve))¢ - TO,e)u approaches zero also. Hence, the difference
of these two quantities (1 - T(ve))~ goes to zero, i.e. T(v~)~ converges ta,,~o
if ~t, ~ , ~,, . . . is a sequence of dyadic fractions approaching 0.
Now v~, vs, va, --- be a sequence of dyadic fractions converging to an arbitrary number a. It will be shown then that T(v,¢) converges to a multiple of
T(ae) and this multiple of T(ae) will be the normalized T(ae). Again, it follows
from the continuity that there are such ~, that f~T(v~e)~o converges to T(ae)~o.
The fl~T(v,e)-tflff(v,v)~o will converge to ~, therefore, as both i and j tend to
infinity. However, according to the previous paragraph, T((v~ -- v~SeS~otends
to ~ and thus ftTtfl, tends to 1. It follows that 1~7t converges to a definite
number ~2. Hence ~l~-~. ~T(~,~)~o converge~ to llT(ae)~o which will be denoted,
henceforth, by T(ae). For the T(ae), normalized in this way, (335 will hold,
st T h e
divieor.
index z d e n o t e s here t h e v e c t o r •
for which Ao •
- 2e; this Ao has n o
elementary
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
34
since if u,. u~ : u~. - • - arc dyadic fractions converging to b, we obtain, with the
help (36a)
T(ae)T(be), = lira T((r~ + m)e)~ = T((a + b)e)¢.
This argument not only shows that it is possible to normalize the T(ae t~) and
hence by (33a) the T(a) so that (34) holds for theta but, in addition to this,
that these T(a) will be continuous in the ordinary smlse.
C.
It is clear that (34) will remain valid if one replaces T(a) by exp (2~{a, c})T(a)
where c is an arbitrary vector. This remaining freedom in the normalization of
T(a) will be used to eliminate the o~(A, a) from (22C).
Transforming (22C) d( A)T(a)d( A)-l = w(A, a)T( ha) with d(M) one obtains
on the left side ~(M, ?t)d(MA)T(a)t~(M, A)-t d(MA) -~ = ~(MA. a)T(MAa)
while the right side becomes o(A, a)o(M, Aa)T(MAa). Hence
(37)
~(MA, a) = o~(M, Aa)~(a, a).
()n the other hand, the product of two equations (22C) with the same A but
with a and b respectively, instead of a yielcLs with the help of (34)
ta(A, a)~(A, b) -- t~(A(a + b)).
Hence
w(A, a)=- exp (2,r/{a,f(A)}),
where f(A) is a vector which can depend on A.
one obtains
Inserting this back into (37)
la, f(MA)} = IAa, f(M)} + [a,f(A)} A-n,
~a,f(Mh) -- A-If(M) - f(h)} = n,
where n is an integer which must vanish since it is a linear function of a.
(38)
Hence
f(MA) = A-7(M) + f(A).
If we can show that the most general solution of the equation is
f(^) = ( A - ' -
l)v0,
where vo is a vector independent of A, the o~(h, a) will become ~(A, a) = exp
(2ri{(A -- 1)a, v0}). Then~(A, a) in (22C) will disappear if we replace T(a) by
exp (2ri{a, v0~) T(a).
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
35
The proof t h a t (39) is a consequence of (38) is ~ m e w h a t laborious.
first consider the fol!owing homogeneous Lorentz t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
X(ctt, w)
• =
St
(40)
ct
sl
- - 8t
Ct
0
0
Z(a ,
;
Y(a2, 3"2) =
C, II
=
c3
sa
0
0
--sz
ca
0
0
0
0
C3
$3
o
0
&
0
C,.
"
8~.
0
o
&
( ' ) l i e e.,lll
0
0
C1 II
where c~ = cos ai; si = sin ai ; C~ = ChT.~; ~qi = Sh3,~. All tile X(a, 3') commute. Let us choose, therefore, two angles ttt. 3"t for which 1 - X(al, 3"t)-t
has a reciprocal. I t follows t h e n from (38)
X(a, 3")-tf(X(at, 3"t)) 4" f(X(a, 3")) -~ X.(al , 3"t)-'f(X(a, 3")) 4" f(X(at , 3"t))
f(X(a, 7)) = [1 -- X(at, 7,)-']-'[1 - X(a, V)-t]f(X(a,, 7t))
fCX(a, 3")) = (1 - x c a , 3")-')Vx,
where vx is i n d e p e n d e n t of a, 3'. Similar equations hold for the f(Y(a, 3')) a n d
f(Z(a, 3")). Let us denote now X ( f , 0) = X ; Y ( r , 0) = Y; Z ( f , 0) = Z. These
(41)
or
a n t i c o m m u t e in t h e following sense with t h e transformations (40):
(42)
YX(a, 3")Y ffi ZX(a, 3")Z -- X(a, 3")-t.
F r o m (38) one easily calculates
f(YX(a, 3")Y) = (YX(a, 3")-' 4" 1)/(Y) 4" r /(x(a, 3")),
or, because of (41) a n d (42), after some trivial transformations
(43)
(1 -- X ( a , 3"))(1 -
Y)(Vx - vr) = 0.
As a, 3" can be t a k e n arbitrarily, the first factor can be dropped. This leaves
(1 - Y)(vx - vr) --- O, or t h a t the first a n d third eomponents of vx a n d tv are
equal. One similarly concludes, however, t h a t (1 - X)(vr - vx) =- 0 and thus
t h a t the first three c o m p o n e n t s of vx, vr a n d also of v, are equal.
For 3"~ = 3"ffi = 3", = 0 t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s (40) are the generators of all
rotations, i.e. all Lorent,. transformations R n~t affecting the f o u r t h cofrdinate.
As the 4-4 m a t r i x element of these t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s is 1, the expression (1 -- R - ' ) v
is independent of the f o u r t h c o m p o n e n t of v and (1 - R-')vx ffi (1 - R-J)vr ffi
(1 - R - ' ) v z .
I t follows f r o m (38) t h a t if f(R) = (1 -- R-~)vx and f ( 8 ) =
(1 - 8-")vx, t h e n f(,SR) = (1 - R-~6"-t)vr. T h u s f ( R ) = (1 - R-t)vx is
valid with the s a m e vr for all rotations.
Now
f(X(a, 3")R) = R-~(1 -- X(a, 7)-t)vx "4- (1 -- R-t)Vx - (1 -- (X(a, 3")R)-t)ox.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
36
One easily concludes from (38) that the f(E) corresponding to the unit operation
vanishes a n d f ( A -i) = - Af(A). Hencef(R-IX(a, 7) -1) = (1 - X(a, 7)R)vx ;
and one concludes further that for all Lorentz transformations A = RX(a, 7)S,
(39) holds with v0 -- - v x if R and S are rotations. However, every homogeneous Lorentz transformation can be brought into this form (Section 4C). This
completes the proof of (39) and thus of ~(A, a) --- 1.
D.
The quantities ~(a, b) and ~(A, a) for which it has just been shown t h a t they
can be assumed to be 1, are independent from the normalization of d(A). We
can affnx therefore an arbitrary factor of modulus 1 to all the d(A), without
interfering with the normalizations so far accomplished. In consequence
hereof, the ensuing discussion will be simply a discussion of the normalization
e,
FIG. 2
of the operators for the homogeneous Lorentz group and the result to be obtained
will be valid for that group also.
Partly because the representations up to a factor of the three dimensional
rotation group may be interesting in themselves, but more particularly because
the procedure to be followed for the Lorentz group can be especially simply
demmmtrated for this group, the three dimensional rotation group shall be taken
up first.
It is well known that the normalization cannot be carried so far that ~(A, I) = 1
in (22D) and there are well known representations for which ~(A, I) = =1=1.
We shall allow this ambiguity therefore from the outset.
One can observe, first, that the operator corresponding to the unity of the
group is a constant. This follows simply from d(A)d(E) = ~(A, E)d(A).
The square of an operator corresponding to an involution is a constant, therefore.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
The operator corresponding to the rotation about the axis e by the angle f,
normalized so that its square be actually 1, will be denoted by ~; ~2 = 1. The
a r e m a p a r t from the sign--uniquely defined.
A rotation R about v by the angle ~ is the product of two rotations by •
about et and e~ where et and e2 are perpendicular to v and e2 arises from et by
rotation about v with ~/2. Choosing for every v an arbitrary ez perpendicular to
v, we can normalize, therefore
(44)
d(R) = ~ t ~ .
Now d(R) commutes with every d(S) if S is also a rotation about v. This is
proved in equations (24)-(30). The fll in (30) must vanish on account of (29).
Fxo. 3
(Also, both R and ~ can be arbitrarily accurately represented as powers of a
very small rotation about v). Hence, transforming (44) by d(S) one obtains
(44a)
d( R) = -t-d( b~)~td(b~)-~.d( S)~d( S) -1.
Now~d(S)~ld(8) -t corresponds to a rotation by r about an axis, perpendicular
to v and enclosing an angle 0 with et, where 0 is the angle of rotation of S.
Since the square of d(8)~zd(S) -~ is also 1, (44a) is simply another way of writing
d(R) = ~a~4 as a product of two ~ and we see that the normalization (44) is
independent of the choice of the axis e~ (Cf. Fig. 2).
