2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
Can Social Role Theory Explain Gender Differences in Facebook Usage?
Xiaolin Lin*
[email protected]
Yibai Li*
[email protected]
Christopher B. Califf*
[email protected]
Mauricio Featherman*
[email protected]
*Department of Management, Information Systems, and Entrepreneurship
Washington State University
cultivated relationships, and the actions of individual
SNS users, that such business advantages can occur.
The Facebook SNS has the highest individual user
activity [4] and has cultivated a new digital business
channel. As evidenced by the decline of myspace.com
SNS, there is no guarantee that Facebook and other
digitized SNS channels will maintain and expand
market share. For example consumer privacy concerns
can reduce SNS usage [9]. Therefore, determinants of
continued use for each target market and gender
deserve sustained research. A recent account reports
that Facebook is approaching 1 billion users [10],
interacting through 125 billion friend connections [11]
therefore we use the theoretical lens of Information
technology (IT) continuance.
Prior research indicates that continuance of using
an information technology (IT) application is not to be
confused with initial adoption [12, 13], a domain that
has had a major impact on the field of IS (e.g., [14],
[15] and [16]). Instead, IT continuance involves
investigating the long-term factors (i.e., post-adoption)
that contribute to recurring use of the system [17, 18],
and is thus integral to the success of a system [12].
Current continuance literature resides in two
camps.
On one hand, scholars have employed
adoption constructs embedded in or inspired by the
“Technology Acceptance Model” (TAM) (see [14]).
On the other hand, scholars have embraced the
“Expectation-Confirmation Model” in IT domain
(ECM-IT) (see [12]). A study by Hong et al. [17]
demonstrated that both models grant researchers salient
information about IT continuance, and stated that
constructs implanted in both models are acceptable for
studying IT continuance, depending on one’s research
interests.
IT continuance investigates the long-term factors
that contribute to recurring use of the system [17, 18],
and it is thus integral to the long term system success
[12]. In SNS contexts, IT continuance research remains
scarce. One study by Wang, Xu, and Chan [19]
employed computer self-efficacy and the technology
acceptance model (TAM) to examine Facebook
continuance. Another, by Yin et al. [2], explored SNS
continuance through the lens of the Expectation
Confirmation Model in IT (ECM-IT). These
manuscripts assume that each gender bases their SNS
Abstract
Social networking sites (SNS) such as Facebook
are now a primary communications medium used to
connect individuals and businesses worldwide.
Businesses can profit by interacting with consumers
through these platforms and therefore have a vested
interest in consumers continued usage of SNS
technologies. To date published research on SNS usage
largely assumes males and females evaluate the sites in
a similar manner. Drawing from social role theory,
our study investigates the neglected context of gender
differences using constructs that are theoretically and
empirically linked to IT continuance. Our results
confirm that gender differences exist. For the sample
and context perceived risk and perceived enjoyment
had a greater impact on Facebook continuance
intention for males. Different antecedents, perceived
usefulness, perceived ease of use, and reputation had a
greater influence on Facebook continuance intention
for females. The results support the assertions of Social
Role Theory. Theoretical and practical contributions
are discussed.
1. Introduction
Since the advent of Web 2.0 technologies, social
networking sites (SNS) have captivated the attention of
individuals and businesses worldwide [1, 2]. SNS
permit an individual or organization to promote their
brand using a profile [2-4], announcements, contests,
polls, and to perform market research useful for
product line refinements. For example, consumers can
connect with brands and brand managers via branded
fan pages in ways previously unimaginable. Indeed,
SNS’ are more than just a medium to maintain
friendships, they have transformed the way consumers
obtain product information and product reviews.
Individuals “want their information from people
they know, have a relationship with, and share a bond
with through trust” ([5], p. 5). This shift in consumer
preferences for online recommendations has prompted
businesses to enter the world of SNS’, befriend
consumers and mavens, and engage with their
consumer base to increase brand awareness, revenue
and customer satisfaction [6-8]. It is through these
1530-1605/12 $26.00 © 2012 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/HICSS.2013.125
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continuance decisions on similar criteria. Rather than
assume the genders make continuance decision
equivalently, we investigate whether the genders
differentially base usage continuance decisions on
different variables or a different weighting of the same
variables. Specifically, we examine if gender
moderates the relationship between one’s intention to
continue using Facebook and one’s perceived
usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEOU),
perceived control (PC), perceived risk (PR), perceived
enjoyment (PE), and reputation. In prior studies,
limited research has focused on gender differences in
IT Usage. For example, Zhang et al. [29] studied
gender differences in switching bloggers’ switching
behavior and demonstrated that gender differences
exist in the effects of satisfaction and attractive
alternatives on intention of switching behavior. In
addition, Fedorowicz [20] reported gender differences
in teenagers’ elective use of computer technology. This
indicates that gender differences do exist in IT usage,
but remains under-represented.
