The University of Lusaka
Science in Public HealthBSPH 113
Introduction
to
Public
Administration and Political
Education – BSPH 113
Prepared by Kawila L.E. M.A,
B.A,
L.L.B,
Dip
Education
[Student in Doctor of Literature
and
Philosophy
in
Public
Administration – UNISA]. 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course title: Introduction to Public Administration and Political Education.
Course code: BSPH 113
Letter to the Students………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
Course Outline…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
Course Aim………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
1.0 Chapter One – Understanding Public Administration………………………………………………………….9
1.1 Objectives of the Topic Under Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..9
1.2 Meaning and Definitions of Public Administration……………………………………………………………………11
1.3 Public and Private Administration…………………………………………………………………………………………….13
1.4 Is Public Administration a science or art……………………………………………………………......................15
1.5 Evolution and Growth of Public Administration………………………………………………………………………16
1.6 What is New Public Administration……………………………………………………………………………………………16
1.7 On Going Concern………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………17
1.8 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18
2.0 Chapter Two – Principle Theories and Approaches……………………………………………………………20
2.1 Objects of the Topic Under Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………20
2.2 Classical Theory of Organisation…………………………………………………………………………………………………20
2.3 Bureaucratic Theory…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..26
2.4 Scientific Management………………………………………………………………………………………………………………28
2.5 Human Relations theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………32
2.6 Hierarchy [Scalar Principle]……………………………………………………………………………………………………….33
2.7 [I] Authority………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34
2.7 [II] Responsibility………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………35
2.7 [III] Delegation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………36
2.7 [IV] Centralisation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37
2.7 [V] Decentralisation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37
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2.7 [VI] Coordination………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38
2.7 [VII] Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39
3.0 Chapter Three: - Dynamics in Administration…………………………………………………………………..39
3.1 Objectives of the Topic under Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………39
3.2 What is leadership…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….40
3.3 Trait Theory…………………………………………………………………………………………………............................41
3.4 Theory X and Theory Y………………………………………………………………………………………………………………42
3.5 Contingency or Leadership or situational………………………………………………………………………………….43
3.6 Peter Principle…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..44
3.7 Systems Approach…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….45
3.8 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………47
4.0 Chapter Four: Public Personal Administration….………………………………………………………………47
4.1 Objectives of Topic Under Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………..47
4.2 Recruitment and Selection…………………………………………………………………………………………………………48
4.3 Recruitment Policies and Procedures…………………………………………………………………………………………48
4.4 What are the critical points to be considered on a Job description? .........................................49
4.5 Selection Processes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………49
4.6 The Selection Interviews……………………………………………………………………………………………………………50
4.7 Selection Tests……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………51
4.8 Patronage versus Merit System …………………………………………………………………………………………………51
4.9 Who are the minority in the Job market? ………………………………………………………………………………….53
5.0 What should an organisation do in preparing for interviews? ……………………………………………………53
5.1 Recruitment practices in the Zambian Civil Service…………………………………………………………………….54
5.2 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….54
6.0 Chapter Five: Political Education………………………………………………………………………………………54
6.1 Objectives of the Topics Under discussion…………………………………………………………………………………54
6.2 Topic One: Administering National Government……………………………………………………..................55
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6.4 What are the functions of the chief Executive……………………………………………………………………………56
6.5 The Legislature…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..56
6.6 The Legal System and Judiciary………………………………………………………………………………………………….58
6.7 Topic Two: Theories and Roles of the State……………………………………………………………………………..59
6.8 Marxist………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………61
6.9 Non – Marxist…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….62
7.0 Pluralist theories………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..63
7.1 Topic Three: Democracy Democratisation and Good Governance……………………………………………65
7.2 Conceptual Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………65
7.3 Characteristics of Democracy and Good Governance……………………………………………………………….66
7.3 Administrative Responsibility…………………………………………………………………………………………………….68
7.3 Citizen Participation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..68
7.3 administrative ethics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….71
7.4 Elections and Electoral Systems…………………………………………………………………………………………………72
7.5 Constitutions and Constitutionalism………………………………………………………………………………………….78
7.6 Public Policy Making Process……………………………………………………………………………………………………..80
7.7 Public Policy – Formulation Implementation and Evaluation…………………………………………………….80
7.8 What is the Nature of Public Policy? ......................................................................................82
7.9 What are the Major Types of Policy……………………………………………………………………………………………83
8.0 Significance and Why Study Public Policy…………………………………………………………………………………..85
8.1 What are the Possible Constraints To Rationality? ……………………………………………………………………93
8.2 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………95
8.3 writing a Good assignment……………………………………………………………………………………………………….95
8.3 A draft sample of essay writing…………………………………………………………………………………………………96
8.4 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………99
8.5 bibliography………………………………………………………………………………..100
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LETTER TO THE STUDENT
Dear Student,
Welcome to BSPH 113 [Introduction to Public Administration and Political Education]. The
course runs for one semester. The purpose of this batch or module, is not to provide you with
complete reading material for the course, but to provide a guide to your reading. The course
is intended to briefly introduce to you the foundation topics in Public Administration and
Political Education which will give you an insight of the environment in which you may
work especially if you will be employed by the Government of the Republic of Zambia. As a
student of this course you are advised to read widely from other additional sources about the
topics and issues introduced in this batch or module. Our University Library has a worth of
books that will provide deeper readings on the topics discussed herein.
