QUEST, 1996,48,290-302
O 1996 American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education
Maximizing Motivation in Sport
and Physical Education Among
Children and Adolescents:
The Case for Greater
Task Involvement
Joan L. Duda
Much concern has been expressed about the sedentary lifestyles adopted by
a considerable number of children and adolescents (Sallis et a]., 1992). This inactivity has repercussions for the current health status of young people (Sallis,
Patterson, Buono, & Nader, 1988). It is also assumed that sedentary children typically grow into inactive adults. Thus, the failure to promote physical exercise among
youngsters may have implications for their degree of wellness and quality of life
across the lifespan.
One domain that has the potential to reinforce a physically active lifestyle
for boys and girls is organized sport. The number of children participating in athletic programs within the US is substantial; however, a large percentage drop out
as they move into their adolescent years (Roberts, 1984).
A second context of possible influence on young people's physical activity
levels is school-based physical education (Haywood, 1991). According to Sallis
and colleagues (1992), physical education has the most promise for having a public health impact because almost all children are accessible in the school system.
However, research has shown that, as children grow older, their interest and participation in physical education decreases (Van Wersch, Trew, & Turner, 1992).
To counter these disturbing trends and maximize the opportunity for young
people to develop an active lifestyle, we need insight into what is important about
sport and physical education in the minds of boys and girls. In essence, we must
become more aware of why children and adolescents invest (or do not invest) in
these two physical activity domains.
I and others (e.g., Treasure & Roberts, 1995) argue that an understanding of
the meaning of and reasons for involvement in youth sport and physical education
classes entails an examination of the goal perspectives that youngsters hold in
these environments. This position is grounded in contemporary achievement goal
theories of motivation (Ames, 1984; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1989). These conceptual frameworks assume that goal perspectives are the crucial dimension
Joan L. Duda is with the Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Leisure Studies at
hrdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907.
GREATER TASK INVOLVEMENT
291
influencing variations in investment and involvement in achievement activities. In
particular, it is proposed that an individual's goal perspective impacts how that
person cognitively and affectively responds to and acts in achievement settings.
Differences in goal perspectivesreflect divergent ways of judging one's level
of ability (or the employment of different conceptions of ability; Nicholls, 1989)
and subjectively define success. Two distinct goal perspectives are presumed to be
operating in achievement environments,namely task involvement and ego involvement. When task involved, the experience of learning, personal improvement, and/
or meeting the demands of the task occasion feelings of success. In this case, the
individual's perceptions of herhis own ability are self-referenced. On the other
hand, in ego involvement, beating others and demonstrating superior ability are
the bases for subjective success. Perceptions of competence are normatively or
other referenced when a person has adopted an ego-involved goal perspective.
Researchers have investigated the motivational implications of emphasizing
task- versus ego-involved goals in the variety of achievement situations endemic
to recreational and high-level sport programs and in the context of physical education (Duda, 1992,1993,1994; Papaioannou, 1995a;Treasure & Roberts, 1995).In
this paper, I will highlight this work and propose that students7/athletes'task involvement should be fostered in order to enhance their motivation to engage in
physical activity.
The Measurement and Features of Task and Ego Orientations
Several years ago, John Nicholls and I developed a measure of people's
proneness for task and ego involvement in the physical domain (or what Nicholls
[I9921 terms habitual achievement preoccupations or orientations), that is, the
Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire or TEOSQ (Duda, 1989, 1992).
When completing the TEOSQ, people are asked to think of when they felt successful in sport and to indicate their agreement with criteria reflecting task- or egoinvolved definitions of athletic success. For example, if a child is high in ego
orientation, shehe will agree with items such as "I feel really successful in sport
when I am the best" and "I feel really successful in sport when others mess up and
I don't." In contrast, if someone is high in task orientation, shehe is more likely to
concur with items such as "I feel really successful in sport when I work really
hard" or "I feel really successful in sport when I learn something that is fun to do."
Considerable evidence exists concerning the sound psychometric characteristics
of the TEOSQ among varied samples of U.S. athletes and nonathletes. Support for
this instrument's validity and reliability has also emerged in cross-cultural research
(e.g., Guivernau & Duda, 1995a), and the TEOSQ has been successfully adapted
for use within the context of physical education (Walling & Duda, 1995).
