Human Geography Models and Key Concepts for Chapters 1-13
Study Guide for May AP College Board Exam
1. Brandt Line
Brandt Line: Named after Willy Brandt, a chancellor of West Germany before the wall came
down in 1989 that eventually united Germany. The line separates the Northern from the
Southern Hemispheres (exception is Oceania). North of the line are More Developed Countries
that benefit from wealth in terms of economic, social, and political stability. The southern
hemisphere suffers from economic, social, and political instability or termed as Less Developed
Countries.
2. Demographic Transition Model
Stage One: Pre-agricultural societies engaged in subsistence farming and transhumance, the
seasonal migration for food and resources or owning livestock. Birth rates and death rates
fluctuate due climate, warfare, disease, and environmental factors. There is little population
growth. The NIR is generally low because of disease epidemics. Birth rates are high because
children were an expression of a family's productivity and status and they were invaluable for
helping with the work of gathering, herding, etc. Child mortality and infant mortality are very
high due to lack of medical knowledge. Families were lucky if one or two children would make it
to adulthood. Death rates are high. Overall population has a very low life expectancy. Limited
medicine, sanitation, nutrition, hazards such as famine and war, all caused people to die easily.
Hard physical labor and long migrations wore down the bodies and decreased life span.
Stage Two: Stage 2 countries are agricultural-based economies. Birth rates remain high while
death rates decline over time. The NIR goes up significantly as birth rates and death rates
diverge. As a country advances, population growth explodes. Rapid population growth has been
a concern when looking at the quality of life in LDCs. Life is better due to the Industrial
Revolution first and the medical revolution second. MDCs like Europe, USA, and Canada
experienced the Industrial Revolution first. Then the Medical Revolution came 2nd. LDCs did
not move into Stage 2 until MDCs brought medical inventions and medicine to Africa, Asia, and
Latin America. Once LDCs received medical help, they could start surviving. Then the
Industrial Revolution inventions began to spread to LDCs. Death rates began to plunge during
Stage 2 due to the Industrial Revolution and medical revolution. During Stage 2, international
migration resulted. Urbanization and shift from rural to urban centers for work also increased.
Manufacturing is apparent and there is a focus away from agriculture toward the end of Stage
2.
Between Stage 2 and 3, is where birth and death rates are furthest apart, resulting in
high NIR.
Stage 3: Stage 3 is where most "industrialized" or manufacturing-based countries were found in
the transition. MDCs of Europe and USA shifted their economies to more service-based focus.
Birth rates continue to decrease as the effects of urbanization (less space, time, and need
factors). Increases in health care, education, and female employment bring about less fertility
per woman. Women have a choice and contraceptives are more available. Women's education
and employment also results in few children due to time constraints. Women are empowered to
gain from their school and job experiences. There is access of health care, nutrition,
sanitation, and education so life expectancy is greater. Also, death rates eventually bottom out.
Everyone is going to die eventually. Life expectancies can go up even further in stage four, but
the death rate stays the same. There is no way to stop people from dying.
Stage 4: Birth and death rages converge and there is a limited population growth -- even a
decline. Tertiary service industries like finance, insurance, real estate, health care, and
communications are what grow the economy. Manufacturing is dying. Women are not having as
many babies -- zero population growth. When birth rates reach the same level of death rates,
this is zero population growth. NIR equal 0.0 percent. Birth rates can decline and even be
lower than death rates. This results in a negative NIR and a shrinking population. USA services
are 80% of the GDP, and manufacturing is only 17% in Stage 4. USA is not ZPG due to the USA
being a desirable place for immigration. In Western Europe and Anglo-North America, there is
a large, over 65 dependency rate.
New term to remember: demographic momentum: the term that
describes the concept that population will continue to grow even after
fertility rates decline.
3. Epidemiological Transition Model
Stage 1: Plagues, pestilence, famine, Black Plague
Stage 2: Receding Pandemics (disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a
very high proportion of the population) due to Industrial Revolution (improved sanitation,
nutrition, medicine) - Cholera and Dr. John Snow
Stage 3: Stage of degenerative and human created diseases (heart attacks, cancer,
cardiovascular)
Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases due to operations, medicine, reduce tobacco and
alcohol, better info, more education multi-media, exercise
Stage 5: Reemergence of infectious and parasitic diseases. Evolution of microbes that cannot
be destroyed by medicine. Poverty causes infectious diseases. Improved travel spreads
microbes all over the world. AIDS. Societies could revert back to Stage 1.
4. Heartland-Rimland Theory
Heartland-Rimland Theory: In 1904 British geographer Halford Mackinder proposed what would
become the theory above. Mackinder's model was an effort to define the global geo-political
landscape and determine areas of potential future conflict. He identified that agricultural land
was the primary commodity that states were interested in. Several states with limited land
area wanted to expand their territory. However, they also noted each other's European
farming areas. The largest of these was the Eastern Europe steppe, a productive area of grain
mostly controlled by the Russian Empire at the time. This combined with the mineral and
timber-rich region across the Urals into Siberia, was named by Mackinder as the valuable
heartland. It was this portion of the earth's surface that bordering Rimland states such as the
German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Romania were potential invaders of. The
Rimland also contained other landwolves eager to grab at neighboring territory such as France
and Italy. This is the main geo-political model in the AP course that covers the two world wars
and the Cold War.
5. Shatterbelt Theory: In 1950 American geographer Saul Cohen proposed the above
theory. He modified Mackinder's who died in 1947. He modified Mackinder's into the “Pivot
Area" and Rimland into the "Inner Crescent." The rest of the world became the "outer
Crescent," including the USA. His land-based concept was the Cold War conflicts would likely
occur within the Inner Crescent. He pointed out several Inner Crescent Areas of geopolitical
weakness that he called Shatterbelts. He accurately identified numerous areas where wars
emerged from 1950 and the end of the Cold War in 1991: North and South Korea, Palestinians
versus Jews in Israel, North and South Vietnam, Balkan Wars. Also can refer to present-day
“troubled spots” of the world: Syria, Somalia, North Korea, Israel, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, etc.