Social role theory (SRT) [21] provides the
theoretical lens through which we study gender and its
impact on the factors that affect Facebook continuance.
SRT posits that people conform to ‘social roles’ (i.e.,
one’s place in society) based on expectations about
where one should fit and how one should behave in
society. For example, females learn nurturing skills at a
young age [23]. Previous IS studies that employ SRT
investigate a myriad of phenomena, including
emergent leadership [22, 23], knowledge sharing [24],
feedback and decision-making [25, 26], perception of
avatars [27], virtual collaboration [28], and switching
behavior [29]. While meaningful, these studies neglect
to examine gender differences in a Facebook-like
environment. Our paper extends SRT to SNS’ so as to
add value to SRT in the context of IT continuance.
Altogether, the goal of this paper is to answer the
following question: Do the genders base decisions to
continue using a SNS on different factors? We seek to
inform both academicians that study the use of SNS for
social or commerce purposes and practitioners who
seek to grow SNS usage.
The paper proceeds as follows. First, we review
the literature that relates to the theoretical foundations
of our research. Second, we introduce our hypotheses.
Third, we present our methodology and the results of
our study. We close with a discussion of our results
and implications for theory and practice.
SRT, which affords the theoretical frame to posit that
the influence of each construct on SNS continuance
decisions vary by gender.
2.1 Social Role Theory (SRT)
SRT is seeded in the belief that behavioral
differences of men and women originate from the
social roles humans play in daily life [21]. Such roles
encompass those at a cultural and societal level [24]
and “follow from the typical characteristics commonly
held by women versus men” [30 p.126]. For example,
Eagly et al. [23] notes, “in contemporary American
society and in most other societies, women have less
power, status, and resources” [23 p.126]. IS research
has acknowledged that social roles contribute to gender
differences in a digital environment. For example,
Carte et al. [22] note that “men are believed to be more
self-assertive and motivated to master their
environment, while women are believed to be more
selfless and concerned with others” (p. 3). Another
example by Chai et al. [24] shows that when sharing
knowledge in a blogging environment, women tend to
value reciprocity and social ties more so than men, thus
confirming that women take on an aspect of their
gender role; being intrinsically compassionate and
“other-oriented” [30 p.127].
Following Chai et al. [24], we assume that social
roles in the offline world largely transfer to the online
world. The current study employs SRT to investigate if
gender influences how individuals form their decisions
whether to continue using Facebook.
2.2 IT Continuance & Facebook
IT continuance research examines the factors
which contribute to or dimish system usage over time.
Notable initial IT continuance research in the SNS
context includes Wang et al. [19] and Yin et al. [2].
These initial studies do not account for the individual
difference factors of perceived control toward usage, or
reputation. In addition to gender, each of these factors
are critical to understanding consumers’ Facebook
continuance. Prior continuance research also fails to
examine gender differences. Next, we discuss the
constructs under examination.
3. Individual Constructs & IT Continuance
2. Theoretical Background
3.1 Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), Perceived
Usefulness (PU), & IT Continuance
Our research incorporates constructs from several
theoretical underpinnings. Each construct is now
discussed in an IT continuance context. We also review
PEOU, PU, and attitude are individual level
constructs embedded in TAM research [14]. TAM’s
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ability to “explain much of the variance in users’
intention related to IT adoption usage across a wide
variety of contexts” ([17], p. 1982) has impelled IS
researchers to include TAM constructs in IT
continuance research. For example, Bhattacherjee [12],
in his seminal ECM-IT manuscript, adopts Davis’ [14]
PU to predict IT continuance intention. In regards to
continuance in a SNS setting, Wang et al. [19] show
that PEOU and PU are both significant predictors of
Facebook continuance and Yin et al. [2] confirmed
PU’s significant impact on SNS continuance usage
intention.
system allows him or her to control what information is
shared [37]. Some SNS’ offer features that allow users
to somewhat control who can view profile information
[37]. It is uncertain however how much control users
have over the data mining and commercialization of
their SNS user-input content. In this vein, we consider
perceived control an important factor useful to
understand users’ decisions to continue using a SNS.
