Chapter 4
Motivating
Self and Others
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Theories of Motivation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is motivation?
How do needs motivate people?
Are there other ways to motivate people?
Do equity and fairness matter?
How can rewards and job design motivate
employees?
What kinds of mistakes are made in reward
systems?
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-2
What is Motivation?
• Motivation
– The processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal
• Intensity:
• Direction:
• Persistence:
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X
• Theory Y
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Needs Theories of
Motivation
• Basic idea:
– Individuals have needs that, when
unsatisfied, will result in motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
• McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
Selfactualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
•
•
•
•
•
Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
Physiological
Safety
Social
Esteem
Self-actualization
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Self-Actualization
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Relaxed:
Confident:
Focused:
Effortless:
Automatic:
Fun:
In Control:
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Existence
• Relatedness
• Growth
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
McClelland’s Theory of
Needs
• Need for Achievement
• Need for Power
• Need for Affiliation
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Summary: Hierarchy of
Needs
• Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be
satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs.
• Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the
same time. If a higher-order need is not being met,
the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
• McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they
have. Their motivation and how well they perform in
a work situation are related to whether they have a
need for achievement, affiliation, or power.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Summary: Impact of
Theory
• Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising
managers. Most managers are familiar with it.
• Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need
hierarchy. Tells us that achievers will be motivated by
jobs that offer personal responsibility, feedback, and
moderate risks.
• McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not
necessarily make good managers, since high achievers
are more interested in how they do personally.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Summary: Support and
Criticism of Theory
• Maslow: Research does not generally validate
the theory. In particular, there is little
support for the hierarchical nature of needs.
Criticized for how data were collected and
interpreted.
• Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.
• McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but
theory is consistent with our knowledge of
individual differences among people. Good
empirical support, particularly on needs
achievement.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Process Theories of
Motivation
• Look at the actual process of motivation
– Expectancy theory
– Goal-setting theory
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Expectancy Theory
• The theory that individuals act depending on whether
their effort will lead to good performance, whether
good performance will be followed by a given
outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to
them.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-15
Expectancy Relationships
•
•
•
•
The theory focuses on three relationships:
Effort-performance relationship
Performance-reward relationship
Rewards-personal goals relationship
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Exhibit 4-5 How Does
Expectancy Theory Work?
My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Expectancy
Effort
Performance Link
No matter how much effort
I put in, probably not possible
to memorize the text in 24 hours
E=0
Instrumentality
Performance
Rewards Link
My professor does not look
like someone who has $1 million
Valence
Rewards
Personal Goals Link
There are a lot of wonderful things
I could do with $1 million
I=0
V=1
Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Exhibit 4-6
Steps to Increasing Motivation,
Using Expectancy Theory
Improving Expectancy
Improve the ability of the
individual to perform
• Make sure employees have skills
for the task
• Provide training
• Assign reasonable tasks and goals
Improving Instrumentality
Increase the individual’s belief that
performance will lead to reward
• Observe and recognize performance
• Deliver rewards as promised
• Indicate to employees how previous
good performance led to greater
rewards
Improving Valence
Make sure that the reward is
meaningful to the individual
• Ask employees what rewards they
value
• Give rewards that are valued
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Goal-Setting Theory
• The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to
higher performance.
• Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and
how much effort will need to be expended.
• Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output
than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Locke’s Model of
Goal Setting
Directing attention
Goals
motivate
by . . .
Regulating effort
Increasing persistence
Task
performance
Encouraging the development
of strategies and action plans
Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A.
Locke.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-20
Goals Should Be SMART
• For goals to be effective, they should be
SMART:
• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Results-oriented
• Time-bound
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-21
Management by Objectives
• A program that encompasses
–
–
–
–
Specific goals
Participative decision-making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Overall
Organizational
Objectives
Cascading
Objectives
Divisional
Objectives
XYZ Company
Consumer Products Industrial Products
Division
Division
Departmental
Objectives
Sales
Production
Develop
Customer Marketing
Research
Service
Individual
Objectives
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Motivators
• Intrinsic
– internal desire
• Extrinsic
– comes from outside
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-24
Four Key Rewards to Increase
Intrinsic Motivation
1.Sense of choice
2.Sense of competence
3.Sense of meaningfulness
4.Sense of progress
Managers can act in ways that will build these
intrinsic rewards for their employees.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-25
Management Reward
Follies
We hope for:
But we reward:
• Teamwork and collaboration
• The best individual team members
• Innovative thinking and risk taking
• Proven methods and no mistakes
• Development of people skills
• Technical achievements and
accomplishments
• Employee involvement and
empowerment
• High achievement
• Long-term growth
• Commitment to total quality
• Candor
• Tight control over operations,
resources
• Another year’s efforts
• Quarterly earnings
• Shipment on schedule, even with
defects
• Reporting good news
Chapter 4, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Second Canadian Edition.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Beware the Signals That Are Sent By
Rewards
• Often reward systems do not reflect
organizational goals:
– stuck in old patterns
– the big picture.
– short-term results.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-27
Can We Just Eliminate Rewards?
• Alfie Kohn suggests that organizations should focus
less on rewards, more on creating motivating
environments:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Abolish Incentives.
Re-evaluate Evaluation.
Create Conditions for Authentic Motivation.
Encourage Collaboration.
Enhance Content.
Provide Choice.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-28
Putting It All Together
• What we know about motivating employees in organizations:
– individual differences.
– different needs.
– Don’t treat them all alike.
– understand what’s important
– goals and feedback.
– participate in decisions
– rewards to performance.
– equity.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-29
Summary and Implications
1. What is Motivation?
–
Motivation is the process that accounts for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence
of effort toward reaching the goal.
2. How do needs motivate people?
–
All needs theories of motivation propose a
similar idea: individuals have needs that, when
unsatisfied, will result in motivation.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-30
Summary and Implications
3. Are there other ways to motivate people?
–
Process theories focus on the broader picture of how
someone can set about motivating another individual.
Process theories include expectancy theory and goalsetting theory (and its application, management by
objectives).
4. Do equity and fairness matter?
–
Individuals look for fairness in the reward system.
Rewards should be perceived by employees as related to
the inputs they bring to the job.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-31
Summary and Implications
5.
How can rewards and job design motivate employees?
– Recognition helps employees feel that they matter.
Employers can use variable-pay programs to reward
performance. Employers can use job design to motivate
employees. Jobs that have variety, autonomy, feedback, and
similar complex task characteristics tend to be more
motivating for employees.
6. What kinds of mistakes are made in reward systems?
– Often reward systems do not reward the performance that is
expected. Also, reward systems sometimes do not recognize
that rewards are culture-bound.
Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
4-32