Similar to what has been observed in the academic context (Nicholls, 1989),
task and ego orientations have been found to be orthogonal in sport (Chi & Duda,
1995; Duda, 1989; Duda & Nicholls, 1992) and physical education (Walling &
Duda, 1995). Thus, studentslathletes can be high andlor low in either of the two
goal dimensions. Also consistent with past classroom-based studies, sport research
has indicated that neither of the TEOSQ scales are appreciably associated with
perceived ability (Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Guivernau & Duda, 1995b). This latter
finding suggests that knowing whether a student or athlete perceives himlherself
to be physically competent reveals little about hisher degree of task and ego orientation.
292
DUDA
Contrary to what might be assumed by practitioners and researchers alike,
past work has shown that both the individual who is strongly task oriented (even if
low in ego orientation) and the person who endorses ego-oriented goals in sport
value winning (Duda, 1992). Moreover, both task and ego sport orientations have
been found to correlate significantly with measures of competitiveness in sport
(Duda, 1992). This latter result is not surprising considering that, in most sports,
competing with others can provide information concerning level of self-referenced
as well as normative-based competence. That is, depending on hislher goal orientation, one can engage in competition to improve skills and exert effort or to primarily show that helshe is the best.
It is important to also point out that the two goal orientations reflect more
than a difference in the emphasis placed on the process versus the outcome in
physical activity settings. For example, both performance execution and performance consequences render feedback on task mastery for the strongly task oriented. As emphasized by Nicholls (1989), variations in task and ego orientation
capture a conception of ability utilized by a youngster and his or her degree of
preoccupation with the perceived adequacy of his or her physical competence.
That is, children who possess a prevailing task orientation are more likely while
performing to focus on the question "How do I do this task?"e
predominantly
ego-oriented child, on the other hand, frequently queries "Can I do this?'and
"How well are the others doing?'while engaged in a physical activity or sport
task.
As a result of these different concerns, young people who are predominantly
task or ego oriented are not the same in how they interpret and respond to sport and
physical education. In the next sections, research is reviewed that focuses on the
relationships between young people's goals and four critical facets of motivation.
First, the associations between goal orientations and beliefs about the causes of
success are presented. With respect to the motivational relevance of the latter variable, previous research has shown that individuals are more likely to optimize
their participation in physical activities when they feel self-determined.A stronger
sense of self-determination will likely ensue when the perceived determinants of
accomplishment are within the individual's personal control.
Second, the relationships of goal orientations to young people's motives for
participating in sport/PE and views concerning the desirable consequencesof such
participation are described. The extensive literature on intrinsic motivation indicates that long-term engagement in activities is more likely when the impetus to
involvement is internal rather than external (Frederick & Ryan, 1995).
Third, the interdependencies between goals and reported enjoyment of and
interest in sport and physical education are delineated. Any student of motivation
quickly learns that variations in fun are not trivial. Simply put, individuals are
more motivated in activities they find enjoyable.
Fourth, the observed links between task and ego orientations and young
people's development of their physical capacity and competence are presented. It
is reasonable to assume that when boys and girls do not initially engage in physical
activities, improve their skills, or feel competent, they are less likely to continue
participation in sport and exercise.
With respect to these issues, a discussion is then presented on the motivational significance of the climate created by coaches, parents, and physical education teachers. Achievement environments adults develop for youngsters can be
GREATER TASK INVOLVEMENT
293
more or less task andlor ego involving. When we are aware of the underlying
dimensions and repercussions of such situationally induced goals, then we have a
strong basis by which to intervene and enhance young people's motivation. Finally, I conclude with some directions of current work on the relevance of goal
perspectives to young people's motivation in sport and PE.
Goals and Beliefs in Sport and Physical Education
Past studies have shown that goal perspectives are associated with differential belief systems concerning the determinants of achievement in the physical
domain. Research on recreational and elite young athletes (Hom, Duda, & Miller,
1993; Newton & Duda, 1993), British youth (Duda, Fox, Biddle, & Armstrong,
1992; Treasure & Roberts, 1994; Treasure, Roberts, & Hall, 1992), high school
students (Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Lochbaum & Roberts, 1993), disabled adolescent sport competitors (White & Duda, 1993), and elite adult athletes (Duda &
White, 1992; Guivernau & Duda, 1995a) has revealed a positive relationship between task orientation and the view that hard work and cooperation will get one
ahead in sport. These are perceived determinants of success that typically fall under people's volitional control. Ego orientation tends to be associated with the
belief that the possession of ability leads to sport success. In contrast to trying hard
and helping others, individuals have less influence over whether they are gifted
with athletic prowess. It is also interesting to note that, in these investigations,task
orientation tends to negatively relate and ego orientation to positively correspond
to the perception that deceptive--even illegal-means (such as cheating, trying to
impress the coach, andlor taking performance-enhancementdrugs) are precursors
to sport achievement. Such factors, of course, are external to the sport performance and task at hand.