3.4 Perceived Enjoyment & IT Continuance
Perceived enjoyment (PE) is “the extent to which
the activity of using the computer is perceived to be
enjoyable in its own right, apart from any
consequences that may be anticipated” [38]. PE
predicts one’s attitude [39], which in turn, affects one’s
continuance intention. The influence of PE on SNS
continuance decisions may be non-significant [2],
however we assert that a gender-based review of this
finding is worthwhile.
3.2 Perceived Risk (PR) & IT Continuance
In a SNS context perceived risk measures a
consumers concern that potential personal losses may
result from using an information service. For example
Featherman et. al.,[31] demonstrated that PR decreases
one’s intention to accept an e-banking service.
Kleijnen et al. [32] sum up the current research
perspective, noting that PR plays “a crucial role in the
adoption process.” Because risk concerns can persist
long after adoption, we follow Hong et al.’s [17]
recommendation for research into perceived risk even
after system adoption.
The study of system users’ risk concerns
throughout the cycle of usage is important because
consumers may not understand the dangers and risks of
usage until after they gain experience with a system. In
the rush to adopt a popular SNS many users do not
read the terms of usage, nor are many adopters
interested in or savvy enough to appreciate any danger
and resultant personal losses from usage. As a credence
service whose security is uncertain even after usage,
consumer risk concerns can easily change over time.
As such, continued usage of a SNS should not be
assumed. Some risk-related concerns that can cause
one to change reduce, or stop usage include real or
imagined privacy breaches, changes in the SNS’
privacy policy, discovery that online behaviors are
being recorded, and apprehensions that the SNS is
packaging and selling users’ personally identifying
information.
3.5 Reputation & IT Continuance
Vendor reputation, a construct related to vendor
trustworthiness, is recognized as an important topic of
e-commerce research. Rather than incorporate
perceptions of vendor reputation, this research adopts
an individual’s perspective to investigate the reputation
conferring and enhancing aspects of an SNS.
Reputation in an online context is “an individual user’s
recognition as a valuable member among the peers of
the virtual community” ([40], p. 4). Reputation is
shown to increase one’s likelihood to continue to share
knowledge in an expertise-sharing network [41], and
influences continuance intention in an e-learning
community [40]. Facebook like other SNS’ can be used
to maintain and expand one’s reputation. We
investigate whether the genders differentially ascribe
importance to the reputation enhancing features of
Facebook during continuance decisions.
4. Hypothesis Development
In this section, we discuss the aforementioned
individual constructs, and delineate the hypothesized
gender differences in an IT continuance context (see
Figure 1). Our research model does not take into
account many previously validated interrelationships
amongst the exogenous variables of prior continuance
models, and should not be viewed as our model of IT
continuance. Rather the focus of this research is the
investigation of possible gender differences in the
influence of common factors that have been
demonstrated to influence individual’ decisions to
3.3 Perceived Control (PC) & IT Continuance
PC stems from the belief that people have control
over their environment. SNS users have “expectations
about the extent to which agents (i.e., Facebook users)
can obtain desired outcomes” [33]. IS researchers have
generally researched PC with privacy and trust (e.g.,
[34], [1], [35], [36]). Such a construct grouping also
persists in a SNS environment where perceived control
represents the extent to which a user feels that the
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men, [30] a “root cause” resulting from “the sexual
division of labor and gender hierarchy” [23 p.126], Our
interpretation of SRT is that individuals with less
power are more focused and concerned with acquiring
it, thus will report higher concern for the perceived
control over the SNS. Women should be more
concerned about controlling access to their personal
information. As a result we contend that females will
be more inclined to report PC as an important decision
criterion.
continue using an information system. A simplified
research model aids the analysis of gender differences.
4.1 Perceived Usefulness (PU) & Gender
Gender difference literature has found that the
effect of PU on usage intention can significantly differ
for each gender. Men, consider PU a fundamental
reason to use an IT (e.g., [42], [43]). Men are believed
to be more task-oriented than are women [21], and we
believe men will view a SNS in a more task-oriented
than social-oriented manner, and females will view the
same SNS with a more social-orientation. PU
addresses how “capable [a system is] of being used
advantageously” and how effective one believes “using
a particular system would enhance his or her job
performance” ([14] p. 320). Such a definition
associates PU with task completion and task
orientation, which are said to be “more important for
men than for women on an ongoing basis” [43].