You will appreciate that the first topic in your course discusses understanding Public
Administration and Private Administration and attempts to compare and contrast the two
concept to give you a sound understanding of the two concepts. This course is deliberately
put in your program of study so that you have a good understanding of administration in your
work environment and you may in future practice these concepts in your work. I have posed a
number of questions in the process of developing this module in order to enlighten you on the
benefits of this course in your career perspectives. I hope the few points raised will encourage
you to understand the importance of this course and move you to be more focused in your
pursuit for a degree in Public Health.
I would also like to take this opportunity to appeal to you to submit all your assignment
within stipulated deadlines as this is a requirement for your training and assessment. I am
sure during your orientation you have acquired yourself with the University regulations in
order to remain current and avoid unnecessary problems. You therefore now know that there
are serious penalties for submitting assignments late.
Students in the three [3] categories, namely Full time, Part time and Distance, are
strongly advised to carefully study the whole Module before 12th October, 2015. The
mid Examinations planned for 12th October, 2015 to 23rd October, 2015 will draw
questions from any section of the Module, with an intention to prepare students for the
final examination to be sat between 7th December and 18th December, 2015. Distance
students will sit their residential school examinations on the second day of our
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residential school, which falls on 24th November 2015. In view of the fore going, students
are advised to study the whole Module before coming for residential and report on
Monday to avoid missing the residential examinations. Reading the whole Module is a
MUST, to prepare for the final examination.
I hope you will find the course interesting and inspiring.
Kawila LE [Mr.]
BSPH 113 LECTURER –UNIVERSITY OF LUSAKA.
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COURSE OUTLINE:
COURSE AIM:
The ain of the course is to introduce students to the basic fundamentals of Public
administration and political education. This is a fundamental course that shall introduce
students to basic concepts in general administration that will give students some knowledge
in administration as they carry out their duties in Public health.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
[a] Show an understanding of concepts necessary as outlined in the course,
[b] Demonstrate an understanding of the role of administrative structures, processes and
behaviour in influencing administrative out put.
[c] Critically discuss and show a higher understanding of concepts that are presented in the
course out line.
COURSE CONTENT
Understanding Public Administration
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Objectives of the Topic under discussion
Meaning and definitions of Public Administration
Public and Private Administration
Is Public Administration a science or art
Evolution and growth of Public Administration
What is New Public Administration
On going concern
Principle Theories and approaches
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Objects of the Topic Under discussion
Classical Theory of Organisation
Bureaucratic Theory
Scientific management
Human relation theory
Hierarchy [Scalar Principle]
Authority
Responsibility
Delegation
Centralisation
Decentralization
Coordination
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Dynamics in Administration:
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Objectives of the Topic Under discussion
What I Leadership
Trait theory
Theory X and Theory Y
Contingency or leadership or situational
Peter Principle
Systems approach
Public Personnel Administration
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Objectives of the Topic under discussion
Recruitment and selection
Recruitment policies and procedures
What are the critical points to be considered on a job description?