A similar pattern of results has emerged in the context of physical education
(Walling & Duda, 1995). In our study of high school students, however, a significant and positive correlation was also found between task orientation and the belief that external factors play an important role in "gym class." Specifically, the
pertinent external element deemed to be impacting success was an effective teacher
(e.g., "Students succeed if they have a teacher that encourages them"). Based on
this finding, task-oriented students indicate that both they and their teachers need
to do their part if the students are likely to achieve in
education.
Nicholls (1989,1992) suggests that goals and beliefs about success are critical components of individual differences in theories of particular achievement activities.-~hesepersonal theories of achievement experiences capture what is
important to the individual in that setting and their ideas about how that activity
works.
In a study of high school students, Duda and Nicholls (1992) found that
beliefs about success and goal orientations generalize across the achievement domains of classroom and sport. Correlational and factor analysis revealed both a
task and ego goallbelief dimension that cut across the two settings. In comparison,
little cross-context generality was observed for perceptions of ability or satisfactionlenjoyment. Duda and Nicholls' (1992) results were replicated in studies of
college students enrolled in physical activity classes (Guivernau,Thorne, & Duda,
1994) and in studies of elite Spanish student athletes (Guivernau & Duda, 1995b).
The findings of these three investigations suggest that people may feel varying
294
DUDA
levels of competence in diverse settings and may find one situation more interesting
and enjoyable than the next. The results also indicate that how individuals define
success and view the causes of accomplishment generalize across achievement
environments. More critically, the data imply that personal theories of education or
sport may actually represent transsituationalperspectives on achievement activities.
Goals, Motives for Involvement, and Perceptions of the Purposes
of Sport and Physical Education
Previous research in both sport and physical education has indicated that
young people's goal orientations are predictive of their reasons for participating in
these activities in the first place. In their investigation of youth sport, high school,
and college-age athletic participants, White and Duda (1994) found a task orientation to correspond with more intrinsic motives for involvement (e.g., skill development, enhancing one's level of fitness). Ego orientation was linked to extrinsic
participation motives (such as social recognition and increasing one's social status). Similar findings were reported by Papaioannou and Theodorakis (1994) in
terms of reasons for taking PE classes.
Goal orientations also are aligned with young people's views concerning the
preferred repercussions associated with sport engagement. Nicholls (1992) has
argued that "one's view of the place of school in the world has some connection to
one's theory about how to do well in school and is related to one's personal criteria
of success in school" (p. 47). According to Nicholls, perceptions of what is the
function of an achievement domain (such as sport or physical education) are indicative of a person's values in that context. Specifically, these perceptions tell us
whether the individual views the benefits to be inherent or extrinsic to the activity
itself.
In the athletic arena, task and ego orientations have been linked to different
views on the purposes of sport activities. In studies of children and adolescent
sport participants (Duda, 1989; McNamara & Duda, in press; Treasure & Roberts,
1994; White, Duda, & Keller, 1996), a strong task orientation (and low ego orientation) relates to the views that sport should teach people the importance of hard
work and cooperation and help them become good citizens. Task-oriented children involved in youth sport also seem to believe that sport should make people
more competitive and enhance self-esteem. Among high school male and female
sport participants, task orientation negatively related to the view that sport should
increase one's social status.
Consistent across the studies to date, ego orientation corresponds to the views
that the functions of sport were to increase one's popularity, self-esteem, and competitiveness. Although ego-oriented youth sport athletes have been found to feel
that sport should teach deceptive tactics, they also appear to believe in the accepted youth sport doctrine that athletics should prepare people to be contributing
and law-abiding members of society (White et al., 1996).
Such work suggests that young people's overall view of the desired socialization through sport engagement varies with respect to their goal orientation. In
contrast to the task-oriented perspective, ego-oriented individuals seem to take a
"what's in it for me?'approach to the intent of athletic participation. It is questionable whether this latter, more extrinsic outlook leads to sustained involvement in
physical activities.