Consequently, we believe that the influence of PU on
continuance decisions will be more salient for males
than for females.
Hypothesis 3: The positive influence of PC on
Facebook continuance will be stronger for women than
for men.
4.4 Perceived Risk and Gender
Concerns for risk and resultant personal losses
influence online service adoption [27], [28]. In one
study of online purchasing, PR is shown to be more
relevant to women than men [46]. Facebook is
predominantly a social network and the magnitude and
influence of specific risk concerns for each gender (on
SNS continuance) are unknown in this context. SRT
posits that the female gender role “favors the
acquisition of superior interpersonal skills,” where
women inherently are more communal and men are
more agentic [30]. It follows that females will focus on
Facebook’s congenial social characteristics and social
and interpersonal affordances during continuance
decisions. Due to the focus on the interpersonal nature
of the female gender role, we contend that women
(more than men) will be less apt to consider any risk of
usage when making Facebook continuance decisions.
Hypothesis 1: The positive influence of PU on
Facebook continuance intention will be stronger
for men than for women.
4.2 Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) and Gender
Females are shown to factor the PEOU of an IS
more heavily during usage decisions [43],[44]. SRT
posits that women are more inclined to assume the
gender-based role of engaging in interpersonal
activities through the development of strong
interpersonal skills [30]. We contend females value the
SNS primarily for its social aspects. Females therefore
will judge the ease of use of the SNS interpersonal
communication features more heavily during SNS
continuance decision making.
Hypothesis 4: The negative influence of perceived
risk on Facebook continuance intention will be
stronger for men than for women.
4.5 Perceived Enjoyment (PE) and Gender
Individuals are likely to continue using a SNS that
fosters enjoyment. Zhang et al. [29], who studied
gender and intention to switch blogging platforms,
state that “additional variances could be explained by
other important factors, which may include…perceived
enjoyment” (p. 545). PE is an individual difference
construct spawned from intrinsic motivation, which is
defined as “the performance of an activity for no
apparent reinforcement other than the process of
performing the activity” ([38] p. 1112). In contrast
with extrinsic motivation constructs, (e.g., perceived
usefulness), intrinsic motivation is believed to be more
of a focus for females due to their predominant
process-orientation, rather than a task-orientation
([21], [43]). Therefore, because PE is “the process of
Hypothesis 2: The positive influence of PEOU on
Facebook continuance intention will be stronger for
women than for men.
4.3 Perceived Control (PC) & Gender
The relationship between PC and one’s intention
to use a technology has been shown to differ across
genders. For example, Dabholkar and Sheng [45]
report that feelings of control over download delays
when browsing a Web site were more important for
females. These findings are congruent with SRT in that
women are generally thought to have less power than
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performing the activity,” we project that PE will be
stronger for women than men in relation to one’s
continuance intention to use Facebook.
Figure 1. Conceptual Model
5. Research Method
Hypothesis 5: The positive influence of PE on
Facebook continuance intention will be stronger for
women than for men.
5.1. Sample & Data Collection Procedure
We conducted an online survey using data from
169 undergraduate students who attend a large
university in the United States. All of the participants
have used or are using Facebook. Students were asked
questions regarding their intention to continue using
Facebook, then were awarded nominal extra credit. All
of the respondents completed the survey. Table 1
summarizes the respondents’ demographic profile.
4.6 Reputation and Gender
With control over their user profile, SNS users
craft and self-portray their online reputation. This
activity of reputation management [47] remains
understudied in the IS discipline, however other
disciplines suggests that gender differences do exist.
For example, female social media users are more likely
to utilize privacy settings, compose more status
updates, and delete friends [48]. In relation to SRT,
which claims that the female gender role is associated
with less power and a lowered social status [30], we
posit that women (more than men) are more likely to
engage in reputation management to improve their selfbranded image and status. Therefore, we assert that
women (more than males) will exhibit more of a
concern that Facebook continues to provide them with
the ability to champion their online reputation and thus
will value the reputation conferring aspects of a SNS
more than males during continuance decisions.
Table 1. Demographic profile
Measure
Gender
Male
Female
Average Age
Experience in Facebook
(years)
Male
Female
Time in Facebook per
week (hours)
Male
Female
Hypothesis 6: The positive influence of reputation
on Facebook continuance intention will be stronger for
women than for men.
