Motivation
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What is Motivation?
Motive – A motive is defined an inner state that energizes,
activates (or moves), and directs (or channels) the behaviour of
individual towards certain goals.
Motives and Needs are different.
Motivation – While motives are energizers of actions,
motivation is the actual action, (that is, work behaviour), itself.
Motivating is a term that implies that one person induces
another to engage in action by ensuring that a channel to direct
the motive of the individual becomes available and accessible to
the individual.
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Motive, Motivating and Motivation
Motive
Needs in
individual
Motivating
Setting up proper
stimuli in the
environment to
activate the motives
in individual
Motivation
Engagement of
individuals in work
behaviour
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Theories of Motivation
Content Theories of Motivation
The content theories of motivation are basically concerned with
the need patterns of the individuals.
Cognitive or Process Theories of Motivation
Cognitive models of motivation are based on the notion that
individual make conscious decisions about their behaviour.
Reinforcement Theory
This theory uses the principles of learning proposed by Skinner.
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Content Theories – Maslow
Maslow believed that
each person has an
essential nature that
“presses” to emerge.
In his view, we all
have higher-level
growth needs – such
as self-actualization
and understanding of
ourselves – but that
these higher needs
only assume a
dominant role in our
lives after our more
primitive needs are
satisfied.
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
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Herzberg’s Two Factor Model
Hygiene factors
Motivators
Opposite of Dissatisfaction is NOT Satisfaction
No Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Dissatisfaction
No Dissatisfaction
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Cognitive Theories –
Adam’s Equity Theory
Adam (1965) defined inequity as an injustice perceived by a
person when he compares the ratio of his outcomes (rewards)
to his inputs (efforts), with the ratio of another comparable
person’s outcomes to inputs, and finds that they are not
equal.
Positive
Inequity
Outcomes for person
Outcomes for other
>
Inputs of person
Inputs of other
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Adam’s Equity Theory…
Negative
Inequity
Outcomes for person
Inputs of person
Outcomes for other
<
Inputs of other
Consequences of Inequity
1. The person can alter inputs (efforts).
2. The person can try to alter outcomes or rewards.
3. The person can cognitively distort inputs or outcomes.
4. The person might quit the job.
5. The person could try to influence the other individual to
reduce inputs.
6. The person might change the level of comparison.
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Need and Expectation of people
at work
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A Basic model of Frustration
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Expectancy Theory
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Vroom’s VIE Model of Motivation
Valence – the strength of an individual’s preference for a
particular outcome. In order for the valence to be positive, the
person must prefer attaining the outcomes to not attaining it.
Another major input into the valence is the instrumentality
of the first-level outcome in obtaining a desired second-level
outcome.
Expectancy in Vroom’s theory is the probability (ranging
from 0 to 1)
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Vroom’s VIE Model of Motivation
Effort Alternatives
E
P
Possible Performance Results
Probabilty
.6
Choice 1
Choice 2
High Performance
Attempted High
Performance Efforts
.4
Acceptable Performance
.7
Acceptable Performance
Attempted Acceptable
Performance Efforts
.3
Sub-Standard Performance
Fig: Expectancy perceptions on effort levels leading to performance
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Vroom’s model…
PO
Performance Alternatives
Contengencies
Outcomes
Bonus
.8
Recognition
.6
High Performance
.7
Stress
Bonus
.3
Acceptable
Performance
.4
.2
Stress
Bonus
.01
Sub-Standard
Performance
.01
.6
Recognition
Recognition
Stress
Fig: Instrumentality Perceptions: Probabilities of Performance leading to Rewards
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Vroom’s model…
Effort Alternatives
Performance
Results
EP
Probability
Outcomes
PR
.7
.6
.4
Acceptable
Performance
+.8
+.384
+.4
+.114
Stress
-.5
-.21
Bonus
+.8
+.096
Recognition
+.4
+.064
Stress
-.5
-.04
Bonus
.6 Recognition
High Performance
Choice 1:
Attempted
High
Performance
Efforts
EPX PR
Probability
.8
.3
.4
.2
Valence
XV
Force for Choice 1
= +.438
Fig: Choice Decisions based on Force calculations
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Vroom’s model…
Effort Alternatives
Performance
Results
EP
Probability
Outcomes
PR
Bonus
.4 Recognition
Acceptable Performance
Choice 2:
Attempted
Acceptable
Performance
Efforts
EPX PR
Probability
.3
.2
.7
.3
Sub-standard
Performance
Stress
Bonus
.01
.01 Recognition
.6
Valence
Stress
+.8
+.168
+.4
+.112
-.5
-.07
+.8
+.0024
+.4
+.0012
-.5
-.09
XV
Force for Choice 2
= +.1236
Fig: Choice Decisions based on Force calculations
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The Porter and Lawler Model
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Porter & Lawler – Contribution to Work Motivation
The expectancy models provide certain guidelines that can be followed
by human resource managers. For example, on the front-end (the
relationship between motivation and performance), it has been suggested
that the following barriers must be overcome:
1.
Doubts about ability, skills, or knowledge.
2.
The physical or practical possibility of the job.
3.
The interdependence of the job with other people or activities.
4.
Ambiguity surrounding the job requirements.
In addition, on the back end (the relationship between performance and satisfaction),
guidelines such as the following have been suggested:
1.
Determine what rewards each employee values
2.
Define desired performance
3.
Make desired performance attainable
4.
Link valued rewards to performance
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Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory suggests that it is possible to predict behaviour
without trying to understand the internal thought process of individuals.
Reinforcement theorists believe that environmental consequences mould the
behaviour of people.
Reinforcement Strategies
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement –
Negative reinforcement increases the frequency and strength of desired behaviour by making it contingent
upon the avoidance of undesirable consequences for the person.
Punishment
Extinction
Shaping
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