.
GREATER TASK INVOLVEMENT
295
In the context of physical education (Walling & Duda, 1995),the determination of the link between goals and values revealed similarities as well as differences with what has been observed in sport. In contrast to the athletic context, we
found that students' views about the desired purposes of physical education were
more diverse. Similar to the sport literature, however, task orientation was associated with the view that the functions of PE classes are to have people learn the
importance of improvement, trying hard, and collaboration.Ego orientation corresponded negatively to this perception of the purposes of physical education and
was coupled with the view that physical education should provide students with an
easy class and make them more competitive. On the other hand, the emphasis
placed on ego goals was negatively related to the perceptions that physical education should provide enjoyment and teach students the rules and strategies of physical games. Conceptually consistent results were reported by Papaioannou and
Macdonald (1993) in their research on Greek physical education students.
Goals and Enjoyment of and Interest in Sport
and Physical Education
One of the most consistent findings is the observed positive relationship
between task orientation and reported enjoyment of and interest in sport (e.g.,
Duda, Chi, Newton, Walling, & Catley, 1994; Duda et al., 1992; Duda & Nicholls,
1992; Hom, Duda, & Miller, 1993). This result seems to hold, regardless of the
level of competition or age of competitor. Moreover, perceptions of competence or
competitive outcome do not appear to counter the link between a task-involved
goal emphasis and positive affective responses in the athletic domain.
The findings of studies focused on physical education have been aligned
with sport research. For example, Goudas, Biddle, and Fox (1994a) examined the
effect of British students' goal orientations on their intrinsic motivation following
health-related fitness testing. Results indicated that children high in task orientation and low in ego orientation reported greater enjoyment of and exerted more
effort during fitness testing than did high ego-/low task-oriented children, regardless of their perceptions of success at this task. In a second study, Goudas, Biddle,
and Fox (1994b) determined the relationships of goal orientations, perceived autonomy, and perceived competence to intrinsic interest across two PE activities
(i.e., gymnastics and football/netball). Structural equation modeling revealed that
goal orientations and perceived self-determinationwere related and that both variables had direct effects on intrinsic interest in each of the PE lessons. In other
work, intrinsic interest has been found to predict students' intentions to maintain
their participation in such activities (Goudas, Biddle, & Underwood, 1995).
Papaioannou (1990) also observed positive associations between task orientation
and reported investment in physical education classes.
Goals and the Development of Competence
Less research has been done on this topic, but the available evidence suggests that young people should exhibit increments in performance, feel competent
in sport and physical education, and be more active when a task orientation prevails. For example, Chi (1994) found that college students who were high tasMow
ego oriented reported higher perceived competence before two cycling races than
296
DUDA
did high ego-flow task-oriented students. VanYperen and Duda (1995) studied the
relationship of goal orientations to skill improvement among young Dutch male
soccer players enrolled in an elite soccer school. Athletes higher in task orientation
(and who believed that soccer success stemmed from hard work) were judged to
possess greater soccer skills pre- to postseason by their coaches.
Similar findings were reported by Solmon and Boone (1993) in their study
of college students enrolled in tennis classes. Specifically, these researchers observed a positive association between task orientation and the use of adaptive learning strategies in the course. Further, the employment of effective learning strategies was significantly related to postclass tennis skill when controlling for initial
ability differences.
Given these results and the previously described work on the motivationrelated correlates of goals, it should not be surprising that research to date has
revealed a positive correlation between task orientation and children's level of
physical activity (Dempsey, Kimiecik, & Horn, 1993).
Goals and the Social Psychological Context:
A Basis for Intervention
Achievement goal theorists such as Nicholls (1989) and Dweck (1986) have
proposed that whether people are task or ego involved is a function of dispositional differences and the context at hand. With respect to the former, it is important to note that variations in goal perspectives are manifested in the social situations created by significant others (such as parents, coaches, and physical education teachers). Pulling from the work of Ames (1984, 1992) on classroom climates, my colleagues and I have been very interested in how task and ego goals
are reflected in the larger social context of sport environments. One line of work
has emphasized the potential socialization effects of the motivational climate created by coaches and parents in physical environments on children's and young
adolescents' goal orientations (Duda & Hom, 1993; McNamara & Duda, in press;
White, Duda, & Hart, 1992; White & Duda, 1993). Research has also been conducted on the associations between verce~tionsof the motivational climate and
young people's beliefs and affective responses in physical activity settings.