Percent
65
104
38.5%
61.5%
26.02
2.88
2.66
3.01
4.09
2.30
5.22
5.2. Measurement
The utilized measures were adapted from prior
studies with each item measured using a seven-point
Likert-type scale with the “strongly disagree/agree”
anchors. Items for PU and PEOU were adapted from
Davis [14]; PC from Krasnova et al. [1]; PR from
Featherman and Wells [49]; PE from Venkatesh [50];
reputation from Wasko and Faraj [51]; and continuance
intention from Battachergee and Wang et. al. [12, 19].
Measurement items are included in Table 3.
A pilot test was performed to validate the
instrument. Thirty members from the sampling
population were asked to comment on the items to
ensure no errors were present.
Descriptive statistics were calculated and are
displayed in Table 2. The ratio of sample size to
independent variables, including gender, is 24:1, which
exceeds the rule of thumb of 10 for the sample size
requirement in a regression analysis [52]. Scatter plots
for each construct indicate that the observations are
free from nonlinear patterns. In addition, the skewness
values for all the distributions are between -1 and +1;
the Kurtosis values are between -3 and 3. Therefore the
assumptions for linearity and normality were met [53].
Figure 1 is a conceptual model of our hypotheses
as they relate to intention to continued SNS usage. As
mentioned previously this initial research does not
utilize previously validated models of continuance.
Rather this initial investigation explores gender related
variance for each factor shown to affect IT continuance
decisions. Subsequent research will place the variables
in a literature-based continuance model.
Perceived usefulness
Perceived ease of use
Perceived control
Frequency
Continuance
Intention
Perceived risk
Perceived enjoyment
Reputation
Gender
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Table 2. Descriptive statistics
All
N=125
Perceived usefulness
Perceived ease of use
Perceived control
Perceived risk
Perceived enjoyment
Reputation
Continuance Intention
Mean
4.871
5.590
4.659
2.513
4.706
3.274
5.197
Women
S.D.
1.461
1.210
1.372
1.204
1.074
1.142
1.301
Mean
5.070
5.840
4.869
2.452
4.785
3.228
5.282
Men
S.D.
1.360
.993
1.230
1.208
1.041
1.147
1.343
Mean
4.554
5.190
4.323
2.612
4.580
3.349
5.062
S.D.
1.568
1.412
1.524
1.199
1.123
1.140
1.229
measure each scale’s internal consistency. As shown
in Table 3, all of the values are higher than 0.7, the
acceptable level of reliability [57]. A confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) was then conducted. All items
had a factor loading higher than 0.707 except item3
of PE(0.643) and item1 of Continuance Intention
(0.673) (see Table 3), the common rule of thumb for
acceptable item loadings [54], indicating an
acceptable level of convergent validity. In regards to
discriminant validity, the square root of average
variance explained (AVE) from the constructs should
be greater than the inter-scale correlation [54]. We
used the formula provided by Fornell and Larcker
[58] to calculate the square root of AVE (see Table
4). The elements along the diagonal are much greater
than the off-diagonal elements, which ensures the
discriminant validity of each scale. Table 4 also
displays the constructs’ composite reliability. They
were all greater than the commonly-used cutoff of
0.70 [54], which confirms the internal consistency of
each scale.
6. Analysis & Results
6.1. Analysis method
This study follows the well-established data
analysis procedure demonstrated in prior gender
difference research (e.g., [54] [55], [42], and [44]).
The measurement model was estimated using
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test whether
the constructs possess sufficient validation and
reliability. The structural model was analyzed using
ordinary least squares regression. A Kiel test [53]
examined gender differences in antecedent path
coefficients.
6.2. Measurement model
The reliability and validity of the measurement
instrument was evaluated using established reliability
and validity criteria [56]. Reliability of the survey
instrument was established using Cronbach’s alpha to
Table 3. Summary of measurement scales
Mean
S.D.