6. Containment Theory: U.S. diplomat George Kennan first proposed the strategic policy
of containment to the American government in 1947. In this proposal, the USA and its allies
would attempt to build a containment wall around the core Communists states. Any time the
USSR or China attempted to expand the realm of influence politically or militarily, the forces of
NATO and other democratic state allies should be deployed to stop them.
7. Thomas Malthus Theory
Malthus claimed that the population was growing much more rapidly than Earth's food supply
because population increased geometrically, whereas food supply increased arithmetically.
National Increase Rate (NIR) declines for 2 reasons: lower birth rates 2. higher death rates.
Only hope is to reduce birth rates.
OPPOSITE: Ester Boserup: A Danish agriculturist, she provided a hopeful alternative to
Malthus. Should population growth out number food supply, humans must upgrade the
productivity of the food supply. This is done by human ingenuity and technology. Humans will
find ways to provide enough food to handle the population growth. Innovations in soil
production, cultivation, and technological advances to enhance food production will save human
lives.
8. Nomadic Warrior Theory by Marija Gimbutas - Kurgan People from steppes near the
border between present-day Russia and Kazakhstan spread Indo-European Language -- origin.
Spread the language with horses.
New term to remember: consequent: cultural defined political boundaries such as
those determined by the spatial patterns of religion or language.
9. Sedentary Farmer Theory by Colin Renfrew - Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European
Language by Farmers who may have originated 2,000 years in Turkey/Anatolia before Kurgans.
10. Gravity Model of Migration
When applied to migration, larger places attract more emigrants than do smaller places.
Additionally, destinations that are more distance have a weaker pull (distance decay) than do
closer opportunities of the same caliber.
11. Gravity Model of Population
The gravity model takes into account the population size of two places and their distance. Since
larger places attract people, ideas, and products more than smaller places and places closer
together have a greater attraction, the gravity model incorporates these 2 features.
12. Zelinsky's Migration Transition Model
Stage One: Hunters and gatherers move from one place to another for survival. High CBR and
CDR and low NIR. Search for local food rather than permanent migration to a new place.
Stage Two: High NIR because of rapidly declining CDR. Point when international migration
becomes especially important. Interregional migration from one's country's rural areas to its
cities. Improvement in agricultural practices reduces the number of people needed in rural
areas, and jobs in factories attract migrants to the cities in another region of the same country
or in another country.
Stage Three and Stage Four: Internal migration is more important. Moderating NIR because
of rapidly declining CBR. The principal destinations of the international migrants leaving the
stage 2 countries in search of economic opportunities. The principal form of internal migration
within countries in stages 3 and 3 is intraregional, from cities to surrounding suburbs.
13. Lee's Push and Pull Model
Push Factors
Pull Factors
*Political (wars, persecution)
*Political (lure of freedom, democracy)
*Economic (lack of jobs)
*Economic (perceived opportunities for jobs)
*Physical (flooding, drought,
*Physical (lure of attractive climate, land
natural disasters)
form regions)
14. Language Families
Language: A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds
understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.
Language Family: A collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor
long before recorded history.
Language Branch: A collection of languages related through a common ancestor that existed
several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language
families, and archaeological evidence can confirm that branches derived from the same family.
Language Group: A collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the
relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary.
English: Language family is Indo-European; Language branches: West Germanic, Romance,
Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian. Language Group: West Germanic: German, English, Dutch,
Norwegian, Swedish, Afrikaans, Danish. Romance: Spanish, French, Portuguese, Romanian,
Italian, Venetian, Haitian Creole, Catalan, Sicicilian, Neapolitan. Balto-Slavic: Belarusan,
Russian, Czech, Polish, Slovak Slavic, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Ukrainian, Czech. Indo-Iranian:
Hindi, Bengali, Urdu, Sinhalis, Nepali, Kurdish, Farsi, Bengali, Punjabi, Balochi, Kashmiri
Indo-European language family includes major languages of Europe and those dominant in Russia,
Northern India, Iran, and Eastern and Southern Australia.
15. Universalizing Religions (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism) vs. Ethnic
Religions (Hindu, Judaism)
16. D.W. Meinig's Core Domain Sphere Model
Defining Culture Regions
Core
Domain
Sphere
Core / Domain / Sphere
of a Culture Region
Figure 2.3 (p. 39)
17. World's Dependencies: not a separate country but depends on an MDC to protect and
trade with it. These are mostly islands, Most are relatively isolated. Most have extremely
small populations. Most are remnants of empires. Examples:
Dependencies and Territories of the World
The modern political world includes (58) territories and/or dependencies. All are listed
in alphabetical order with capital city and country of dependency reference.