When one considers variations in the motivational climate fundamental to
the sport experience, certainly the role of the coach should be taken into account.
In a 1988 observational study involving basketball teams, Chaumeton and Duda
found that the motivational climate in American sport becomes more ego involving as one moves from elementary school to high school level athletics (1988).
This ego-involving goal structure was primarily witnessed in competitive game
settings in contrast to practice situations.
Building on the efforts of Ames and colleagues in the classroom environment (Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988), Seifriz, Duda, and Chi (1992) determined whether athletes could specifically distinguish a task- versus ego-involving
motivational climate in the context of interscholastic sport. The subjects in this
study were 105 male varsity level basketball players, and each was requested to
complete the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire mid-point in
a competitive season. The inventory was found to be composed of two valid and
reliable subscales: one capturing the degree to which the coach is viewed as emphasizing task-involved goals and the second assessing the degree to which the
.
L
GREATER TASK INVOLVEMENT
297
coach is seen as creating an ego-involving goal structure on his team. The former
was marked by an emphasis on working hard and personal improvement, viewing
mistakes as part of the learning process, and having players feel that they all have
an important role on the team. The latter was characterized by a focus on outdoing
one's teammates, a fear of making mistakes, and the perception that only the "stars"
are rewarded by the coach.
Seifriz and his colleagues (1992) found that athletes who perceived their
team atmosphere to be more task involving tended to report great enjoyment in
basketball. This relationship held regardless of the season record of the team at the
time of the study. Perceptions of a task-involving climate also were positively
associated with the belief that hard work and cooperation with teammates lead to
sport success.Athletes who perceived their team to be strongly ego involving tended
to believe that basketball success is a result of the possession of high ability.
Further evidence concerning the motivational ramifications of differences
in the perceived sport goal structure was revealed in research by Walling, Duda,
and Chi (1993) and others (Boyd, Yin, Ellis, & French, 1995). In the former investigation of youth sport participants involved in an amateur international competition, perceptions of a task-involving climate were positively related to satisfaction
with being a member of one's team and negatively associated with performance
worry. The reverse was true for perceptions of an ego-involving team atmosphere.
Papaioannou (1994) has examined the dimensions and correlates of the perceived situational goal structure created by teachers in the context of physical education. To assess these perceptions, Papaioannou developed the Learning and Performance Oriented Physical Education Classes Questionnaire. The LAPOPECQ
contains five scales: Teacher-Initiated Learning Orientation, Students' Learning
Orientation, Students' Competitive Orientation, Students' Worries About Mistakes,
and Outcome Orientation Without Effort. His work indicates that the motivational
climate established in physical education classes predicts youngsters' investment
in PE, their degree of on-task versus off-task behavior, and the focus of the PE
lesson itself. In a related study, Papaioannou (1995b) found that when the class
environmentis believed to be ego involving, PE teachers are perceived as favoring
the more talented students. However, when the class is deemed to be task involving, students perceived PE teachers as acting more positively toward low achievers. The lowest intrinsic motivation and highest anxiety were reported by students
who had low perceived ability, a weak task orientation, and who found themselves
in an ego-involving PE class.
The investigations conducted on the correlates of the motivational climate
in sport and physical education clearly indicate that coaches and teachers matter.
In other words, the goal perspectives emphasized by teachers and coaches do relate to the quality of studentslathletes' present and future involvement in PE and
the athletic domain. This line of inquiry also provides a theoretical rationale and
empirical basis for why task involvement should be the predominant feature of
youth sport and physical education classes. Moreover, the existent research on the
implications of and dimensions underlying different motivational climates leads
to a firm foundation for subsequent intervention work.
Future Research Directions
With respect to maximizing children's and adolescents' participation in physical activity, the research on (dispositional and situational) goal perspectives to
298
DUDA
date points to making sport and PE more task involving and students and athletes
more task oriented. Most critically, this literature informs us of the specific nature
of task involvement. We are more aware of what a "mastery" perspective is and
how it corresponds to an adaptive way of processing, regarding, and responding to
sport and PE experiences. Our knowledge of the "whys" and "hows" of motivation has been enhanced, but within the goal perspective model there are still many
interesting avenues of inquiry to pursue.