Loadings
Perceived Usefulness: Cronbach’s Alpha = .938
PU1 Using Facebook enables me to effectively maintain relationships with my friends
PU2 Using Facebook enables me to find my friends more quickly
PU3 Using Facebook makes it easier to keep in touch with my friends
PU4 Using Facebook saves my time and effort in keeping in touch with my friends
4.728
4.793
5.189
4.775
1.554
1.629
1.551
1.628
0.881
0.812
0.798
0.821
Perceived Ease of Use: Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.924
PE1 I find it easy to use Facebook to do what I want it to do
PE2 I find Facebook to be flexible to interact with
PE3 I find Facebook easy to use
5.663
5.337
5.769
1.286
1.340
1.268
0.817
0.805
0.876
Perceived Control: Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.905
PC1 I feel in control over the information I provide on Facebook
PC2 Privacy setting allows me to have full control over the information I provide on Facebook
PC3 I feel in control of who can view my information on Facebook
4.752
4.556
4.669
1.507
1.499
1.483
0.839
0.876
0.836
Perceived risk: Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.899
PR1 The time lost spent setting up and learning how to use Facebook makes them risky
PR2 People who are important to me would think I'm foolish to use Facebook
PR3 Using Facebook will harm the way others think of me
PR4 Using Facebook would lead to a loss of status for me because my friends and relatives would
2.870
2.544
2.373
2.266
1.421
1.460
1.335
1.270
0.760
0.864
0.846
0.905
695
694
think less highly for me
Perceived Enjoyment: Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.931
EJ1 While using Facebook, I experienced pleasure
EJ2 The process of participating Facebook is enjoyable
EJ3 I have fun using Facebook
4.468
4.740
4.911
1.118
1.187
1.133
0.821
0.773
0.643
Reputation: Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.867
RE1 I earn respect from others by participating in Facebook
RE2 Participating in Facebook activity would enhance my personal reputation in Facebook
RE3 Participating in Facebook would improve my status in the Facebook
3.089
3.266
3.468
1.234
1.298
1.323
0.788
0.899
0.883
Continuance Intention: Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.941
IU1 I will frequently return to Facebook that I participating in the future
IU2 I intend to continue using Facebook over the next six months
IU3 I expect to continue using Facebook over the next six months
4.888
5.349
5.355
1.347
1.394
1.386
0.673
0.784
0.797
Table 4. Correlations matrix with composite reliability and square root of AVE
Construct
CR
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. Perceived Usefulness
0.897
0.829
2. Perceived Ease of Use
0.545
0.872
0.833
3. Perceived Control
0.383
0.515
0.887
0.829
4. Perceived Risk
-0.311
-0.326
-0.423
0.910
0.845
5. Perceived Enjoyment
0.656
0.515
0.395
-0.356
0.792
0.749
6. Reputation
0.262
0.170
0.075
0.046
0.317
0.893
0.858
7. Continuance Intention
0.657
0.549
0.415
-0.429
0.748
0.184
0.797
Notes: CR = Composite Reliability, Diagonal: Bold elements are the square root of the average variance extracted.
7
0.753
calculated the differences between the standardized
path coefficients (the beta values in Table 5) in the
structural model for women to the corresponding
coefficients in the model for men. The following
formula provided by Keil et al. [55] was used to
calculate the t-value and to evaluate the significance
levels of the these differences. This method has been
proven to be valid in prior gender difference research
(e.g., [54] [55], [42], and [44]). Table 6 shows the
results of analysis.
6.3. Structural model
Seven constructs were investigated, each
measured by at least three indicators. A dichotomous
measure of gender was utilized. The total score of
each construct is calculated using the simple average
method [59]. To test the hypotheses, ordinary least
square regression was used to generate separate
equations for females and males.
Next, the structural model was tested for both
male and female groups. Results indicated that
constructs of the model explained a large portion of
the variance in Facebook Continuance Intention
(R2adj. = 0.643 for women and R2adj. =0.627 for
males). Table 5 results report that specifically for
females, PU, PEOU, PE, and reputation impact their
intention to continue using Facebook. For males, PR
and PE influence their intention to continue using
Facebook. Results were not harmed by collinearity
amongst any variables in the measurement model.
Table 5 provides statistics for each structural model
and also standardized beta coefficients and tstatistics. To examine gender differences, we
= =
Where
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t
=
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=
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× pooled estimator for the
variance
t-statistic with N1 + N2 – 2
degrees of freedom
standard error of path in
structural model of gender i
path coefficient in structural
model of gender i
Table 5. Regression Equations
Independent Variable
Perceived Usefulness
Perceived Ease of Use
Perceived Control
β
0.306
0.189
0.021
t
3.839
2.493
0.299
Women
Sig.
***
**
696
695
S.E.
0.079
0.102
0.078
β
0.159
0.117
0.027
t
1.384
1.138
0.288
Men
Sig.
S.E.