For computing d(R)d(T) we can draw the planes perpendicular to the axes of
rotation of R and T and use for d(R) = ~,~c such a development that the axis ec
of the second involution coincide with the intersection line of the above-mentioned planes, while for d(T) = ~c~r we choose the first involution to be a rotation about this intersection line (Fig. 3). Then, the product
(45)
d(R)d(T) = -t-~t~c~c~r ffi ~ t ~ r
37
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
38
will atttomatically Imve tiw normalization corresponding to (44). This shows
t h a t the operators normalized in (44) give a representation up to tile sign.
For tim l.orentz group, tile proof can be p e r f o r m e d along tile s a m e line, only
tim underlying geometrical fai:ts are less obvious. I.et .~. be a Lorentz transformation without elementary divisors with the characteristic values c";*, e-:;",
¢~
*
e , c - ~ aad the characteristic vectors v,, v2 = t,l. vs, v , , as described in section
4B.
We want t o n u t k e A = M N w i t h
M " = N-" = 1. For AN = M, we have
A N A N = 1 and thus ANA = N. Setting Nv~ = ~ a , ~ , we obtain A N A v ~ =
k
)". ),L~),~t,~ = ~ a,t,~. Because of tile linear independence of the v~ this
a m o u n t s to ~,~).~k = ow.: all a~k are zero, except those for which hA~ = 1. A~
iu none of the eases (a), (b), (c), (d) of section 4B is Xt or M reciprocal to oae of
t he last two ~,, the w:ctors vt and v~ will be t r a n s f o r m e d b y N into a linear combination of vt and t,~ again, and tile same holds for v., and v4. Thi.: m c a a s t h a t N
can be considered ~s the product of two transformations N = N , N t , the first
in the vtv2 plane, the second iu the v~v4 plane. (Instead of v~v2 plane one really
should say vt q-. v , , iv~ - iv2 plane, as vt and v, are complex themselves. This
will be m e a n t always by v,v2 plane, etc.). T h e same holds for M also.
Both N, and Nt must satisfy the first and third condition for Lorentz transformations (cf. 4A) a n d both d e t e r m i n a n t s m u s t be either 1, or - 1 .
Furthermore, thc square of both of t h e m m u s t be unity.
If both determinants were q-l, the N t had to be u n i t y itself, while N , could
be the unity or a rotation b y ~r in the v~v, plane. T h u s v~, v2, v~, v, would be
characteristic vcctors of N itself.
If both determinants are - 1 (this will t u r n out to be the case), N, is a reflection on a line in the v,v2 plane a n d N , a reflection in the ray4 plane, interchanging vs and v4. In this case vt, t,2, va, v~ would not all be characteristic
vectors of N.
If vt, vz, vs, v4 are characteristic vectors of N, t h e y are characteristic vectors
~f M = AN also. T h e n both M a n d N would be either unity, or a rotation b y ~r
in tile v~v~ plane. If both of them were rotations in the t,tv~ plane, their p r o d u c t A
would be the unity which we want to exclude for the present. We canexclude
the remaining cases in which the d e t e r m i n a n t s of N , a n d N, are -I-1 b y f u r t h e r
stipulating that neither M nor N shall be the u n i t y in the decomposition A =
MN.
Hence N is the product of a reflection in the vtv~ plane
(46a)
g
Ns~ = s, ;
Ns, = -s,
where s, and s: are two perpendicular real vectors in the vtv~ plane
(46b)
s~ = ci'vt 4" e-i'v~ ;
s, = i(e~'v~ -- e-~'v~),
and of a refloction in the v.~v, pl'tne
(46 )
m" = t';
Nt, :
39
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
where again l , , t~ are real vectors in the vzv~plane, perpendicular to each other,
t, being space-like, t" time-like:
(46d)
t" = Cvz + e-"v, ;
t~ = g'va - e -~ v~.
Thus N becomes a rotation by ~r in the purely space like s,t, plane.
can be calculated from M = AN
The M
Ms~ = , ~ V £ = As: = e"+:"v~ + e - " - ' ~
= ~e~'Cs~ - ~ , ) + ½ e - ' C g
+ ~ , ) = cos 2a.s~ + sin 2 ~ . s ,
I
Ms, = sin 2~. s, - cos 27.s,
(46e) Mt'~ = ANti = ht~ = g'+~Xv, + e-'-nxv,
= ½e'x(t" + t,) + ~' - - " , ;~,, - t~) = C h 2 x - t , -}- Sh 2 x . t ,
Mr, = -Sh
2x-t: - Ch 2 x - t , .
?
Thus M also becomes a product of two reflections, one in the v~t~ ffi s,s, the
other in the ~v4 = t,~t~plane. This completes the decomposition of h into two
involutions. One of the involutions can be taken to be s rotation by f in an
arbitrary space like plane, intersecting both the v~t~ and the v~4 planes, as the
freedom in choosing v and ~ allows us to fix the lines s, and t, arbitrarily in
those planes. The involution characterized by (461 will be called N,, henceforth. The other involution M is then a similar rotation, in a plane, however,
which is completely determined once the s,t~ plane is fixed. It will be denoted
by M , , (it is, in fact M , , = N,+7 ,+x/. One sees the complete analogy to the
three dimensional case if one remembers that ~, and x are the half angles of
rotation.
The d(MI and d(N). so normalized that their squares he I shall be denoted by
d~(M,,) and d~(N,~). We must show that the normalization for
:l:ds(M,,)dt(N,,)
(471
d(A)
is independent of v and ~.
For this purpose, we transform
(47a)
d(.A) ffi :l:d~(Moo)dx(Noo)
=
with d(h~) where h~ has the same characteristic vectors as h but different
ir
~--d.
characteristic values, namely e , e-", ~ and
Since AIMooA'~~ = M,, and
hsN00A~1 = N,, we have d(hl)dt(Moo)d(hO -~ = oxtt(M,,) where o~ -- 4-1, as
the squares of both sides are 1. Hence, (47a) becomes if transformed with
d ( h 0 just
(47b)
d( hOd( h )d( ht)-t = .4-dt(M,,)d~(N,,,I.
The normalization (47) would be clearly independent of v and ~s if d(As) comm u t e d with d(A).
Again, the argument contained in equations (24)-(30) can be applied and
shows that
(48)
d(h~ld (A)d(h 0 -~ = exp (2r/f(2~,~ -- 2x~))d(h)
40
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
holcLs for every 7, x, v, ~. However, the exponential in (48) m u s t be 1 if 7 = 0;
v -- 2 f / n ; x -- ½n~ since in this cause A = A~'. T h u s exp ( - - 4 ~ i f ~ ) = 1 for
every ~ a n d f = 0 a n d the left side of (47b) can be replaced b y d(A); the normalization in (47) is independent of v a n d ~.
In order to have the analogue of (.45), we m u s t show t h a t , h a v i n g two L o r e n t s
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s A = M . , N . , , a n d I = P.,~Q.~ we can chose v, ~ a n d a,/3 s o
t h a t N,~ -- P ~ i.e. t h a t the plane of r o t a t i o n s,t, of N ~ coincide w i t h t h e plane
of rotation of P , ~ . As the l a t t e r plane can be m a d e to a n a r b i t r a x y spacelike plane intersecthlg b o t h the w~u~ a n d t h e wsW, planes (where wt, t ~ , u~, w,
are the characteristic vectors of I), we m u s t show t h e existence of a space like
plane, intersecting all four planes v~v~, v~v,, w~t0~, u~w,. B o t h t h e first a n d
the second pair of planes are orthogonal.
One can show ~ t h a t if A a n d [ have no c o m m o n null v e c t o r as characteristic
~2 We first suppose the existence of a real plane p intersecting all four planes utvs, u ~ , ,
wswt, war04. If p intersects vsvl the plane q perpendicular to p will intersvct the plane vsv,
perpendicular to vtv~. Indeed, the line which is perpendicular to both w ~ usvs (there is
such a line as p and vtvj intersect) is contained in both q and v,e~. Thisah0Ws that if there
is a plane intersecting all four planes, the plane perpendicular to this will have this property
also.
Z
ut
Fig. 4 gives a projection of all lines into the ztzz plane. One sees that there are, in
general, two intersecting planes, only in exceptional cases is there only one.
If the plane p--the existence of which we suppose for the time being--contains a time-like
vector, q will he space-like (Section 4B, [I]). Both in this case and if p contains only
space-like vectors, the theorem in the text is valid. There is a last possibility, that p is
tamgent to the light cone, i.e. contains only space like vectors and a null vector v. The
space-like vectors of p are all orthogonal to ~, otherwise p would contain time-like vectors
also. In this case the plane q, perpendicular to p will contain • also. The line in which
vtu, intersects p is space-like and orthogonal to the vector in which v~, intersects p. "fine
latter intersection must coincide with v, therefore, as no other vector of p is orthogoual to
E.P. Wigner/ Unitaryrepresentationsof Lorentz group
vector, there are always two planes, perpendicular to each other which intersect
four such planes. One of these L~ ahvays space like. It is possible to ax~ume,
therefore, that both N,, and Poa are the rotation by ~r in this plane. Thus
d( A )d( I) = -4-d,( M,,)dt (N,,)d~( P.~)d~( Q,.~)
(49)
~- +d,(M,,)d,(Q~),
and d(A)d(I) has the normalization corresponding to the product of two involutions, neither of which is unity. This is, however, also the normalization
adopted for d(AI). Hence
(49a)
d(A)d(1) = + d ( A l )
holds if A, I and AI are Lorentz transformations eorrc.~ponding to one of the
cases (a), (b), (c) or (d) of section 4B and if A and I have no common characteristic null vector. In addition to this (49a) holds also, assunfing d(E) --- q-I,
if any of the transformations A, I, AI is unity, or if both characteristic null
vectors of A and I are equal, as in this case the planes vav~and to,w4 and also
vtt~ and tottos coincide and there are many space like planes intersecting all.