DEPENDENCY / CAPITAL CITY / CLAIMED BY
(A)
American Samoa (Pago Pago) usa
Anguilla (The Valley) british
Aruba (Oranjestad) netherlands
Ashmore & Cartier Islands (na) australian
(B)
Baker & Howland Islands (na) usa
Bermuda (Hamilton) british
Bouvet Island (na) norwegian
British Indian Ocean Territory (Diego Garcia) british
British Virgin Is (Road Town) british
(C)
Cayman Islands (George Town) british
Christmas Island (Flying Fish Cove) australian
Cocos Islands (West Island) australian
Cook Islands (Avarua) new zealand
Coral Sea Islands (na) australian
(F)
Faeroe Islands (Torshavn) denmark
Falkland Islands (Stanley) british
French Guiana (Cayenne) french
French Polynesia (Papeete) french
(G)
(I)
Isle of Man (Douglas) british
(R)
Reunion (Saint-Denis) fr
(J)
Jan Mayen (na) norwegian
Jarvis Island (na) usa
Jersey (St. Helier) british
Johnston Atoll (na) usa
(S)
St. Helena & Dependen
St. Pierre & Miquelon (S
South Georgia & South
british
Spratly Islands (na) dis
malaysia, and more
Svalbard (Longyearbyen
(K)
Kingman Reef (na) usa
(M)
Macao (Macao) now controlled by china
Martinique (Fort-de-France) french
Mayotte (Mamoudzou) french
Midway Islands (na) usa
Montserrat (Plymouth) british
(T)
Tokelau (na) new zealan
Turks & Caicos Islands
(N)
Navassa Island (na) usa
Netherland Antilles (Willemstad) netherlands
New Caledonia (Noumea) french
Niue (Alofi) new zealand
Norfolk Island (Kingston) australian
Northern Mariana Islands (Saipan) usa
(W)
Wake Island (na) usa
Wallis & Futuna (Mata U
(V)
Virgin Islands (Charlotte
Source: worldatlas.com
Countries of the wor
Gibraltar (Gibraltar) british
Greenland (Nuuk) denmark
Guadeloupe (Basse-Terre) french
Guam (Agana) usa
Guernsey (St. Peter Port) british
(H)
Heard & MacDonald Islands (na) australian
Hong Kong (na) now controlled by China
(P)
Palmyra Atoll (na) usa
Paracel Islands (Woody Island) disputed by china,
taiwan and vietnam
Puerto Rico (San Juan) usa
Peter Island (na) norwegian
Pitcairn Islands (Adamstown) british
18. Global Positioning System versus Geographic Information System
19. New concept: Forward capital: Forward capital: a symbolically relocated capital city
usually because of either economic or strategic reasons; sometimes used to integrate outlying parts
of a country into the state (e.g., from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília, New York to Washington D.C.).
20. Robinson Projection: useful for displaying information across the oceans. Due to
allocating space to the oceans, the land areas are much smaller.
21. Mercator projection; shape is distorted very little, direction is consistent, and the map
is rectangular. Its greatest disadvantage is that area is grossly distorted toward the poles,
making high latitude places look much larger than they actually are.
22. E.G. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
a.
b.
c.
d.
The majority of migrants travel short distances
Migrants who are traveling a long way tend to move to larger cities than smaller cities.
Rural residents are more likely to migrate than are urban residents.
Every migration stream creates a counterstream. Therefore, net migration is the
number of people in the original flow minus the number of people in the opposite flow (or
counterstream).
e. Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.
23.
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
What is a centripetal force?
A centripetal force is a force or attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state (p.239). They
provide stability, strengthen the state, help bind people together, and create solidarity.
There are several examples of what a centripetal force in a state can be. Religion is a centripetal force in many
states. For example, Hinduism in Nepal and India brings people together as they feel a sense of unity. Islam in
Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as Buddhism in Bhutan, is another example of religion as a centripetal force.
The term centripetal force comes from the Latin words centrum, meaning "center", and petere, meaning "tend
towards" or "aim at". They are forces that unite and bind a country together - such as a strong national culture,
shared ideological objectives, and a common faith.
Examples:
Cultural homogeneity, national
culture:
France used to be a classic case of this, but immigration over the last 3 decades
has changed this formerly white, Roman catholic, Francophone country, and
produced serious centrifugal forces
A strong commitment to
building a new nation;
nationalism:
Israel in 1948 - people with very different backgrounds, but desiring to create the
state of Israel; helped by a common religion, and war
One religion can be an
extremely strong centripetal
force:
Roman Catholicism (in Italy, in Mexico, in Brazil, in the Republic of Ireland)
Hinduism in India Judaism in Israel Islam in several countries
One language is another strong
unifier, since it is through
language that culture is
transmitted and acquired:
Israel - the modern Hebrew language was created to unify people from many
different countries who came to live in the new Jewish homeland USA - immigrants
through the 19th century learned American English Indonesia - created a national
language, Bahasa Indonesia, to unify a tremendously fragmented country
USA since 9.11.2001 USA during the Cold War - fear of Communism USSR during
A powerful external threat can
the Cold War - fear of "Capitalists" Citizens of the American Colonies united in
unite citizens:
opposition to British control in 18th century
A “charismatic” leader:
Yugoslavia - Tito India - Mohandas Gandhi> Nehru> Indira Gandhi> Rajiv Gandhi; in
combination with nationalism Germany 1930s - Adolf Hitler
Infrastructure:
The transportation system in the US unites the people. The railroads in India unite
the people.
Physical Geography:
Pakistan is a good example for demonstrating how physical geography is a
centripetal force. Pakistan as a river valley is isolated by mountains and deserts.
These geographic features act as barriers that keep the people of Pakistan inside.
Language
Language acts as a specific centripetal force because it unites people through a
common form of communication. English in the U.S, Hindi in India, Bengali in
Bangladesh, and Punjabi in Pakistan, eliminate miscommunication.
Transportation and
Communication
When there is good transportation in a state, there is easy access to all that is in
the state. This makes life easier for people and helps reduce problems that would
harm an easy-flowing society. Public transportation in the U.S and railroads in
India are examples of this. Communication helps keep everyone in touch when it
comes to important decision making. Having a good transportation/communication
system helps to create a more dependable infrastructure for a country.
Nationalism
Loyalty and devotion to a nationality helps to emphasize the common culture in a
state through things such as mass media. It also promotes government, beliefs,
and symbols (i.e. flags & songs). Communism once used symbols like the hammer and
sickle to unite the people. The U.S has the national anthem, sung in schools and
public events, to unite the state.
Compact State
A compact state’s distance from the center to any boundary doesn’t vary greatly
when it is a compact state. This makes internal communication easy in states such
as Burundi, Rwanda and Poland; therefore it strengthens a country’s
infrastructure. Compact shapes are beneficial to smaller states since it helps
establish good communication in all regions.
What is a centrifugal force?