For example, recent work (Andree & Whitehead, 1995; Newton & Duda,
1995b) has attempted to extend the research on the correlates of dispositional and
situationally induced goal perspectives by adopting an interactionist approach.
Young people come into a sport setting or PE class with their own goal orientations and then must interact within an environment that matches or runs counter to
their goal perspective. The two studies conducted on this issue suggest that motivational problems are likely to ensue when we have a strongly ego-oriented studentlathlete in a predominantly ego-involving atmosphere.
Previous research examining the link between athletes' goal orientations and
their sportsmanship attitudes and perspectives on aggression suggests that athletic
participants tend to endorse doing whatever it takes to win when they emphasize
ego-involved goals (Duda & Huston, 1995; Duda, Olson, & Templin, 1991). Since
ego-oriented athletes appear more willing to jeopardize the welfare of their opponent and the integrity of the game for the purpose of demonstrating superior ability, one wonders whether they would also be more likely to put themselves at risk
to secure the same end. We (e.g., Duda & Benardot, in press) and others (e.g., Hall
& Finnie, 1995) are examining this possibility by determining the associations
between goal orientations and the correlates of health-relatedproblems in physical
activity settings. In essence, current work is beginning to address whether sport1
exercise involvement is health conducive or health compromising when task versus ego goals prevail.
Another important direction for goal perspective research entails bridging
the gap between theoretically based work on goal perspectives and practice. The
stage has now been set, both conceptually and from an empirical basis, to conduct
intervention studies aimed at manipulating the motivational climate.Work by Lloyd
and Fox (1992); Theeboom, DeKnop, and Weiss, (1995); and Treasure (1993) in
physical education settings has demonstrated that environments can be altered to
be more or less task or ego involving.
Finally, Nicholls (Nicholls, 1992; Nicholls & Hazzard, 1993) argues that
variations in context can result in changes in goals, cognitions, and the preferred
types of learning. With respect to this latter variable, the sport or physical education literature to date has not addressed what athleteslstudents deem the most appropriate methods for developing and/or maximizing physical skills, physical capacities, and involvement in physical activities. Youth and interscholastic sport
and physical education classes have been criticized for too often imposing a highly
organized, competitive, outcome-oriented athletic structure on participants in these
contexts. If supported in the physical domain, Nicholls' position calls for diversity
in "curriculum" in sport leagues as well as in physical education. Besides considering variations in ability level, these curricula should be sensitive to variation in
athletes' and physical education students' goals, beliefs, values, and degrees of
interest.
GREATER TASK INVOLVEMENT
References
Ames, C. (1984). Competitive, cooperative and individualistic goal stmctures: A motivational analysis. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education:
Student motivation (pp. 177-207). NY: Academic Press.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84,261-27 1.
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students' learning
strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260267.
Andree, K.V., & Whitehead, J. (1995, June). The interactive effect of perceived ability and
dispositional or situational achievement goals on intrinsic motivation in young athletes. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the North American Society for the
Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Asilomar, CA.
Boyd, M., Yin, Z., Ellis, D., & French, K. (1995, June). Perceived motivational climate,
socialization influences, and affective responses in Little League Baseball. Paper
presented at the Annual Meetings of the North American Society for the Psychology
of Sport and Physical Activity, Asilomar, CA.
Chaumeton, N., & Duda, J.L. (1988). Is it whether you play well or win or lose?: Variations
in coaches' behavior in relation to competitive level and situation. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 11, 157-174.
Chi, L. (1994). Theprediction of achievement-related cognitions and behaviors in thephysical
domain: A test of the theories of goal perspectives and self-eficacy. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Purdue University.
Chi, L., & Duda, J.L. (1995). Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis of the Task and Ego
Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66,
91-98.
Dempsey, J.M., Kimiecik, J.C., & Horn, T.S. (1993). Parental influence on childrenls moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: An expectacy-valueapproach. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5, 151-167.
Duda, J.L. (1989). The relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived
purpose of sport among male and female high school athletes. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 11,318-335.
Duda, J.L. (1992). Sport and exercise motivation: A goal perspective analysis. In G. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 57-91). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Duda, J.L. (1993). Goals: A social cognitive approach to the study of motivation in sport. In
R.N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L.K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook on research in sport
psychology (pp. 421-436). NY Macmillan.