If A and I have one common characteristic null vector, t~ = wa, the others, v4and
to4 respectively, being different, one can use an arititiee to prove (49a) which will
be used in later parts of this section extensively. One can find a Lorentz
transformation J so that none of the pairs I - J ; A -- I J; A I J -- J-~ has a
c o m m o n characteristic null vector. This will be true, e.g. if the characteristic
null vectors of J are o4 and another null vector, different from o,, ~o4 and the
characteristic vectors of A/. Then (49a) will hold for all the above pairs and
d( A)d(I) = 4-d( A)d(I)d(J)d(J -~) ffi + d ( A ) d ( I J ) d ( J -~)
ffi + d ( A I J ) d ( J -~) = -4-d(A/).
any space-like vector in it. Hence, v is the intersection of p and vsv, and is either v, or v , .
One can conclude in the same way that v coincides with either tos or w~ also and we see that
if p is tangent to the light cone the two transformations ,t and I have a common null vector
as characteristic vector. Thus the theorem in the text is correct if we can show the existence of an arbitrary real plane p intersecting all four planes v,vl, v w , , w : w ~ , w s w , .
Let ua draw a ec6rdinate system in our four dimensional space, the z,zt plane of which is
the v,vz plane, the z, and z~ axes having the directions of the vectors I,, - v, and u, + v~,
respectively. The three dimensional manifold M characterized by z~ - 1 i n t e r a c t s all
planes in a line, the ulvs plane in the line at infinity of the z~zz plane, the vs~ plane in the z ,
axis. The intersection of M with the w,wt and w,t0~ planes will be lines in M with directions
perpendicular to each other. They will have a common normal through the origin of M,
intersecting it at reciprocal distances. This follows from their orthogonality in the four
dimensional space.
A plane intersecting v,vi and v w , will be a line parallel to zlz, through the zs axis. If we
draw such lines through all points of the line corresponding to ~ ,
the direction of this
line will turn by r if we go from one end of this line to the other. Similarly, the linen going
through the line corresponding to w a w , will turn by • in the o p p o s i t e direction. Thus the
first set of lines will have at least one line in common with the second set and this line will
correspond to a real plane intersecting all four planes v z v 2 , v z v 4 , t o ~ , tozto~. This completes the proof of the theorem referred to in the text.
41
42
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
This completes the proof of (49a) for all cases in which A, I and M have no
elementary divisors. It is evident also that we can replace in the normalization
(47) the dt b y d. One also concludes easily that d(M)" is in the .~ame representation either + 1 for all involutions M, or - 1 for every involution. The former
ones will give real representations, the latter ones representations up to the
sign.
If A has an elementary divisor, it can be expre.med in the v,, w,, z,, vt scheme
as the matrix (Cf. equ. (20))
1
1
½ 0
0
1
1 0
0
0
1 0
0
0
0
1
and can be written, in the same scheme, as the product of two Lorentz transformations with the square 1
-1
A, = MoNo
=
1
0
-1
0
0
tli- ' °lllii ° ° °
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
-1
0
0
-1
We can normalize therefore d(A,) -= :t:d(Mo)d(No). If A c~.a be written as the
product of two other involutions also A, -- MxNx the corresponding normalization will be identical with the original one. In order to prove this, let us consider a Lorentz transformation J such that neither of the Lorentz transformations J , NoJ, NxJ, A°J ffi MoNoJ = MINxJ have an elementary divisor. Since
the number of free parameters is only 4 in case (e), while 6 for case (a), this is
always possible. Then, for (45a)
d( Mo)d( No)d( J) = -¢-d(Mo)d( NoJ) = -t-d( MoNoJ)
= -¢-d(M~N~J) = -¢-d(Ml)d(N~J) ffi :i:d(Mt)d(N~)d(J)
and thus d(Mo)d(No) = -*-d(Mt)d(Nx). This shows also that even if A / i s in
case (e), ~ ( A , / ) = + 1 , since (49) leads to the correct normalization.
If A ffi M N has an elementary divisor, I not, d(A)d(1) still will have the
normalization corresponding to the product of two involutions. One cart find
again a J such that neither of the transformations J. J-~, l J, N I J , M N I J ,
have an elementary divisor. Then
d(M)d(N)d(1) --- +d(M)d(N)d(1)d(J)d(J) -~
= +d(M)d(N)d(IJ)d(J)-t=
:i:d(M)d(NIJ.)d(J) -1
= d(AIJ)d(J-~).
The last product has, however, the normalization corresponding to two involutions, as was shown in (49a), since neither h i J, nor J-~ is in case (e).
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
Lastly, we must consider the case when both A and I m a y have an elementary
divisor. In this case, we need a J such that neither of J, J-~, I J have one.
Then, because of the generalization of (49a) just proved, in which the first
factor is in, case (e)
d(A)d(I) = +d( lt)d( I)d( J)d( g-') = :t:d( A)d( I J)d( J-')
= ± d ( h l J ) d ( J -1)
which has the right normalization.
This completes the proof of
(50)
,9 = + 1
for all possible cases, and the normalization of all D(L) of a repr~entation of the
inhomogeneous Lorentz group up to a factor, is carried out in such a way that the
normalized operators give a representation up to the sign. It is even carried
so far that in the first two of equations (22) ~ = 1 can be set. We shall consider
henceforth systems of operators satisfying (7), or, more specifically, (22B) and
(22C) withe(a, b) -- ~(A, a) ---- 1 and (22D) withco(A,/) ffi -4-1.
E.
Lastly, it shall be shown that the renormalization not only did not spoil the
partly continuous character of the representation, attained at the first normalization in part (A) of this section, but that the same holds now ¢~,rywhere,
in the ordinary sense for T(a) and, apart from the ambiguity of sign, also for
d(A). For T(a) this was proved in part (B)(b) of this section, for d(h) it means
that to every AI, Gand ~othere is such a 8 that one of the two quantities
(51)
((d(h,) :F dCh))~o, (d(A,) :F d(A)),p) < •
if h is in the neighborhood 8 of h~.
(51a)
((1
The inequality (51) is equivalent to
(1
<
,,
where ~ ffi A~'IA now can be assumed to be in the neighborhood of the unity.
Thus, the continuity of d(A) at A ffi E entails the continuity everywhere.~
In fact, it would be sufficient to show that the d(X), d(Y) and d(Z) corresponding to the transformations (40) converge to -4-1, as a, 7 approach 0, since one
can write every transformation in the neighborhood of the unit element as a
product h ffi Z(0, 7,)Y(0, 7s)X(0, 7z)X(az, O)Y(as, 0)Z(as, 0) and the parameters a~, .. • , 7s will converge to 0 as h converges to 1. However, w e shall
carry out the proof for an arbitrary A without an elementary divisor.
For d(h), equations (46) show that as A approaches g (i.e., as ~ and x apprt)ach
zero) both Mm and Nm approach the same involution, which we shM! call K.
Let us now consider a wave function $ ffi ~ -t- dz(K)~ or, if this vanishes + ffi
- dl(K)~. We have d~(K)~b -- -t-~b. If A is sufficiently near to unity,
ss j . yon Nenmmnn, Sits. d. kSn. Preusa. Akad. p. 76, 1927.
43
E.P Wigner/ Unitary representations of Lorentz group
44
dl(Noo)~ will be sufficiently near to fldt(K)q~ = 4-t'b//and all we have to show
is that ~ approaches 4-1. The same thing will hold for d~(Moo). Indeed from
dt(N0o)ff - f ~ = u it follows by applying dr(N00) on both sides ~ -- ~fff =
(dt(Noo) + ~)u. As (u, u) goes to zero, ft must go to 4-1, and consequently,
also dt(Noo)ff goes to ff or to -~.. Applying dr(Moo) to this, one sees that
dl(Moo)dl(Noo)~ = d(A)ff goes to 4-~ as A goes to unity. The argument given in
(A)(b) shows that this holds not only for ff but for every other function also,
i.e. d(A) converges to -4-1 = d(E) as A approaches E. Thus d(A) is continuous
in the neighborhood of E and hence everywhere.
According to the last remark in part 4, the operators +d(A) form a single
valued representation of the group of complex unimodular two dimensional
matrices C. Let us denote the homogeneous Lorentz transformation which
corresponds in the isomorphism to C by (~. Our task of solving the equs.
(22) has been reduced to finding all single valued unitary representation of the
group.with the elements In, C] = In, 1] [0, C], the multiplication rule of which is
[a, Cz] [b, C2] = [a A- (~b, C~Cd. For the representations of this group Din, C] =
T(a)d[C] we had
T(a)T(b) = T(a + b)
(52a)
d JOlT(a) = T(~a).d[Cl
d [eli d[C,]
= d
[etel.