A centrifugal force is the exact opposite of a centripetal force. It is a force or attitude that tends to divide a
state. Centrifugal forces lead to Balkanization (the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among
ethnicities—as threat to world peace, not just in a small area), as happened in the Balkans during WWI. Centrifugal
forces are closely related not only to Balkanization, but also to devolution, which is also the breaking apart of a
state. Centrifugal forces destabilize and weaken a state by disrupting the internal order of the state.
Just as centripetal forces were in abundance, centrifugal forces are as well. Many examples of centripetal forces
can also apply to centrifugal forces because they are in different context within varying states. For example, the
religion of Hinduism in India acts as a centripetal force, but in Pakistan it is a different situation. Religious Muslims
groups of Shiite and Sunni, act as a centrifugal force because they fight amongst each other and break apart the
state rather than unify it. Other examples of religion as a centrifugal force in a state include Islam and Hindu in
India and Bangladesh, Buddhist and Hindu in Sri Lanka, Islam and Hindu in Kashmir, and Jains and Hindu in India.
The term centrifugal force comes from the Latin words centrum, meaning "center"’ and fugere, meaning "to flee".
They are forces that divide a country - such as internal religious, linguistic, ethnic or ideological differences.
Examples
Different religious beliefs can be the
dominant centrifugal force in a
Muslims and Hindus in India
country:
Different languages can also be
important causes of unrest :
Canada - Francophones, especially in Quebec, will not be satisfied till they
have a totally independent country.
Cultural diversity - in some countries
important differences in several
aspects of culture create powerful
divisions and centrifugal forces:
the former Yugoslavia - shattered into 5 separate countries and probably
more to come typified diversity in culture, with Serbs, Croats, and Muslims
the main groups Sri Lanka - Hindu Tamils wage terror against the Sinhalese
Buddhists
Irredentism - an external country may
seek to expand its territory by
Pakistan and Afghanistan - the Pushtun/ Pathan China and Xizang Tibet
appealing to peoples of the same
"Turkestan" - the Uzbeks Iran-the Azeri
culture living as a minority in a nearby
country:
Physical Geography:
Just like physical features, such as mountains and rivers, can unify a
country. They can also separate a country. Mountains divide communities in
Nepal.
Language
There are over 2,000 languages spoken in the African continent alone, with
as many as 8,000 dialects. This acts as a centrifugal force because it
creates a rupture in communication. Conflicts can easily begin due to a lack
of communication.
Ethnic groups
There are at least 2 million ethnic and tribal groups in African States. Each
group has differing sets of cultural styles of living and beliefs. Not having
the same beliefs is a way to easily break up states. Conflicts begin and wars
occur. This difference in lifestyles is a major step away from further
developing a country, especially if they are in a stage 1 or stage 2 of the
demographic transition.
Multinational State
If a state has 2 or more ethnic groups that are aiming for selfdetermination, this can be considered a centrifugal force. States that want
self-determination are not united and they wish to separate and form their
own country. This is an exact model of a centrifugal force and its result can
be seen in what was Yugoslavia. The conflicting ethnic groups caused world
wars and eventually broke up into several countries. Former Soviet Union is
also an example of a multinational state that experienced the effects of
centrifugal forces. It broke up into 15 independent countries
Physical Boundary
Physical boundaries, like mountains and bodies of water, cause an obvious
split within states. Mountains in Nepal cause a separation among
communities in the state. There is great difficulty in communicating and
traveling between communities which further exemplifies the breaking
apart of a state.
24. European Union
Member states of the European Union
An international organization of European countries
formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and
increase cooperation among its members.
Category
Sovereign states[1]
Location
European Union
Created
1952/1958[2]
Number
28 (Croatia July 1, 2013)
Possible types
Republics (21)
Monarchies (7)
Populations
502,064,211
European Union (EU): union of 28 democratic member states of Europe; began with the formation of
Benelux by the end of WWII, then with the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC)
years later. The EU's activities cover most areas of public policy, from economic policy to foreign
affairs, defense, agriculture and trade. The European Union is the largest political and economic
entity on the European continent, with over 500 million people and an estimated GDP of >US $20
trillion (2012).
25. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
-North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): a military alliance of western democracies
begun in 1949 with 28 member states today in 2013; its members agree to mutual defense in
response to an attack by any external party.
26.
Balkanization and Devolution and Ethnic Cleansing.
Balkanization: The political term used when referring to the fragmentation or breakup of a region or
country into smaller regions or countries. The term comes from the Balkan wars, where the country of
Yugoslavia was broken up in to six countries between 1989 and 1992.
Ethnic cleansing: Process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful
one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region. Example: Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Ethnicity: Identity with a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product
of common heredity and cultural traditions.
Devolution: process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing
autonomy at the expense of the central government (e.g., Basque and Catalonia in Spain, Chechnya
in Russia, …).
27. Supranationalism
Definition: Political, economic, and/or cultural cooperation among national states to promote
shared objectives. Tendency for states to give up political power to higher authority in pursuit
of common objectives (political, economic, Military, environmental). Venture involving multiple
national states (two or more, many, several) with a common goal.
Examples: European Union, NAFTA, Warsaw Pact, League of Nations, United Nations, NATO,
OPEC, etc.
Changes resulting from supranationalism in Europe
 Larger market (free trade, greater trade, reduced tariffs, greater economic prosperity)
 Greater international influence (greater political/economic power, greater ability to
compete with economies of other countries)
 Open borders for labor and tourists
 Common currency
 Common policy (resources, agriculture, economic, environment, trade, military) OR loss of
control over individual policy
 Loss of identify (only with explanation in terms of political/economic situation)
 War is less likely
28. Von Thunen's Model of Agriculture
29. First World, Second World, Third World CONCEPTS
First world: the largely democratic and free-market states of the United States and
Western Europe (Cold War to today)
Second world: the communist and state-planned countries of the Soviet Union,
Eastern Europe, and China (Cold War)
Third world: the generally poorer countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Cold
War to today)
30. Shapes of Countries AP Human Geography
Territorial morphology: study of states’ shapes and their effects
-Compact: distance from geometric center is similar (e.g., Germany,
Hungary,…)
-Elongated: a.k.a. attenuated (e.g., Chile, Vietnam,…)
-Fragmented: two or more separate pieces (e.g., Indonesia, Philippines,…)
-Perforated: territory completely surrounds that of another state (e.g., Italy,
Azerbaijan,… South Africa with Lesotho and Swaziland)
-Prorupted: a.k.a. prorupt; have an area that extends from a more compact core
(e.g,
Thailand, India,…)
-Bifurcated: has two distinct territories (e.g., Malaysia, Michigan, ...)