Selection process
The selection interviews
Selection tests
Patronage versus Merit system
Who are the minority in the job market
What should an organization do in preparing for interviews?
Political Education
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Objectives of the Topics under discussion
Administering national government
What are the functions of the Chief Executive
The legislature
The legal system and judiciary
Theories and the roles of the state
Marxist
Non Marxist
Pluralist theories
Democracy, Democratisation and good Governance
Elections and Electoral Systems
Constitutions and Constitutionalism
Public Policy Making Process
Public Policy- Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation
What is the Nature of Public Policy?
What are the Major Types of Policy
Significance and Why Study Public Policy?
What are the Possible Constraints To Rationality?
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PRESCRIBED BOOKS:
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Gerald Caiden, [1971],The Dynamic of Public Administration, Guide Lines to
Current Transformation in Theory and Practice, Hoit, Rinehoit and Winston, New
York, USA.
Rumki Basu, [2007], Public Administration: Concepts and Theories, Sterling
Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, India
. Robert C. Appleby, [1994], Modern Business Administration, Kent Publishers,
China.
Johari J.C. [2012], Principles of Modern Political Science, Sterling Publisher
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Johari J.C. [2011], Comparative Politics, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New
Delhi, India.
Sapru R.K. [2007], Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation,
Sterling publishers Private limited, New Delhi, India.
Ravindra D., Prasad V.S, Satyanarayana P, and Pardhasaradhi Y, [2012],
Administrative Thinkers, sterling Publishers private Limited, New delhi, India.
Gary Dessler, [2011], Human Resources Management, Pearson Education Limited,
USA.
Pugh D.S, [1982], Organisation Theory, Cox and Wyman limited, Great Britain.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS:
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Marx F.M. [ed], [1964], Elements Of Public Administration, Prentice-Hall of India,
India.
White L.D. [1955], Introduction To The Study of Public Administration,
Macmillian Company, New York, USA.
The electoral and Code of Conduct Act, no. 12 of 2006, of the Laws of Zambia.
Muna Ndulo, [2010], Democratic Reform In Africa, It Impact On Governance
and Poverty Alleviation, Ohio University Press, Athens, USA.
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CHAPTER ONE: UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC
This lesson will aim to achieve the listed objectives after the delivery of the whole topic:
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The student should be able to define and make a difference between Public
Administration, Private Administration and Management.
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The student should be able to explain in details the evolution of public administration
from ancient and medieval era to the current era.
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The student should be able to discuss the crucial roles as assumed by public
administration in the contemporary society.
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The student should be able to outline and discuss the major principals which
differentiate Public Administration from Private Administration.
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The students should be able to discuss the aspects of public administration that make
a subject to be a science and an art.
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The student should be able to explain and demonstrate what we mean by theory and
practice.
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The student should be able to appreciate the scope of Public Administration.
This topic gives an over view of what is public administration, the content of the term and its
scope. A student is expected to clearly define and demonstrate the understanding of Public
Administration. The student should further explain the importance and relevance of public
administration to anyone who raises a question. The subject will introduce the relevance of
administration to a Public Health students. Public administration is real life in a work place
and in a workers life.
UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Government administration of the earlier times [ancient and medieval] however differed
considerably in its structure and goals from state administration in the modern era.
Administration of the state in the ancient and medieval periods in both the East and the West
was authoritarian, patriarchal and elitist in character. The maintenance of the law and order,
collection of revenue, etc were its compulsory functions where as welfare activities were
purely incidental or optionally undertaken. The Administrators were small in number,
selected entirely at the discretion of the monarch and their official status was no better than
the personal servants of the king.
Today the scope of the state functions has largely increased. Public Administration is
indispensably present in all states, be they capitalist, socialist or developing in nature. The
modern Public Administration has usurped more and more functions within its scope.
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Besides law and order, revenue collection, and security functions, it cater for vast array of
public Laws, provides public services like post, telegraphic, transport and etc.
Gerald Caiden has listed the following as crucial roles as assumed by Public Administration
in the contemporary society:
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Preservation of the Polity: Public administration is a tool used by Political
leaders to run a government and manage all developmental projects. The purpose
of the political Party in power is to attempt to run the country while remaining in
power for a time, even perpetual. The Party in power wants to ensure the peace
and order is maintained so that they remain in power. The government should be
maintained and live on orderly.