It would be more natural, perhaps, from the mathematical point of view, to use
henceforth this new notation for the representations and let the d depend on the
C rather than on the ~, or A. However, in order to be reminded on the geometrical significance of the group elements, it appeared to me to be better to keep the
old notation. Instead of the equations (22B), (22C), (22D) we have, then
(52B)
T(a)T(5) = T(a + b)
(52C)
d( A) T(a) --= T(~ta) d( A)
(52D)
d(A) d(1) -- 4-d(AI).
6. REDUCTION OF THE REPRESENTATIONB OF THE INHOMOGENEOU8 LORRNTZ
GROUP TO REPRESENTATIONS OF A "Lrr~E GRouP"
This section, unlike the other ones, will often make use of methods, which
though commonly accepted in physics, must be further justified from a rigorous
mathematical point of view. This has been done, in the meanwhile, by J.
yon Neumann in an as yet unpublished article and I am much indebted to him
for h~ co6peration in this respect and for his readiness in communicating his
results to me. A reference to his paper z4 will be made whenever his work is
necessary for making inexact considerations of this section rigorous.
s, j. von Neumann, Ann. of Math. to appear shortly.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
A~
Since the translation operators all commute, it is possible 24to introduce such a
co,Ordinate system in Hilbert space that the wave functions ~o(p, ~) contain
momentum variables pt, pz, p~, p~ and a discrete variable ~"so that
(53)
T(a)~(p, ~) = e'i~'*l~(p, ~').
p will stand for the four variables pt, p~, p~, p~.
Of course, the fact that the Lorentzian scalar product enters in the exponent,
rather than the ordinary, is entirely arbitrary and could be changed by changing
the signs of pt, p~, pa.
The unitary scalar product of two wave functions is not yet completely defined
by the requirements so far made on the co6rdinate system. It can be a summation over ~" and an arbitrary Stielties integral over the components of p:
C54)
(~, ~) = ~ f ~(1J,~)*~(p, ~) dfCp, ~).
J
The importance of introducing a weight factor, depending on p, for the scalar
product lies not so much in the possibility of giving finite but different weights to
different regions in p space. Such a weight distribution O(P, g) always could be
absorbed into the wave functions, replacing all ¢(p, ~') by ~/O(P, ~')-v'(P,~). The
necessity of introducing the f(p, ~') lies rather in the possibility of some regions
of p having zero weight while, on the other hand, at other places points may have
finite weights. On account of the definite metric in Hilbert space, the integral
S dr(p, ~) over a n y region r, for any ~', is either positive, or zero, since it is the
scalar product of that function with itself, which is 1 in the region r of p and the
value ~"of the discrete variable, zero otherwise.
Let us now define the operators
(55)
P(A)¢(p, ~) ffi .¢(A-tp, ~).
This equation defines the function P(A)¢, which is, at the point p, L as great as
the function ¢ at the point A-tp, ~'. The operator P(A) is not necessarily ~nitarT, on account of the weight factor in (54). We can easily calculate
P( A)T(a)¢(p, ~) -- T(a)9( A-~p, ~) ffi e'lA-t*'l~A-tp, ~),
T(Aa)P(A)¢(p, l') ffi e~I''A'! P(A)¢(p, l') ffi e't"A'Ig(A-~P, ~'),
so that, for { A-tp; a} •ffi {p, Aa}, we have
(56)
P(A)T(a) ffi
T(Aa)P(A).
This, together with (52C), shows that d(A)P(A) -~ = Q(A) commutes with all
T(a) and, therefore, with the multiplication with every function of p, since the
exponentials form a complete set of functions of p~, pz, p~, p , . Thus
(57)
d(~) = Q(~)P(~),
45
E.P Wigner /Unitarv representations o f Lorentz group
46
where Q(A) is an operator in the space of the ~"alone "-*which can depend, however, on the particular value of p in the underlying space:
(57a)
Q(A)9(p, ~) = ~_, Q(p, A)r,9(p, ,).
Here, Q(p, A)r~ are the components of an ordinary (finite or infinite) matrix,
depending on p and A. From (57), we obtain
d(h)~(p, ~') = ~ Q(p, A)r,P(A)~,(p, ,)
(57b)
= ~.. Q(p, A)r,~(A-Ip, ,).
As the exponentials form a complete set of functions, we can approximate the
operation of multiplication with any function of p~, p2, p~, p, by a linear
combination
(58)
f(p)~
= ~
~t
c,,T(a,,)¢.
If we chooser(p) to be such a function that
f(P) =/(Av)
the operation of multiplication with f(p) will commute with all operations of
the group. It commutes evidently with the T(a) and the Q(p, h), and on
(58a)
account of (56) and (58), (58a) also with P(A). Thus the operati(m of (58)
belongs to the centrum of the algebra of our representation. Since, however,
we assume that the representation is factorial (cf. 2), the centrum contains only
multiples of the uniW and
I(P)v(P, ~) -- c~(p, ~).
(58b)
This can be true only if ~ is different from zero only for such momenta p which
can be obtained from each other by homogeneous Lorentz transformations,
because f(p) needs to be equal to .f(p') only if there is a h which brings them
into each other.
It will be sufficient, henceforth, to consider only such representations, the
wave functions of which vanish except for such momenta which can be obtained
from one by homogeneous Lorentz transformations. One can restrict, then,
the definition domain of the ~ to these momenta.
These representations can now naturally be divided into the four classes
enumerated in section 3, and two classes contain two subclasses. There will be
representations, the wave functions of which are defined for such p that
(1) {P,P} = P
> 0
(2) {p,p} = P = 0 ; p ~ 0
(3)
p = 0
(4) {p,p} - - P
<0.
The classes 1 and 2 contain two sub-classes each. In the positive subclasses
P+ and 0+ the time components of all momenta are p4 > 0, in the negative
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
47
subclasses P_ and 0_ the fourth components of the momenta are negative.
Class 3 will be denoted by 00. If P is negative, it has no index.
From the condition that d(A) shall be a unitary operator, it is possible to
infer:4 that one can introduce a coSrdinate system in Hilbert space in such a
way that
(59)
f df(p, ~) = f df(p, ~)
if Q(p, A)t~ ~ 0 for the p of the domain r. Other~ise, r is an arbitrary domain
in the space of pl, pz, ps, p, and Ar is the domain which contains Ap if r contains p. Equation (59) holds for all ~', 7, except for such pairs for which
Q(p, h)¢, = 0. It is possible, hence, to decompose the original representation
in such a way that (59) holds within every reduced part. Neither T(a) nor
d(h.) can have matrix elements between such ~ and ~"for which (59) does not hold.
In the third class of representations, the variable p can be dropped entirely,
and T(a)~(~) = ~(~), i.e., all wave functions are invariant under the operations
of the invariant subgroup, formed by the translations. The equation T(a)~(~)
= ~(~-) is an invariant characterization of the representations of the third class,
i.e., a characterization which is not affected by a similarity transformation.
Hence, the reduced part.~ of a representation of class 3 also belong to this class.
Since no wave function of the other classes can remain invarinnt under all
translations, no representation of the third cla~ can be contained in any representation of one of the other classes. In the other classes, the variability
domain of p remains three dimensional. It is possible, therefore, to introduce
instead of p~, p2, pa, p, three independent variables. In the cases 1 and 2 with
which we shall be concerned most, p~, p2, p, can be kept for these three variables.
On account of (59), the Stieltjes integral can be replaced by an ordinary integral ~4
over these variables, the weight factor being I p41-t = (P + p~ + p] + p~)-'J
In fact, with the weight factor I P. I-~ the weight of the domain r i.e., j~r ffi
f f f l p, l-~dp~dp2dpzis equal to the weight of the domsin WA, as required"
by (59). Having the scalar product fixed in this way, P(A) becomes a unitary
operator and, hence, Q(A) will be unitary also.
We wartt to give next a characterization of the representations with a given P,
which is independent of the coSrdinate system in Hilbert space. It follows from
s, T h e invariance of integrals of the character of (50~) is frequently made use of in
relativity theory. One can prove it by calculating the Jscobian of the t r a a a f o r m ~ t l o n
p ' - A,gpt -l- A,2p~ -F A , p , q- (P -i- pl -l- p| -l- p]),
which comes out to be (P -1- p~ -1- p] -1- p])t(p -l- p~ -1- p~2 -i- p,q)-l.
used in later parts of this paper.
(i - I, 2, 3)
Equ. (59a) will n o t be
48
E. 1~ Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
(53), that in a representation with a given P the wave functions C,~, ~b~, . . .
which axe different from zero only in a finite domain of p, form an everywhere
dense set, to all elements of which the infinitesimal operators of translation can
be applied arbitrarily often
lim h-'(T(he) - 1)"C, = lira h-'(e 'hlp'~l
A--O
(60)
-
-
1)"~b
k,-O
=
i"lp, el"c,,
where e will be a unit vector in the direction of a co6rdinate axis or oppositely
directed to it. Hence for all members C, of this everywhere dense set
(61) lira ~ ~ h-2(r(2hek) - 2T(hek) + I)C, = (pl -t- Pl + p] - pl)¢, = --PC,,
~,uO
k
•
where ek is a unit vector in (or opposite) the
for k ffi 4, and - for k ~- 1, 2, 3.