31. Types of Boundaries
-Geometric: straight-line, unrelated to physical or cultural landscape, lat & long
(US/Canada)
-Physical-political: (natural-political) – conform to physiologic features (Rio
Grande: US/Mexico; Pyrenees: Spain/France)
-Cultural- Hindu in India and Muslim in Pakistan
Political: mark breaks in the human landscape (Armenia/Turkey) (Palestine and
Israel)
32. Types of States AP Human Geography Chp. 7 Ethnicity
Ethnicity: identifies groups with distinct ancestry and cultural traditions such as African
Americans, Hispanic Americans, Chinese Americans, or Polish Americans.
Nationalism: loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality.
Nationality: identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance
to a particular place as a result of being born there.
Multiethnic state: State that contains more than one ethnicity. USA is the best example.
Multinational state: contains two ethnic groups or more with traditions of self-determination
that agree to coexist peacefully by recognizing each other as distinct nations. Russia is the
largest. United Kingdom: Wales, Scotland, Ireland
Nation-state: state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity
that has been transformed into a nationality. Denmark, Slovenia, Germany
Nation: a group of people with a particular ethnicity but do not have their own official state.
Sometimes they reside in several states/countries. Example: Kurds, Palestinians, American
Indian tribes.
33. Concentric Model of Urban Development by Burgess
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Ernest Burgess
Represents the Anglo-American city of the USA and Canada during the height of
industrialization
This is a theoretical model and no city is perfectly laid out in even rings.
All cities have a CBD (central business district)
CBD contains the highest density of commercial land use.
Most expensive land is in the CBD.
Buildings built vertically to maximize the use of one parcel of urban land.
CBD is surrounded by an area of low-density commercial land that has factories,
warehouses, rail yards, and port facilities.
In the era of deindustrialization, many American and Canadian cities have rebuilt former
industrial areas into festival landscapes: convention centers, outdoor concert venues:
Inner Harbor of Baltimore, Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta
High-density housing surrounds both the CBD and industrial zones: poor tenements, public
housing, small apartments, row houses. Some of these
Areas have been replaced or renovated through a process of gentrification.
34. Bid-Rent Curve
Space for downtown commercial rest estate is sold or leased by the square foot. By
comparison, land in the suburbs is sold by the acre. Along the curve you could plot different
land uses. Land for a suburban home or space for a suburban apartment building are not that
much different in price. However, land for that apartment building and land for building
downtown is vastly different in price.
The bid-rent curve represents the cost-to-distance relationship of real estate prices in the
urban landscape. The closer one moves toward the peak land or CBD, the more expensive the
price for CBD land.
35. Sector Model of Urban Development by Homer Hoyt
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Homer Hoyt
Concepts of the industrial corridor and neighborhood are combined for practical purpose.
Results in a more realistic representation compared to the concentric zone model.
This model is also used to depict ethnic areas/variations in a city.
CBD is at center.
Outside of the CBD is the industrial space or corridor.
There is a corridor of upper-class housing extending outward from the CBD.
Middle class neighborhoods also radiate out from the CBD like a corridor/wedge.
36. Multiple Nuclei Model by Harris and Ullman
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Harris and Ullman, authors
The model attempts to practically represent the urban landscape with neighborhoods and
commercial corridors.
Instead of all commerce being focused on the center of the city as in the sector model,
the term "multiple-nuclei" implies that there is more than one commercial center within
the city landscape.
People with different social characteristics tend to live within an urban area.
A city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities
revolve or a node (like functional).
Nodes include a port, neighborhood business center, university airport, and park.
What do the 3 models explain? If the 3 models are combined, they help geographers:
 help geographers explain where different types of people live in a city
 People tend to reside in certain locations depending on their particular personal
characteristics.
 Most people prefer to live near others who have similar characteristics
 One family owns its home and the other rents. The owner-occupant is much more likely
to live in an outer ring and the renter in an inner ring(concentric).
 If two families who own their homes, the family with the higher income will not live in the
same sector of the city as the family with the lower income (sector)
 People with the same ethnic or racial background are likely to live near each other
(multiple-nuclei)
37. Latin American City Model by Griffin and Ford
 Ford and Griffin, authors - Applies to LDC cities of Latin America
 Based on Law of the Indies (1500s) Spain required colonies in Latin America to build their
cities to look like Madrid.
 Wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector.
 The elite sector forms on either side of a narrow spine.
 The narrow spine contains offices, shops, and services attractive to wealth people;
restaurants, theaters, parks, zoos.
 Middle class would be section 3.
 Sector 4: zone of in situ accretion: Europeans who married natives.
 Disamenity are sectors which are poor land area: city dump, hillside, rocky, flood plain,
etc. When rural poor would move to big LDC cities for jobs, they would arrive with no
money and sleep on the streets or in abandoned buildings of the disamenity. Then they
would begin looking for scavenged items to build a shack in the "periferico" sectors.
 Periferico are sectors that house squatter settlements. Families erect primitive shelters
with scavenged cardboard, wood boxes, sack cloth, and crushed beverage cans. As they
find new bits of material, they add them to their shacks. Perhaps later they can build a
tin roof or partition space into rooms, and the structure acquires a more permanent
appearance.
38.
Rostow's Development Model - 1950s - International Trade Model
W.W. Rostow proposed a five-stage model of development. Several countries adopted
this approach during the 1950s.