0.09
0.089
0.076
Perceived Risk
Perceived Enjoyment
Reputation
-0.099
0.431
-0.136
-1.334
5.2
-2.137
***
**
0.083
0.107
0.074
-0.152
0.547
0.043
-1.779
4.578
0.484
*
***
0.087
0.131
0.095
Notes: *P<=0.1 **P<=0.05 ***P<=0.01 (two-tailed) S.E. = Standard Error
enjoyment has a stronger positive effect on Facebook
continuance intention for men than for women. While
these results did not support our hypothesis they
nevertheless are interesting and deserve further
research.
H6 is not totally supported, although significant
gender differences do exist in the relationship of
reputation and one’s intention to continue using
Facebook. In contrast with our hypothesis, reputation
negatively affects a female’s continuance intention,
and positively affects a male’s. This indicates
females based continuance on reputation conferring
aspects of the SNS more than men. The effect was
negative however rather than positive suggesting that
females were worried their Facebook profile and
usage could harm their reputation and thus social
status. Such findings could stem from SRT’s
assumption due to men’s higher social status, that
women are more careful when engaging in activities
to craft and manage their reputation. Reputation
management tools of a SNS are very important
decision criteria for females, and must be
implemented carefully.
Table 6. Results of Hypothesis Test for Beta
Differences
Hypothesis
Direction
T
Sig.
H1 Perceived Usefulness
W>M
11.149 ****
H2 Perceived EOU
W>M
4.684
****
H3 Perceived Control
W<M
-0.491
NS
H4 Perceived Risk
W<M
3.964
****
H5 Perceived Enjoyment
W<M
-6.282
****
H6 Reputation
W>M
-13.692 ****
Notes: *P<=0.1 **P<=0.05 ***P<=0.01 ****P<=0.001
(two-tailed) ∆supported hypothesis × hypothesis not
supported
×
∆
×
∆
×
×
7. Discussion
While model fitting was not the focus of the
research, the simple one-level continuance model
shown in Figure 1 displayed considerable predictive
power. For females, the model explained 64.3% of
the variance in intention to continue using Facebook,
compared to 62.7% for males.
In sum, gender variance in determinants of IT
continuance decisions were found. Specific findings
reported in Table 6 suggest that gender impacts the
influence of PU, PEOU, PR, PE and reputation on
continuance intention. Our results indicate that In
contrast, women based continuance decisions more
on their PU, PEOU, perceived enjoyment, and
reputation. Men more than women are affected by
perceived risk and perceived enjoyment. While PR
and PE have greater influence on Facebook
continuance intention for men (than women), PU,
PEOU, and reputation have greater effects for
Facebook continuance intention for women (than
men). In fact PEOU and PU did not influence
continuous intention for males. This finding alone
may encourage researchers to investigate gender
differences in adoption and continuance contexts.
Overall, two of the hypothesized gender-based
differences are supported (H2 and H4). Such support
confirms prior research that suggests that women and
men differ in their perception of communication
technologies such as email and virtual communities
([60], [61]). Although other hypotheses are not
supported (H1, H5, H6), the results indicate that there
are strong significant gender differences in some of
these hypotheses
Surprisingly, we found that perceived usefulness
has a significant impact on female’s continuance
intention, and non-significant positive impact on
men’s Facebook continuance intention. Perceived
8. Implications and Limitations
Several important contributions to theory and
practice are provided. First, our paper helps to
advance gender difference research by extending it to
the IT continuance and SNS contexts [62]. Second,
the study takes a first step to posit and explain gender
differences using a well-established (social roles)
theory-based approach. Future research may further
incorporate SRT in a social media context to
substantiate and extend our results. Third, the
findings indicate gender differences may vary based
on different contexts (i.e., SNS vs. e-commerce).
For practitioners, the gender difference results
found examining Facebook may extend to other
SNSs. For example the results may extend to special
interest groups where participants manage a profile,
such as hobbyist, technical, and medical support.
Today, many firms use viral marketing, word-ofmouth and crowdsourcing through SNSs. Such social
strategies allow companies to manage public and
customer relationships, and to develop, test and
promote new products and online services. Similarly,
organizations are creating their own branded SNS, or
establishing their brand on many other SNS
platforms. In these contexts, it is important to
recognize that gender-based roles and gender
differences affect usage of SNS. Practitioner
697
696
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development of new SNS’ and fan pages on existing
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based their SNS IT continuance decision on a
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underlying reasons for the identified gender-based
differences is warranted.
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