On the other hand, there is no ¢ for which
(61a)
k th
coSrdinate axis and the :t: is ÷
lira ~ :1: h-~(T(2hek) - 2T(hek) -t- I)~
h--0
k
if it exists, would be different from --P~. Suppose the limit in (61a) exists and
is --P~o -I- v~'. Let us choose then a normalized C,, from the above set, such that
(C,, v?) = 5 with 5 > 0 and an h so that the expression after the lira sign in
(61a) assumes the value - P~, -t- ~o' + u with (u, u) < 8/3 and also the expression
after the lira sign in (61), with oppositely directed e~ becomes -PC, + u' with
(u', u') < 5/3. Then, on account of the unitary character of T(a) and becau~
of T ( - - a ) = T(a) -x
(C,, ~
4- h-f(T(2he,) -- 2T(het) -t- 1)~o),
= (~
:l: h-'(T(-2he~) - 2T(-he~) + I)C,, ~ ) ,
or
-- P(C,, ,p) -F (C,, ~,') -t" (C,, u) = -P(C,, ,p) + (u', ~),
which is dearly impossible.
Thus if the lira in (61a) exists, it is - P c and this constitutes a characterization
of the representation which is independent of similarity transformations.
Since, according to the foregoing, it is always possible to find wave functions
for a representation, to which (61a) can be applied, every reduced part of a
representation with a given P must have this same P and no representation
with one P can be contained in a representation with an other P. The same
argument can be applied evidently to the positive and negative sub-classes of
class 1 and 2.
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
49
B,
Every automorphism L ---* L ° of the group allows us to construct from one
representation D ( L ) another representation
(62)
D°(L) = D(L°).
This principle will allow us to restrict ourselves, for representations with finite,
positive or negative P, to one value of P which can be taken respectively, to be
-b 1+ and - 1. It will also allow in cases 1 and 2 to construct the representations
ot the negative sub-classes out of representations of the positive sub-classes.
The first automorphism is a ° = an, A* = h. Evidently Equs. (12) are invariant under this transformation. If we set, however,
d*(h)~o = d(A)~o,
T°(a)~ = T(aa),p;
then the occurring p
T°(a),p = T(aa)~o = eilP'==l~o = e/t=P'=l~o,
will be the p occurring for the unprimed representation, multiplied by a. This
allows, with a real positive a, to construct all representations with all possible
numerical w l u e s of P, from all representation with one numerical value of P.
If we take a negative, the representations of the negative sub-classes are obtained
from the representations of the p ~ i t i v e sub-class.
In case P = 00 evidently all representations go over into themselves by the
transformation (62). In case P = 0+ and P = 0_ it will t u r n out that for
positive a, (62) carries every representation into an equivalent one.
C.
On account of (53) and (56), (57), the equs. (52B) and (52C) are automatically
satisfied and the Q(p, A)~, must be determined by (52D). This gives
(63)
Q(p, A)r,Q(^-'p,
o) = ±
0(p,
0).
Since this must hold for every ~, one would conclude
J
(63a1
q
=
0(p,
Actually, this conclusion is not justified, since two wave functions must be
considered to be equal even if they are different on a set of measure zero. Thus
one cannot conclude, without further consideration, t h a t the two sides of (63a)
are equal at every point p. On the other hand, 2t the value of Q(p, a)r, can be
changed on a set of measure zero and one can make it continuous in the neighborhood of every point, if the representation is continuous. This allows then, to
justify (63a). It follows from (63a) t h a t Q(p, 1)r, = 5r,.
L\P Wigner/ Unitary representations of Lorentz group
50
Let us choose~~now a basic p0 arbitrarily. We can consider then the subgroup
of all homogeneous Lorentz transformations which leave this p0 unchanged.
For all elements k, ~ of this "little group," we have
Q(po, x) ,Q(po,
(64)
= ± Q(po, x , h ,
q(X)q(,) = 4- q(X,),
where g(h) is the matrix qO0~, = Q(po, ~)r~. Because of the unitary character of
Q(A), the Q(po, h)¢v is unitary matrix and q(),) is unitary also.
If we consider, according to the last paragraph of Section 5, the group formed
out of the translations and unimodular two-dimensional matrices, rather than
Lorentz transformations, the :i: sign in (64) can be replaced by a -{- sign. In
this case, ), and ~ are unimodular two-dimensional matrices and the little group
is formed by those matrices, the corresponding Lorentz transformations ),, ~ to
which leave p0 unchanged ),p0 = ~po = p0.
Adopting this interpretation of (64), one can also see, conversely, that the
representation q(h) of the little group, together with the class and P of the
representation of the whole group, determines the latter representation, apart
from a similarity transformation. In order to prove this, let us define for every
p a two-dimensional unimodular matrix a(p) in such a way that the corresponding Lorentz transformation
(65)
(p)po = p
brings p0 into p. The a(p) can be quite arbitrary except of being an almost
everywhere continuous function of p, especially continuous for p = p0 and
a(po) = 1. Then, we can set
(66)
d(.Cp)-%(po,
= ¢(p,.
=
(po,
This is equivalent to setting in (58)
(66a)
Q(p, a(p)) = 1
and can be achieved by a similarity transformation which replaces ¢(p, ~) by
Y~ Q(po, a(p)-l)r~o(p, 7). As the matrix Q(p0, a(p) -~) is unitary, this is a
unitary transformation. It does not affect, furthermore, (53)since it containsp
only as a parameter.
A~aming this transformation to be carried out, (66) will be valid and will
define, together with the d(),), all the remaining Q(p, A) uniquely. In fact,
calculating d(h)~o(p, f), we can decompose h into three factors
(67)
A -----a(p).
a(p) -~Aa(A-lp).
a(A-lp) -~
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
The second factor/3 = a(p)-tAa(~-~p) belongs into the little group: ti(p) -a
~,&(~-lp)po = &(p)-l~,.~-~p = &(p)-tp = P~. Wc can write, therefore
=
p')
d(A)~o(p, {') = d(a(p))d(JJ)d(a(p'))-'~,(p, t)
(67a)
= d(fJ)d(a(p'))-~o(po, ~)
= ~_, q({J)t,d(a(p~.-l)~o(po, ~) = ~ q({J)t~o(P~, 17).
W
q
This shows that all representations of tile whole inhomogeneous Lorcntz group
are equivalent which have the same P and the same representationof the little
group. Further than this, the same holds even if the representations of the
little group are not the same for the two representations but only equivalent
to each other. Let us assume qx(A) = sq2(A)s-~. Then by replacing ~(p, ~') by
)'~.~ s(L ~)~o(p, T/) we obtain a new form of the representation for which (53) still
holds but q2(~) for the little group is replaced by qx(~). Then, by the transformation just described (Eq. (66)), we can bring d(A) for both into the form
(67a). The equivalence of two representations of tile little group must be
defined as the existence of a unitary transformation which transforms them into
each other. (Only unitary transformations are used for the whole group, also).
On the other hand, if the representations of the whole group are equivalent,
the representations of the little group are equivalent also: the representation
of the whole group determines the representation of the little group up to a
similarity transformation uniquely.
The representation of the little group was defined as the set of matrices
Q(p0, k)t~ if the representation is so transformed that (53) and (66a) hold.
Having two equivalent representations D and S D E -t = D ° for both of which (53)
and (66a) holds, the unitary transformation S bringing the first into the second
must leave all displacement operators invariant. Hence, it must have the form
(57a), i.e., operate on the ~ only and depend on p only as on a parameter.
(68)
s
(p,
=
'I
Denoting the matrix Q for the two representations by Q and Qo, the condition
~qD(A) ffi D°(A)8 gives that
(68a)
~_, S(p)~,Q(p, A)~o = )-'. QO(p, A)t,~q(A-Xp)~
q
holds, for every A, for almost every p. Setting A -- a(p~) we can let p approach
p~ in such a way that (68a) remains valid. Since Q is a continuous function of p
both Q(p, A) and Q°(p, A) x~411approach their limiting value 1 ~t follows that
there is no domain in which
(69)
,..g(p,) -- S(a(p,)-'p,)
-- S(po)
would not hold, i.e., that (69) holds for almost every px. Since all our equation~
must hold only for almost every p, the 8(p)r~ can be aa~umed to be independent
51
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
52
of p and (68a) then to hold for every p also. It then follows that the representations of the little group in D and D ° are transformed into each other by Sr~.
The definition of the little group involved an arbitrarily chosen m o m e n t u m
vector pu. It is clear, however, t h a t the little groups corresponding to two
different m o m e n t u m vectors p0 and p are holomorphic. In fact they can be
transformed into each other by a(p): If h is an element of the little group
leaving p invariant then a ( p ) - l A a ( p ) = ~ is an element of the little group which
leaves p0 invariant. We can see furthermore from (67a) t h a t if A is in the little
group corresponding to p, i.e. Ap = p then the representation matrix q(#) of
the little group of po, corresponding to/3, is identical with the representation
matrix of the little group of p, corresponding to A = a(p)[3a(p) -~. T h u s when
characterizing a representation of the whole inhomogeneous Lorentz group b y P
and the representation of the little group, it is not necessary to say which po is
left invariant by the little group.
De
Lastly we shall determine the constitution of the little group in the different
ea.qes.
1+. Ill case 1+ we can take for p0 the vector with the component~ 0, 0, 0, 1.
The little group which leaves this invariant obviously contains all rotations
in the space of the first three coSrdinates. This holds for the little group of all
representations of the larst class.
0o. In case 00 , the little groupis the whole homogeneous Lorentz group.
- I. In cs,se P = - 1 the p0 can be s.~sumed to have the components 1, 0, 0, 0.