 According to the International Trade Model, each country is in one of these five stages
of development.
 MDCs are in stage 4 or 5
 LDCs are in one of the three earlier stages.
 The model assumes that LDCs will achieve development by moving along from an earlier to
a later stage.
 The model also assets that today's MDCs passed through the early stages in the past.
 USA: stage 1 prior to independence, stage 2 during the first half of the 1800s, stage 3
during the middle of 1800s, and stage 4 during the late 1800s, before entering stage 5
during the early 1900s.
 A country that concentrates on international trade benefits from exposure to consumers
in other countries.
 To remain competitive, the takeoff industries must constantly evaluate changes in
international consumer preferences, marketing strategies, production engineering, and
design technologies.
 Rostow's optimistic development model was a success and most countries in the world in
2013 apply this model of trade.
39.
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Self-Sufficiency Model of Development
A country should spread investment as equally as possible across all sectors of its
economy and in all regions.
The pace of development is modest
The system is fair because resident and enterprises through the country share the
benefits of developments.
Incomes in the countryside keep pace with those in the city.
Reducing poverty takes precedence over encouraging a few people to become wealthy.
Helps fledgling businesses in an LDC by isolating them from competition with large
international corporations.
Countries promote self-sufficiency by setting barriers that limit the import of goods
from other places.
Barriers includes: setting high taxes (tariffs) on imported goods, fixing quotas to limit
the quantity of imported goods, and requiring licenses in order to restrict the number of
legal importers.
The approach also restricts local businesses from exporting to other countries.
40. Christaller’s Central Place Theory – Walter Christaller from Germany
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Helps to explain how the most profitable location for a shop can be identified.
Central place: is a market center for the exchange of goods and services by people
attracted from the surrounding area. It is so called because it is central located to
maximize accessibility.
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Market area or hinterland: the area surrounding a service from which customers are
attracted. The market area is an example of a nodal region – a region with a core where
the characteristic is most intense.
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Market area of every service varies. To determine the extent of a market areas,
you need TWO pieces of information about a service: RANGE and THRESHHOLD

Range: is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. The range is
the radius of a hexagon drawn to delineate a service’s market area. People are willing to
only go a short distance for everyday consumer services like groceries. Buy they will
travel a long distance for such services as a concert or a ball game. A median range for a
Kroger supermarket in Dayton would be 1.2 miles.
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Threshold: is the minimum number of people needed to support a service. A median
threshold needed to support Kroger supermarket in Dayton is about 30,000 people.
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Market-Area Analysis: The range and threshold together determine whether a good or
service can be profitable in a particular location. This is how it is done:
a. Compute the range
b. Computer the threshold
c. Draw the market area
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Gravity Model for Central Place Theory: Predicts that the optimal location of service is
directly related to the # of people in an area and inversely (negative aspect) related to
the distance people must travel to access it. According to the gravity model, consumer
behavior reflects two patterns:
a. The greater the # of people living in a particular place, the greater is the # of
potential customers for a service.
b. The father people are from a particular service, the less likely they are to use it.
41. Louis Wirth Theory
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Urban dwellers follow a different way of life than does a rural dweller.
City is a permanent settlement that has 3 characteristics:
1. Large size – If you live in a rural settlement, you know most of the other inhabitants.
In urban settlement, you can know only a small percentage of the other residents.
Most of your relationships are contractual: your supervisor, your lawyer, your
supermarket cashier, etc. Consequently, the large size of an urban settlement
produces different social relationships than those formed in rural settlements.
2. High Density: High density produces social consequences for urban residents. The
only way that a large # of people can be supported in a small area is through
specialization. Each person in an urban settlement plays a special role or performs a
specific task to allow the complex urban system to function smoothly. At the same
time, high density also encourages people to compete for survival in limited space.
Social groups compete to occupy the same territory, and the stronger group
dominates. This behavior distinguishes an urban settlement from a rural one.
3. Social Heterogeneity: The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people. A
person has greater freedom in an urban settlement than in a rural settlement to
pursue an unusual profession, sexual orientation, or cultural interests. Residents of a
crowded urban settlement often feel that they are surrounded by people who are
indifferent and reserved; sense of loneliness. Urban areas in MDCs offer jobs,
services, culture, and recreation.
42. Rank-Size Distribution of Settlements
Geographers observe that ranking settlements from largest to smaller population produces a
regular pattern of hierarchy. This is the Rank-Size Rule. The country’s nth-largest
settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement. In other words, the second-largest
city is one-half the size of the largest, the fourth-largest city is one-fourth the size of the
largest, and so on. The United States’ cities follow Rank-Size Rule. New York is largest, ½ of
New York is Los Angeles, a 1/3 of New York is Chicago, a ¼ of New York is Philadelphia, etc.
This is advantageous because goods and services are available throughout the USA rather than
Americans looking only to New York City for the best of services and goods.
43. Primate City Distribution of Settlements
If the settlement hierarchy does not graphs as a straight line, then country does not have a
rank-size distribution of settlements. Instead, it may follow the primate city rule. This is
where the largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking
settlement. In this distribution, the country’s largest city is called the primate city.
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Denmark: Copenhagen is the primate city with 1 million inhabitants. The second largest
is Arhus with only 200,000.
United Kingdom/England: London has 8 million, whereas as Birmingham, the secondlargest – has only 2 million.
44. Human Development Index – Chp. 9 Development – from United Nations
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A country’s level of development can be distinguished according to three factors:
1. Economic
2. Social
3. Demographic
 Human Development Index (HDI), created but the United Nations, recognizes that a
country’s level of development is a function of three of these factors.
 Economic
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GDP (Gross Domestic Product). GDP is the value of the total output of goods and
services produced in a country, normally during a year. Dividing the GDP by total
population measures the contribution made by the average individual toward
generating a country’s wealth in a year.