Duda, J.L. (1994). A goal perspective theory of meaning and motivation in sport. In S.
Serpa (Ed.), International perspectives on sport and exercise psychology (pp. 127148). Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press.
Duda, J.L., & Benardot, D. (1996). The relationship of the perceived motivational climate
to psychological and energy balance precursors of eating disorders. Manuscript under review.
Duda, J.L., Fox, K.R., Biddle, S.J.H., & Armstrong, N. (1992). Children's achievement
goals and beliefs about success in sport. British Journal of Educational Psychology,
62,3 13-323.
300
DUDA
Duda, J.L., & Hom, H.L. (1993). The interrelationships between children's and parents'
goal orientations in sport. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5,234-241.
Duda, J.L., & Huston, L. (1995). The relationship of goal orientation and degree of competitive sport participation to the endorsement of aggressive acts in American football. In Integrating laboratoiy andfield studies in sportpsychology: Proceedings of
the Ixth European Congress on Sport Psychology. Brussels, Belgium.
Duda, J.L., & Nicholls, J.G. (1992). Dimensions of achievement motivation in schoolwork
and sport. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84,290-299.
Duda, J.L., Olson, L.K., Templin, T.J. (1991). The relationship of task and ego orientation
to sportsmanship attitudes and the perceived legitimacy of injurious acts. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62,7947.
Duda, J.L., & White, S.A. (1992). The relationship of goal perspectives to beliefs about
success among elite skiers. The Sport Psychologist, 6,334-343.
Duda, J.L., Chi, L., Newton, M.L., Walling, M.D., & Catley, D. (1994). Task and ego orientation and intrinsic motivation in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology,
22, 1-23.
Dweck, C.S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41,
1040-1048.
Frederick, C.M., & Ryan, R.M. (1995). Self-determination in sport: Areview using cognitive evaluation theory. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26,5-23.
Goudas, M., Biddle, S., & Fox, K. (1994a). Achievement goal orientations and intrinsic
motivation in physical fitness testing with children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6,
159-167.
Goudas, M., Biddle, S., & Fox, K. (1994b). Perceived locus of causality, goal orientations,
and perceived competence in school physical education classes. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 64,453-463.
Goudas, M., Biddle, S., & Underwood, M. (1995). Aprospective study of the relationships
between motivational orientations and perceived competence with intrinsic motivation and achievement in a teacher education course. Educational Psychology, 15,8996.
Guivernau, M., & Duda, J.L. (1995a). Psychometric properties of a Spanish version of The
Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Beliefs about the
Causes of Success Inventory. Revista de Psicologia del Deporte, 5 , 3 1-51.
Guivernau, M., & Duda, J.L. (1995b). The generality of goals, beliefs, interest and perceived ability across sport and school: The case of Spanish student-athletes. Manuscript under review.
Guivernau, M., Thome, K., & Duda, J.L. (1994, February). Cross-domain generality of
goals, beliefs, perceived ability and interest: A replication. Paper presented at the 4th
Annual Midwest Sport and Exercise Psychology Symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
Hall, H.K., & Finnie, S. (1995, June). Goals andperfectionism as antecedents of exercise
addiction. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the North American Society for
the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Asilomar, CA.
Haywood, K.M. (1991). The role of physical education in the development of active lifestyles.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60,48-58.
Horn, H., Duda, J.L., & Miller, A. (1993). Correlates of goal orientations among young
athletes. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5, 168-176.
GREATER TASK INVOLVEMENT
Lloyd, J., & Fox, K.R. (1992). Achievement goals and motivation to exercise in adolescent
girls: A preliminary study. British Journal of Physical Education Research Supplement, 11, 12-16.
Lochbaum, M., & Roberts, G.C. (1993). Goal orientations and perceptions of the sport
experience. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 160-171.
McNamara, W., & Duda, J.L. (in press). Goal orientations and perceptions of the purpose of
sport among young male athletes and their parents. Pediatric Exercise Science.
Newton, M.L., & Duda, J.L. (1993). Elite adolescent athletes' achievement goals and beliefs concerning success in tennis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15,322341.
Newton, M.L, & Duda, J.L. (1995). The effect of dispositional goals andperceptions of the
motivational climate on beliefs and intrinsic motivation. Manuscript under review.
Nicholls, J.G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Nicholls, J.G. (1992). The general and the specific in the development and expression of
achievement motivation. In G. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp.