The little group then contains all transformations which leave the form - x] -- x~
q- xl invariant, i.e., is the 2 + 1 dimensional homogeneous Lorentz group. T h e
same holds for all representations with P < 0.
0+. The determination of the little group for P = 0+ is somewhat more
complicated. It can be done, however, rather simply, for the group of unimodular two dimensional matrices. The Lorentz transformation corresponding
o
to the matrix
with ad -- bc = 1 brings the vector with the c o m p o n e n t s
c d
t
I
l
I
x~, x~, x3, x4, into the vector with the components x t , x=, x3, x~, where ~S
b
(70)
z,+23
h: 11
d
zx--ix,
2,+iz,
x4--x,
a* c*
Ill L
b*
d*
=
+x~
xl-zx~
•
x~+~x,
r
I
x 4I - x s
I
°
The condition t h a t a null-vector po, say with the components 0, 0, 1, 1 be invariant is easily found to be I a 12 = l, c = 0. Hence the most general element of the
little group can be written
(71)
e
i~ ( x + ~ u s ~
eqJl~
E.P Wigner/ Unitary representations of Lorentz group
with real x, y, ~ and 0 _-<~< 4x.
t(x, y) 5(~) where
(71a)
t(x,
The general element (71) can be written as
!/)=
' -"
I;
0 I
The multiplication rules for these are
(71b)
(71c)
(71d)
t(x, y)t(x', y') = t(x + z', y +
y'),
5([J)t(z, y) = t(x cos ~ + y sin g, -- x sin fl + y cos #)$(fl),
ffi
+
One could restrict the variability domain of # in 6(~) from 0 to 2~r. As 5(2x)
commutes with all elements of the little group, it will be a constant and from
8(2f) ~ = ~(4f) = 1 it can be~(2f) -- +1. Hence~(~ + 2f) = d-5(~) and
inserting a + into equation (71d) one could restrict ~ to 0 _~ ~ < 2r.
These equations are analogous to the equations (52)-(52D) and show that the
little group is, in this case, isomorphic with the inhomogeneous rotation group of
two dimensions, i.e. the two dimensional Euclidean group.
It may be mentioned that the Lorentz transformations corresponding to
t(x, y) have elementary divisors, and constitute all transformations of class e)
in 4B, for which v, = po. The transformations ~(#) can be considered to be
rotations in the ordinary three dimensional space, about the direction of the
space part o£ the vector p0. It is possible, then, to prove equations (71) also directly.
7. THz REPRESENTATIONS OF THE LITTLE GROUPS
A. Representations of the three dimensional rotation group by unitary
transformations.
The representations of the three dimensional rotation group in a space with a
finite member of dimensions are well known. There is one irreducible representation with the dimensions 1, 2, 3, 4, ..- each, the representations with an odd
number of dimensions are single valued, those with an even number of dimensions are two-valued. These representations will be denoted by Dc~(R) where
the dimension is 2j + 1. Thus for single valued representations .~ is an integer,
for double valued representations a half integer. Every finite dimensional
representation can be decomposed into these irreducible representations.
Consequently those representations of the Lorentz group with positive P in
which the representation of the little group--as defined by (64)--has a finite
number of dimensions, can be decomposed into such representations in which
the representation of the little group is one of the well known irreducible representations of the rotation group. This result ~ill hold for all representations
of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group with positive P, since we shall show that
even the infinite dimensional representations of the rotation group can be
decomposed into the same, finite, irreducible representations.
53
54
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
In the following, it is more appropriate to consider the subgroup of the two
dimensional unimodular group which corresponds to rotations, than the rotation
group itself, as we can restrict ourselves to single valued representations in this
case (of. equations (52)). From (70), one easily sees Is that the condition for
II:
d
to leave the vector with the components 0, 0, 0, 1 invariant is that it
shall be unitary. It is, therefore, the two dimensional unimodular unitary
group the representations of which we shall consider, instead of the representations of the rotation group.
Let us introduce a discrete co6rdinate system in the representation space
and denote the coefficients of the unitary representation by q(R),x where R io a
two dimensional unitary transformation. The condition for the unitary
character of the representation q(R) gives
(72)
•
(72a)
*
q(R),~,q(R),,,
= 5x~;
~ [q(R),,
•
l'=
~ q(R),xq(R),~,
*
= ~,,,
),
l;
~-- I q(R),~
).
['=
1.
ThLs show also that ] q(R),x I -~ 1 and the q(R),x are therefore, as functions of R,
square integrable:
f [ q(R)•x [' dR
exists if j" . . . dR is the well known mvariant integral in group space. Sinoe
this is finite for the rotation group (or the unimodular unitary group), it can be
normalized to 1. We then have
(73)
~ J" I q(R)•x I'dR = ~ f I q(R)•~ ]'dR = 1.
x
The (2j + 1)tD °~ (R)u form, ~ a complete set of normalized orthogonal functions
for R. We set
(74)
q(R),x = ~ C;~, D o~(R) u.
We shall calculate now the integral over group space of the product of D°~(R)~t
and
(75)
q(RS)~, = ~ , q(R),~q(S)~,.
The sum on the right converges uniformly, as for (72a)
"~_,lq(R),xq(8)~,,~_ (~_~N[ q(R),x ,' ~N ] q(,.q)X. I')'_< (X_~ [ q(8)~ ,')'
can be made arbitrarily small by choosing an N, independent of R, making the
last expression small. Hence, (75) can be integrated term by term and gives
(76)
f D°3(R)~zq(Rig),~d R = ~_, ~ DC'3(R)~zq(R)•xq(S)~,,dR"
H. Weyl a n d F. Peter, M a t h . A n n a l . 97, 737, 1927.
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
55
Substituting ~ D(i~(RS)k.~ D°)(S"'),,t for D(~;(R)t.t one obtain(77)
~ Dw(S-~)*.,, I D(,~ ,~R S , ) ~* , q (--R S ) , , d R = ~
m
*
q(S)~, [ D ~,3 (R)Hq(R),xdR.
X
In the invariant integral on the left of (77), R can be substituted for R S and
we obtain, for (74) and the unitary character
(78)
~ n~;)~o~
\t,~Ilm ,-,,,
I., ikm
m
a),
q(S)~Cit.:.
~
=
Multiplying (78) by D~a)(S)~,, the integration on the right side can b e carried
out term by term again, since the smu over ), converges uniformly
Cik:q(S)x, i_~
.x t"
X--A'
t
X--N
X~N
t.
~--,'V
This can be made arbitrarily small, as even ~ ~ (2j -b 1)-' I C~.~, I= converges,
X
for (74) and (72a).
(79)
ikl
The integration of (78) yields thus
~
k
,,
. , , f,x,,
From q ( R ) q ( g ) = q(R) follows q(E) = 1 and then q(R-') = q ( R ) - ' = q(R) t.
This, with the similar equation for D(i)(R) gives
~ , C~.~DU'(R-~)kt = q(R-~).~ --- q(R)x,*
(80)
iki
~ i IkJLI
ikt
~z~}| k = E
C~*
U)
--1
ikl
or
c;~,
(81)
= C i~u' ,*.
On the other hand q(E),x = ~,x yields
~i k Cikk
'x =
(82)
~,x.
These formulas suffice for the reduction of q(R). Let us choose for every
finite irreducible representation D °~ an index k, say k = 0. W e define then, in
the original space of the representation q(R) veeto~ Vc'jl) ~4th the components
"
"' C;l,,.• ..
Cikt,
C~'u,
The vectors v(`#) for different j or I are orthogonal, the scalar product of those
with the s a m e j and I is independent of L This follows from (79) and (81)
(83)
(v~,,.,,
v~.s,,)---" Z '-,i'k:"
~'~* c;~,= ~
k
X
' ~ ' . k = ~ii, Su,
t," ~ikt,.,iq
""
The v t ' ~ for all r, j, l, form a complete set of veetor~ In order to show this,
it is sufficient to form, for every v, a linear combination from them, the v component of which is 1, all other components 0. This linear combination is
(84)
~
.~'J" .
~
L," "i l k t ~
1~P. Wigner / Unitary representations o.f Lorentz group
56
In fact, the h component of (84) is, on account of (79) and (82)
(85)
E
• il
i!
c;,
+,,,.
However, two v with the ~ t u e j and l but different first indices ~ are not
orthogonal. We can choose for every./an l, say l = 0 and go through the vectors
v"~), v~i°), . . . and, following Sehmidt's method, orthogonalize and normalize
them. The vectors obtained in this way shall be denoted by
(86)
w <'i°) =
,qv
k
Then, since according to (83) the scalar products (v ('it>, v ~#)) do not depend on l,
the vectors
(Sra)
=
. <,.i,)
will be mutually orthogonal and normalized also and the vectors w ""a) for all
n, j, l will form a complete set of orthonormal vectors. The same holds for the
set of the conjugate complex veetors w ("'°*. Using these veetors as eorrdizmte axes for the original representation q(R), we shall find that q(R) is completely red.ueed. The r component of the vector q(R)v °'i°* obtained by applying
q(R) on v c'it)* is
(87)
~ q(R),,(v('/°*), = ~ q(R),,,C~',,..
tt
The right side is uniformly convergent. Hence, its product with (2h + 1)
D(')(R)~,, can be integrated term by term giving
(88)
*
~ J" (2h + I)D Ok)(R),,q(R).,,C+,+dR
= ~ ++,.,~.+,+""""
= +,j+,.,C;;+..