Types of Jobs:
a. Primary (including agriculture)
b. Secondary (including manufacturing)
c. Tertiary (includes services)
 Quartenary sector: types of jobs that includes wholesaling, finance,
banking, insurance, real estate, advertising, and marketing (business
services)
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Quinary sector: includes retailing, tourism, entertainment, and
communications, government, or semi-public services such as health,
education, and utilities (consumer services)
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Productivity is the value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor
needed to make it. Productivity can be measured by the value added per capita.
The value added in manufacturing is the gross value of the product minus the
costs of raw materials and energy.
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Consumer Goods – Part of the wealth generated in MDCs is used to purchase goods
and services. Especially important are goods and services related to transportation
(motor vehicles) and communications (telephones, computers).
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In LDCs transportation and communications do not play a central role in daily life.
In many LDCs, those who live in urban areas have access to transportation and
communications.
 Social
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Education and Literacy – literacy rate
Health and Welfare – People are healthier in MDCs and in LDCs
In most MDCs, health care is a public service that is available at little or no cost –
70% paid by government.
An exception is the USA where private individuals are required to pay an average
of 55% of health care, more resembling the pattern in LDCs.
Total expenditures on health care exceed 8% of GDP compared to less than 6% in
LDCs.
 Demographic
Life expectancy (LDCs = sixties) (MDCs = seventies)
Infant Mortality Rate – 94% of infants survive in LDCs and 6% die in LDCs. MDCs
= 99.5 infants survive, and ½ of 1 percent die.
 Natural Increase Rate (NIR) – 1.5 % annual in LDCs compared to only 0.2% in
MDCs. Greater natural increase strains a county’s ability to provide hospitals,
schools, jobs, and other services that can make its people healthier and more
productive.
 Crude Birth Rate (CBR). LDCs have higher natural increase rates because they
have higher crude birth rates. Annual CBD rate is 23 per 1,000 in LDCs, compared
to 12 per 1,000 in MDCs.
Crude Death Rate: does not indicate a society’s level of development. The
CDR is lower in LDCs than in MDCs. Two reasons account for the lower rate
in LDCs: 1. Diffusion of medical technology from MDCs has sharply reduced in
the incidence of several diseases in LDCs. 2. MDCs have higher percentages
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of older people who have high mortality rates, as well as lower percentages of
children, who have low mortality rates once they survive infancy.
45. Least-Cost Theory by Weber - Industry
 A company faces two geographical costs: SITUATION and SITE
a. Situation : relates to the transportation of materials into and from a factory
1. bulk-reducing industry: industry in which the inputs weigh more than the final
products. To minimize transport costs, a bulk=reducing industry needs to locate near its
source of inputs. Example: steel
2. bulk-gaining industry: makes something that gains volume or weight during
production. To minimize transport costs, a bulk-gaining industry needs to locate near
where the product is sold. Example: fabricated metals, beverage production, singlemarket manufacturers that produces parts for motor-vehicles, car production companies,
newspapers, food
* just-in-time deliveries: shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory
moments before they are needed. Arrive daily if not hourly.
b. Site: factor result from the unique characteristics of a location. Land, labor, and
capital area the 3 traditional production factors.
1. Labor-intensive industry is one in which wages and other compensation paid to
employees constitutes a high percentage of expenses. Labor intensive is not high wage; it
is measured as a percentage. High wage is measures in dollars or other currencies.
Examples: Textiles (making of clothing)
2. Land suitable for constructing a factory can be found in many places. If
considered to encompass natural and human resources, land is a critical site factor. Onestory factories are common now and require a large piece of land. Electricity is used for
aluminum industry so that is generated by using coal, oil, natural gas, running water,
nuclear fuel, energy, and wind.
3. Capital. Manufacturers typically borrow funds to establish new factories or expand
existing ones. Financial institutions like banks are key. The ability to borrow money in
MDCs is much easier than in LDCs. LDCs with unstable political systems, a high debt
level, or ill-advised economic policies find it hard to find a bank to loan them money to
establish manufacturing companies.
 Terms to Know that Go Far Beyond Weber's Original Theory in 2013 and on
* right to work laws:
* convergence regions
* competitive and employment regions
*
*
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*
*
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new international division of labor
vertical integration
outsourcing
Fordist production
Post-Fordist production
Maquiladora
46. DENSITY
versus
CONCETRATION
Density: the frequency with which something occurs in space. The feature being measures
could be people, houses, cars, volcanoes, etc. Also measured in kilometers, square miles,
hectares, acres, or any other unit of areas (numbers)
3 Kinds of Density
a.
Arithmetic: Total number of objects in an area – used to compare the distribution of
population in different countries. Belgium’s arithmetic density: 900 persons per square
mile.
b. Physiological: the number of persons per unit of area suitable for agriculture – may mean
that a country has difficulty growing enough food to sustain its population.
c. Agricultural: the number of farmers per unit area of farm land – may mean that a
country has inefficient agriculture.
Concentration: the extent of a feature’s spread over its space. If the objects in an area are
close together, they are CLUSTERED; if relatively far apart, they are DISPERSED.
Geographers use concentration to describe changes in distribution. The distribution of people
across the USA is increasingly dispersed. The total number of people living the USA is growing
slowly. But the population distribution is changing from relatively clustered in the Northeast to
more evenly dispersed across the country.
47. 5 Types of Climates according to AP Human Geography
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Tropical
Dry climates
Warm mid-latitude climates
Cold-mild mid-latitude climates
Polar climates
48. Possibilism versus Environmentalism
Possibilism: the physical environment may limit some human actions, but people have the ability
to adjust to their environment. Please can choose a course of action from many alternatives in
the physical environment. Humans endow the physical environment with cultural values by
regarding it as a collection of resources which are substances that are useful to people,
economically and technologically, and socially acceptable to use. AP human geographers support
this view.