3 1-54). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Nicholls, J.G., & Hazzard, S.P.(1993). Education as adventure: Lessonsfrom the second
grade. NY Teachers College Press.
Papaioannou, A. (1990). Goalperspectives, motives for participation, andpurposes of RE.
lessons in Greece as perceived by 14 and 17 year old pupils. Unpublished master's
thesis, University of Manchester, England.
Papaioannou, A. (1994). The development of a questionnaire to measure achievement orientations in physical education. Research Quarterlyfor Exercise and Sport, 65, 1120.
Papaioannou, A. (1995a). Motivation and goal perspectives in children's physical education. In S.J.H. Biddle (Ed.), European perspectives on exercise and sportpsychology
(pp. 245-269). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Papaioannou, A. (1995b). Differential perceptual and motivational patterns when different
goals are adopted. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 18-34.
Papaioannou, A., & Macdonald, A.I. (1993). Goal perspectives and purposes of physical
education as perceived by Greek adolescents. Physical Education Review, 16,41-48.
Papaioannou, A., & Theodorakis, Y. (1994). Attitudes, values and goals: A test of three
models for the prediction of intention forparticipation in physical education. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Roberts, G.C. (1984). Achievement motivation in children's sport. In J. Nicholls (Ed.), The
development of achievement motivation (pp. 251-281). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Sallis, J.F., Patterson, T.L., Buono, M.J., & Nader, P.R. (1988). Relation of cardiovascular
fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular risk factors in children and adults.
American Journal of Epidemiology, 127,933-941.
Sallis, J.F., Simons-Morton,B., Stone, E., Corbin, C., Epstein, L.H., Faucette, N., Iannotti,
R., Killen, J., Klesges, R., Petray, C., Rowland, T., & Taylor, W. (1992). Detenninants of physical activity and interventions in youth. Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise, 24 (Suppl.), S248-S257.
Seifriz, J., Duda, J.L., & Chi, L. (1992). The relationshipof perceived motivational climate
to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about success in basketball. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 14,375-391.
Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Weiss, M.R. (1995). Motivational climate, psychological
responses, and motor skill development in children's sport: A field-based intervention study. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17,294-311.
Treasure, D. (1993). A social-cognitive approach to understanding children S achievement
behavior; cognitions, and affect in competitive sport. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Treasure, D.C., & Roberts, G.C. (1994). Cognitive and affective concomitants of task and
ego goal orientations during the middle school years. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 16, 15-28.
Treasure, D.C., & Roberts, G.C. (1995). Applications of achievement goal theory to physical education: Implications for enhancing motivation. Quest, 47, 1-14.
Treasure, D.C., Roberts, G.C., & Hall, H.K. (1992). The relationship between children's
achievement goal orientations and their beliefs about competitive sport, Journal of
Sport Sciences, 10,629.
Van Wersch, A., Trew, K., & Turner, K. (1992). Post-primary school pupils' interest in
physical education: Age and gender differences. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62,56-72.
VanYperen, N.W., & Duda, J.L. (1995). The interrelationships between goal orientations,
beliefs about success,and performance improvement among young elite Dutch soccer players. Manuscript under review.
Walling, M.D., & Duda, J.L. (1995). Goals and their associationswith beliefs about success
in and perceptions of the purposes of physical education. Journal of Teaching in
Physical Education, 14, 140-156.
Walling, M., Duda, J.L., & Chi, L. (1993). The perceived motivational climate in sport
questionnaire: Construct and predictive validity. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15,172-183.
White, S.A., & Duda, J.L. (1993). Dimensions of goals-beliefs about success among disabled athletes. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 10, 125-136.
White, S.A., & Duda, J.L. (1993, June). The relationship between goal orientation and
parent-initiated motivational climate among children learning a physical skill. Paper presented at the Eighth World Congress of Sport Psychology, Lisbon, Portugal.
White, S.A., & Duda, J.L. (1994). The relationship of gender, level of sport involvement,
and participation motivation to task and ego orientation. International Journal of
Sport Psychology, 25,4-18.
White, S.A., Duda, J.L., & Hart, S. (1992). An exploratory examination of the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75,875-880.
White, S.A., Duda, J.L., & Keller, M.R. (1996). The relationship between goal orientations
and the perceived purposes of sport among youth sport participants. Manuscript
submitted for publication.