Titus we have for almost all R
(88a)
~ q(R).,,(v('m*),. = ~ C;~kDU)(R), = ~ D°'(R),(v"~')*).,
or
(88b)
q(R)t, <'jr>* = ~ DU'(R),v <'j''*.
i
Since both sides are supposed to be strongly continuous functions of R, (88b)
holds for every R. In (86a), for cvcry n, the summation must be carried out
only over a finite number of ~. We can write therefore immediately
(89)
q(R)u, °'m* = ~ D('(R),u, ("i')*.
i
This proves that the original representation decomposes in the eorrdinate system
of the w into well knowu finite irreducible rcpresentations D°)(R). Since the w
form a complete orthonormal set of vectors, the transition corresponds to a
unitary transformation.-
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
This completes the proof of the complete reducibility of all (finite and infinite
dimensional) representations of the rotation group or unimodular unitary
group. It is clear also that the same consideration applies for all closed groups,
i.e., whenever the invariant integral ~ dR converge.,,.
The result for the inhomogeneous l.orentz group is: For every positive numerical value of P, the representations of the little group can be, in an irreducible
representation, only the D *°~, D *p, D ~t~, • • • , both for P+ and for P _ . All these
representations have been found already by Majorana and by Dirac and for
positive P thereare none in addition to these.
B. Representations of the two dimensional Euclidean group
This group, as pointed out in Section 6, has a great similarity with the inhomogeneous Lorentz group. It is possible, again ~, to introduce "momenta", i.e.
variables/~, 17and u instead of the l" in such a way that
(9o)
t(~, ~)~0~, ~, 7, ~) = g~'~+"~(~, ~, ~, ~).
Similarly, one can define again operators R ~ )
(91)
R(fl),~(po,/h 7, v) = ~,(p=,/~', 11', u),
where
~' = ~ co8 ~ (91a)
~ sin #,
~' = ~ sin ~ + ~ coe ~.
Then 6(~)R(~) -~ ffi S(~) will commute, on account of (71c), ~ t h t(z, y) and
again contain ~, 11 as parameter only. The equation corresponding to (57a) is
(~)
5(~)~(po, ~, ~, ~) -- ~ s(~).~(p,, ~', ~', ~).
One can infer from (90) and (92) again that the variability domain of ~, 11can be
restricted in such a way that all pairs ~, 11arise from one pair ~,, ,~ by a rotation,
according (91a). We have, therefore two essentially different cases:
a.)
~ + 7 s = .~ ~ 0
b.)
~+72=~=0,
i.e.
~'ffi~=0.
The positive definite metric in the/~, !1 space excludes the other possibilities of
section 6 which were made possible by the Lorentzian metric for the momenta,
necessitated by (55).
Case b) can be settled very easily. The "little group" is, in this case, the
group of rotations in a plane and we are interested in one and two valued
irreducible representations. These are all one dimensional (e"#)
(93)
S(~) - e"a
where s is integer or half integer. These representations were also all found by
Majorana and by Dirac. For s = 0 we have simply the equation D ~ = 0,
57
58
E.P Wigner/ Unitao' representations of Lorentz group
for s = 4-½ Dirac's electron equation without mass, for s = :i:l Max~eU's
electromagnetic equations, etc
In case a) the little group consists only of the unit matrix and the matrix
i' i - - I
II
!
0 I
of the two dimensional unimodular group. This group has two
--1
irreducible representations, as (1) and ( - 1 ) can correspond to the above two
dinmnsional matrix of the little group. This gives two new rel)resentations of
the whole inhomogeneous Lorentz group, corresponding to every numerical
value of ~,. Both these sets helong to class 0. and two similar new sets belong
to class 0_.
Thefinal resu~ is thus asfoUows: The repre~sentations P+i of the first subclass
P+ can be characterized by the two numbers P and j. From these P is positive,
otherwise arbitrary, while j is an integer or a half integer, positive, or zero.
The same holds for the subclass P _ . There are three kin&s of representations
of the subclass 0+. Those of the first khld 0+, can be characterized by a number
s, which can be either an integer or a half integer, positive, negative or ,.ero.
Those of the second kind 0+(F,) are single valued and can be characterized by an
arbitrary positive number ~, those of the third kind 0+(~.) are double-valued
and also can be characterized by ~ positive ~. The same holds for the subclass
0_. The representations of the other classes (00 and P with P < 0) have not
been determined.
il 0
8. REPRESENTATIONS OF THE EXTENDED LORENTZ GROUP
Ao
As most wave equations are invariant under a wider group than the one
investigated in the previous sections, and as it is very probable that the laws of
physics are all invariant under this wider group, it seems appropriate to investigate now how the results of the previous sections will be modified if we go over
from the " r ~ t r i e t e d Lorentz group" defined in section 4A, to the extended
Lorentz group. This extended Lorentz group contains in addition to the
translations all the homogeneous transformations X satisfying (10)
(10')
XFX'= F
while the homogencotts transformation.~ of section 4A were restricted by two
more conditions. From (10') it follows that the determinant of X can be -}-1 or
- 1 ordy. If its - 1 , the determinant of XI = X F is + I . If the four-four
element of X~ is negative, that of X~ = - X ~ is positive. It is clear, therefore,
t h a t if X is a matrix of the extended Lorentz group, one of the matrices X,
XF, --X, - X F is in the re.stricted Lorentz group. For F 2 = l, conversely, all
homogeneous transformations of the extended Lorentz group can be obtained
from the homogeneous transformations of the restricted group by multiplication
with one of the matrices
(94)
1, F, - 1, - F .
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
The group element.s corresponding to these transformations will be denoted by
E, F, I, IF. The restricted group contains those elements of the extended
group which can be reached continuously from the unity. It follows that the
transformation of an element L of the restricted group by F, I, or I F g~ves again
an element of the restricted group. This is, therefore, an invariant subgroup
of the extended Lorentz group. In order to find the representations of the
extended Lorentz group, we shall use again Frobenius' method. 1~
We shall denote tile operators corresponding in a representation to the
homogeneous transformations (94) by d(E) = 1, d(F), d(I), d(IF). For deriving
the equations (52) it was necessary only to .qssume the existence of-the transformations of the restricted group, it was not necessary to assume that these are
the only transformations. These equations will hold, therefore, for elements
of the restricted group, in representations of the extended group also. We
normalize the indeterminate factors in d(F) and d([) so that their squares
become rarity. Then we have d(F)d([) = ¢~d(1)d(F) or d4/) = oJd(F)d(I)d(F).
Squaring this, one ohta~s ¢~ = +1. We can set, therefore
(05)
d(IF) = d(I)d(g) = -4-d(F)d(I)
d(F)' = d(t)'
= 1;
d(rF)'
= :eL
Finally, from
496)
d( F)D( Lt)d( F) = ¢(L~)D( FLtF)
we obtain, multiplying this with the similar equation for/-a
which, gives ¢o(L) = 1 as the inhomogeneous Lorent,. group (or the group used
in (52B)-(52D)) has the only one dimensional representation by the unity 41).
In this way, we obtain
(96a)
d(F)D(L)d(F) = D(FLF),
(96b)
d(I)D(L)d(1) = D(ILI),
(96e)
d(IF)D(L)d(IF) -~ = D(IFLFI).
B.
Given a representation of the extended Lorentz group, one can perform the
transformations described in section 6A, by considering the elements of the
restricted group only. We shall consider here only such representations of the
extended group, for which, after having introduced the momenta, all representations of the restricted group are either in class 1 or 2, i.e. P ~ 0 but not {h.
Following thcn the procedure of section 6, one can find a set of wave functions
for which the operators D(L) of the restricted group have one of the forms, given
in section 6 as irreducible representations. We shall proceed, next to find the
operator d(F). For the wave functiovs belonging to an irreducible D(L) of the
59
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations o f Lorentz group
60
restricted group, we can introduce a complete set of orthonormal functions
~bt(p, ~), ~b2(p, ~'), --- . We then have
D(L)~,(p, ~) =- ~., D(L)it,~b~(p, ~).
(97)
It
The infinite matrices D(L),~ defined in (97) are unitary and form a representation
which isequivalent to the representation by the operators D(L). The D(L),
d(F) are, of course, operators, but the D(L)It, are components of a matrix,
i.e. numbers. We can now form the wave functions d(F)~bl, d(F)~bt, d(F)lba, . . .
and apply D(L) to these. For (96a) and (97) we have
D(L)d(F)~,. = d(F)D(FLF),[,,.
= d(F) ~_, D(FLF),.,/,It
(97a)
= ~_, D(FLF)~d(F)~bit.
It
The matrices D°(L)it, = D(FLF)It, give a representation of the restricted group
(FLF is an element of the restricted group, we have a new representation by an
automorphism, as discussed in section 6B). We shall find out whether D°(L) is
equivalent D(L) or not. The translation operation in D ° is
T°(a) = d(F)T(a)d(F) = T(Fa)
(98)
which, together with (53) shows that D ° has the same P as D(L) itself.
fact, writing
In
V,~,(p, ~) = ,,,(Fp, ~)
(99)
one has U~-~ = UI and one easily calculates U,T°(a)U~ = T(a).