Environmental determinism: A 19th and 20th century approach to the study of geography which
argued that the general laws sought by human geographers could be found in the physical
sciences. The environment in which people are born determines their outcome and limits their
potential. A person born in Africa is often limited by the LDC status and may not be able to
rise to the prosperity of an MDC born person. AP Human Geography does not believe in this
limitation.
49. Types of Diffusion
Diffusion: is the process by which a characteristic spreads across space from one place to
another over time. This from which an innovation originates is called a hearth.
Two Types of Diffusion
a. Relocation – the spread of an idea through physical movement of people from one place
to another.
b. Expansion – the spread of a feature from one place to another in a snowballing process.
Three Ways of Expansion Diffusion
1. Hierarchical – is the spread of an idea from person or nodes of author or power to
other person or places. This may result from the spread of ideas from political
leaders, socially elite people, or other important persons to others in the community.
Innovations may also originate in a particular node or place of power, such as a large
urban center, and diffuse later to isolated rural areas. Hip-hop or rap music is an
example of an innovation that diffused from a group of people.
2. Contagious – is the rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the
population: spread of influenza, AIDS. An idea placed on the World Wide Web
spreads through contagious diffusion because Web surfers throughout the world have
access to the same material simultaneously and quickly
3. Stimulus – is the spread of an underlying principle, even though a characteristic itself
apparently fails to diffuse. Early desktop computer sales in the USA were evenly
between Apple and IBM. By 1990s, Apple sales had fallen far behind IBM. Then
Apple came up with the mouse at an icon. – new technologies.
50. Types of Regions
a. Formal: The selected characteristic is present in an entire region. Laws of Montana. North
American wheat belt is a formal region.
b. Functional: also called a nodal region is an area organized around a node or a focal point.
Examples: television station’s viewing area. Circulation area of a newspaper. A Department
Store like Nordstrom’s threshold area.
c. Vernacular: is a perceptual region or a place that people believe exists as a part of their
cultural identity. “Dixie” = Southern States of the USA. “Retirement State” – Florida or AZ
“Coffee Drinkers’ Region” – Pacific Northwest. “Rust Belt” – Midwest States of the Auto
Industry due to heavy snows and salt placed on roads that cause cars to rust.
51. Population Pyramids:
Stage 4
Stage 4 Zero Population Growth
Stage 3
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 4
52. Population Statistics
The BIRTH RATE: CBR is an annual statistic. The total # of infants born living is counted for
one calendar year and then calculated. The figures is then divided by the populat6ion divided
by one thousand, or 'every thousand members of the population.
Live Births_____
Population + 1,000
What does this mean? High bird rates (18 to 50) are found in mostly rural agricultural LDC
countries and that low birth rates (8 to 17) are more likely to be found in urbanized industrial
and service based countries (MDCs).
The DEATH RATE: The crude death rate or CDR, or what is called the death rate is an annual
statistic calculated in the same. The number of deaths are counted for the calendar year in a
country and divided by every thousand members of the population (or population/1,000).
Deaths______
Population = 1,000
What does this mean? High death rates usually indicate a country that is experiencing war,
disease, or famine. Higher death rates (20 to 5) were recorded in the poor of LDCs where the
combination of poverty, poor nutrition, epidemic disease, and a lack of medical care resulted in
low life expectancy. HOWEVER, conditions have improved in LDCs through the Green
Revolution (increased food and nutrition) and access to sanitation, education and health care
have increased, life expectancies have gone up, and death rate has gone down.
The NATURAL INCREASE RATE (NIR): By comparing the birth rate and death rate for a
country, we can calculate the rate of natural increase (RNI as stated by Princeton Review or
NIR as stated by Rubenstein textbook). If you subtract the death rate from the birth rate,
the difference is the amount of population change per thousand members of the population for
that year. Then divide the result by 10 and then you will have the NIR or RNI. The NIR or
RNI is also the annual percentage of population growth of that country for that one-year
period. Put a % sign after you get the answer to the equation.
Birth Rate - Death Rate
10
Is a negative NIR/RNI possible? It is possible. Mathematically, the death rate can larger
than the birth rate, resulting in a negative number that is divided by 10 to get the negative
NIR/RNI. When the NIR/RNI is negative, it means the population has shrunk during the year
the data was collected. One current possibility would be in a LDC location where disease,
warfare, or famine has decimated the population -- Swaziland: affected by the AIDS epidemic
has currently an NIR/RNI of -0.1 %.
Why "Natural" Increase? Important to keep in mind regarding the rate of natural increase is
that it does not account for immigration or emigration. A country with a high rate of natural
increase can have an unexpectedly low long-term population prediction if there is a large amount
of emigration. Oppositely, a country with a low rate of natural increase can still grow
significantly over time if the amount of immigrants is high. Data shows that migrant population
also have much higher fertility rates. In the USA population growth is not necessary from the
immigrants cross the border, but the fact that they will have a large number of children once
they have settled.
DOUBLING TIME: This is an estimate regarding how long it would take a country to double in
size by this formula.
70_________
Rate of Natural Increase
Using Peru as an example, an RNI of 2.1 percent would result in a doubling time of 33.3 years.
This is fast but demographers expect the 8 million people to grow to 16 million by 2050.
This won't happen according to demographers because people are leaving Peru for work. There
is a negative net migration. Out-migration to other countries reduces the long-term prediction
to around 12-13 million by 2015.
The TOTAL FERTILITY RATE: The TFR is the estimated # of children born to each female
of birthing age (15 to 45).
Number of Children Born
Women Ages 15 to 45
Remember: THE TFR is not an annual statistic -- it is more an estimate, a picture of fertility
for both over the prior 30 years.
The REPLACEMENT RATE: The replacement rate is a TFR of 2.1. We must think about this
in a basic biological terms. If a couple has two offspring, they have replaced themselves. What
about the remaining 0.1? This is what would be referred to as an error factor. We have to
estimate that some small portion of the population will die before they reach adulthood -disease and accidents do happen. Thus, to replace itself, a large population must have 2.1
children per female of birthing age.