Uldo(h) UI one has
Similarly for
UId°(A) U,,p(p, ~) = U,d(FAF) Us ~o(p, ~)
(99a)
= d(FAF)U~(Fp, ~) = ~_~ Q(fp, FAF)r , Ut~(FA-~p, ,!)
I
=
Q(Fp,
FAF)r,.(A-'p,
q
This means that the similarity transformation with U~ brings T°(a) into T(a)
and d°(A) into Q(Fp, FAF)P(A). Thus the representation of the "little group"
in Uld°(A) UI is
q°(x) = Q(Fpo, FAR).
For this latter matrix, one obtains from (67a)
q°(X) = Q(Fpo, F~F) =- q(a(Fpo)-~FkFa(Fpo))
= q(x o)
where ~° is obtained from ). by transforming it with Fa(Fpo).
The representations D°(L) and D(L) are equivalent if the representation
(too)
E.P, feigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
q(X) is equivalent to the representation which coordinates q(ko) to k. The
o(Fpo) is a transformation of the restricted group which brings po into a(Fpo)~ =
Fpa. (Cf. (65).) This transformation is, of course, not uniquely determined
but if a(Fpo) is one, the most general can be written as a(Fp0)t, where tp0 -- p0
is in the little group. For q(i-la(Fpo) -t A a(Fp0 0 ffi q(,)-~q(a(Fpo)-z A a(FpO )
q(0, the freedom in the choice of a(Fpo) only amounts to a similarity transformation of qO(),) and naturally does not change the equivalence or non equivalence of q°Q,) with q(X).
For the case P + , we can choose po in the direction of the fourth axis, with
components 0, 0, 0, 1. Then Fpo = p0 and a(FpO ffi 1. The little group is the
group of rotations in ordinary space and FkF ffi ),. Hence q°(k) ffi q(~,) and
D*(A) is equivalent to D(A) in this case. The same holds for the representations of class P _ .
For 0÷ we can assume that p0 has the components 0, 0, 1, 1. Then the
components of Fp0 are 0, 0, - 1 , 1. For a(FpO we can take a rotation by w
about the second axis and Fa(Fpo) will be a diagonal matrix with diagonal
elements 1, - 1 , 1, 1, i.e., a refleCtion of the second axis. Thus ff ~, is the transformation in (70), ~' -- a(Fpo)-tFkFa(Fpo) is the transform~_tion for which
(101)
~o
x,q-.~
zt-/.~
~.,ffi
z4q"zz
z,-z,/
zt--
x,' -- :c, /
This is, however, clearly ~.0 _- X, Thus the operators of g0(~) are obtained
from the operators q00 by (cf. (71a))
?(z,
(101a)
~)
y) = t(z, - y )
-- 5 ( - ~ ) .
For the representations 0+, with discrete s, the q'(h) and q(~) are clearly inequivalent as 5°(/3) -- (e-*°p) and 5(~) = (e"a), except for s = 0, when they are equivalent. For the representations 0+(~), 0+(,), the q0(~) and q(~) are equivalent,
both in the single valued and the double valued case, as the substitution q --~ -transforms them into each other. The same holds for representations of the
class 0_. If D°(L) and D(L) are equivalent
(102)
U-tD°(L)~J ffi D(L),
the square of U commutes with all D(L). As a consequence of this, U s must
be a constant matrix. Otherwise, one could form, in well known manner, m
an idempotent which is a function of U * and thus commutes with D(L) also.
Such an idempoteut would lead to a reduction of the representation D(L) of the
restricted group. As a constant is free in U, we can set.
(102a)
U~ ** 1
sT j. yon Neuma~n, Ann. of Math. SJ. 191.1931; ref. 2. o. 89.
61
62
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations o f Loreatz group
Co
Retunting now to equation (97a), if D°(L) = D(FLF) and D(L) are equivalent
(P > 0 or 0+, 0_ with continuous ~ or s -- 0) there is a unitary matrix U,,,,
corresponding to U, such that
D(FLF),*. U*., = ~. U,,,D(L)*.,
(102b)
~
U,*.U*., = ~,,.
Let us now consider the functions
(103)
,, = ¢,, + ~ U*.,d(F)~,*..
Applying D(L) to these
D(L)~,, = D(L)@, + ~ U*.,D(L)d(F)@,,
= D(L)~,, + ~ U*.,d(F)D(FLF)~*.
(103a)
= ~ D(L)*.,~*. + ~ U*.,d(F)D(FLF),,,¢,,
*.
p.¢
Similarly
d(F)~, = d(F)~, + ~ U*.,~b*.
(103b)
Thus the wave functions ~, transform according to the representation in which
D(L)*., corresponds to L and U*.,to d(F). The same holds for the wave functions
(104)
~: = ¢/, -- ~., U~,d(F)~,*.,
except that in this case ( - U~,) corresponds to d(F). The @, and d(F')@, can be
expressed by the ~, and ~'. If the ¢~ and d(F)¢,, were linearly independent, the
and ~' will be linearly independent also. If the d(F)@ were linear combinations
of the ~b, either the ~ or the ~' will vanish.
If we imagine a unitary representation of the group formed by the L and FL
in the form in which it is completely reduced out as a representation of the group
of restricted transformations L, the above procedure will lead to a reduction
of that part of the representation of the group of the L and FL, for which D(L)
and D(FLF) are equivalent.
If D(L)~, and D°(L),,. are inequivalent, the ¢,, and d(F)~,, = ~k: are orthogonal. This is again a generalization of the similar rule for finite unitary
E.P. Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
representations. "~ One can .see tills in the following way: Denoting M,, =
(~/,, ¢/:) one has
M., = (%,, ~ ) = (D(L)~k,, D(L)%~)
=
D(L),,,D (L)x,M,,x,
M = D(L) t MDO(L).
Hence
(105)
D(L)M = MD*(L);
MtD(L) = DO(L)M t.
From these, one easily infers that M M t commutes with D(L), and ,~/tM commutes with DO(L). Hence both are constant matrices, and if neither of them is
zero, M and M t are, apart from a constant, unitary. Thus D(L) would be
equivalent D°(L) which is contrary to supposition. Hence M M t = 0, M = 0
and the ~b are orthogonal to the d(F)~, -- ~b'. Together, they give a representation of the group formed by the restricted Lorentz group and F. If they do not
form a complete set, the reduction can be continued as before.
One sees, thus, that introducing the operation F "doubles" the number of
dimensions of the irreducible representations in which the little group was the two
dimensional rotation group, while it does not increase the underlying linear
manifold in the other cases. This is analogous to what happens, if one adjoins
the reflection operation to the rotation groups themselves. ~
D.
The operations d(I) can be determined in the same manner as the d(F) were
found. A complete set of orthonormal functions corresponding to an irreducible
representation of the group formed by the L and FL shah be denoted by ~t,
~1, --.
For this, we shall a.~ume (97) again, although the D(L) contained
therein is now not necessarily irreducible for the restricted group alone but
contains, in case of 0+, or 0__,and finite s, both sand - z . Weshallset, furthermore
(106)
d(F)~, -- ~ d(F),~b,.
We can form then the functions d(I)~b~, d(/)¢/,, . . . . The consideration, contained in (97a) shows that these transform according to D(ILI),~ for the transformation L of the restricted group:
(106a)
D(L)d(I)~, = ~_, D(ILI),,,d(I)~,, .
J
Cl~oosing for L a pure translation, a consideration analogous to that performed
in (98) shows that the set of momenta in the representation L ---*D ( I L I ) has the
opposite sign to the set of momenta in the representation D(L). If the latter
z, Cf. e.g.E. Wigner, ref. 4, Chapter X I I .
~" I. Schur, Sit--. d. kSn. Premm. Akad. pages 189, 297, 1924.
63
E.P Wigner / Unitary representations of Lorentz group
64
belongs to a positive subclass, the former belongs to the corresponding negative
subclass and conversely. Thus the adjunction of the transformation I always
leads to a "doubling" of the number of states, the states of "negative energy" are
attached to the system of po~ible states. One can describe all states ~kt,
~ k ~ , " ' , d(I)J/l, d(1)¢/,.,.., by introduchlg momenta pl, p2, p~, p, and
restricting the variability domain of p by the condition {p, p} = P alone
without stipulating a definite sign for p,.
As we saw before, the d(I)¢,~, d(i)~,~, are orthogonal to the original set of
wave functions ~bt, ~b~, ...
The result of the application of the operations
D(L) and d(F) to the ~hL,~0_, -- • (i.e., the representation of the group formed by
the L, FL) was given in part C. The D(L)d(1)¢,, are given in (106a). On
account of the normalization of d(1) we can set
(106b)
d(1)d(I)~,, = ~,.
For d(F)d(I)~b, we have two possibilities, according to the two po.~ibilities in
(95). We can either set
(107)
d(F)d(I)¢/, = d(1)d(F),l/, = ~_, d(F)~,d(l)~,, ,
or
(107a)
d(F) .d(I)~b, = -d(I)d(F)¢,, = - ~ d(F)#,d(l)~, .
Strictly speaking, we thus obtain two diiferent representations. The system of
states satisfying (107) could be distinguished from the system of states for which
(107a) is valid, however, only .if we could really perform the transition to a new
co6rdinate system by the transformation I. As this is, in reality, impossible,
the representations distinguished by (107) and (107a) are not different in the
same sense as the previously described representations are different.
I am much indebted to the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation for their
aid enabling me to complete this research.
MADISON', Wlf,.