Maintenance of stability and order: For the polity to remain in power, there
should be law and order, thus the state preoccupies itself with the rule of law so
that there is stability and order that will enable the State stay on while providing
for its citizens.
Institutionalisation of socioeconomic change: To institutionalize the
socioeconomic life of a country, the Political Leader ship must make prudent and
sound social economic decisions that will result in the improvement of the live of
citizen and there by allow the Leadership to continue as they ‘citizens’ see their
lives changing for the better using good political decisions which allow the
economy to grow while changing the lives of citizen.
Management of large scale commercial services: It is now an agreed concept
that the State has a role to play in the management of the economy of a nation.
The State has the financial and human resource to employ in the commercial
ventures of a nation. Big companies that need huge investments will need the
involvement of government, for example ZESCO in Zambia and ZAMTEL. These
are owned by the State for two reasons, that they have resources that they can
invest, while the government holds to such ventures so that the ordinary Zambian
can afford the cost of such services of these ventures.
Ensuring growth and economic development: The government has a duty to
ensure growth of the economy of the nation, which should translate in the growth
and improvement of life of its citizens. As the government participate in the
economic arena of the commercial ventures, the economy grows to the benefit of
citizens. The government may play this role by encouraging banks to lend money
to the small scale business persons and also through prudent intervention in the
market arena using well calculated and protected subsidy.
Protection of the weaker sections of society: The government has a duty to
protect both the rich and poor citizens, the latter, who are at times referred to as
the weaker sections of society. Government will play this role through fair
taxation, which latter is ploughed back into society through community services.
The government may also come up with programs to empower the weak sections
of society by provision of subsidized agricultural inputs and etc
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Formulation of public opinion: The current and civilized method of public
opinion formulation is by allowing genuine participation in the economy and
decision making of the country by the citizens. The more you involve the citizens,
the more good ideas you will generate for the benefit of the nation as a whole.
Opinions that are public, are likely to receive popular support by the citizens, and
will not meet resistance at implementation of projects.
Influencing public policies and political trends: Public policies are government
guide lines will help government deliver goods and services to the citizens in a
more mature and focused way as opposed to unplanned implementation of
projects. When government has good policies supported by the people, there will
be order and unity among all the political players.
[ Gerald Caiden, 1971, pages 12-58].
There is a growing trend in the activities of Public Administration in the foreseeable future.
Men and women have always needed Public Administration and will continue to do so.
What is the meaning and definition of Public Administration?
Public administration is the management of affairs of the government at all levels covering
national, state and local. This is a branch of the wider field of administration. The word
administration has many definitions. In the words of Marx, he defined administration...
“Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. It is the
systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those
things happen which one wants to happen”.
Another writer in the name of J M Pfiffner while writing with Presthus in the early 1960s
gave a different definition to Administration, where they say “Administration is the
organisation of human and material resources to achieve desired ends”
Administration has two essential elements namely:
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Cooperative effort: there can be no development if there is no cooperation,
cooperation brings coordination and pulling of all resources in one direction
thereby bringing development to reality. Cooperation means people are working
to gather, and there is genuine participation which results in citizens support the
venture that government wants to implement, and
Pursuit of common objectives. Public administration is any kind of administration
in the public interest which, in other words, has simply come to mean
governmental administration. Administration of private enterprises is known as
private administration [ Pfiffner and Presthus pg 3].
There are many views regarding the scope and range of activities to be included in public
administration. Some thinkers take a broader view and include all governmental activities
having for their purpose, the fulfilment of public policy, while the other school of thought
take a narrow view and consider only those activities concerned with the executive branch of
government as part of public administration.
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Public Administration:
a) Is cooperative group effort in a public setting
b) Covers all three branches of government covering executive, Legislative, and
judiciary, with a focus on their inter relation-ships.
c) Has an important role in the formulation of public policy, and this is part of the
political process
d) Is more important than and also different in importance from private administration
e) As a field of study and practice has been influenced in recent years by the Human
Relations approach.
f) Is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing
services to the community.
It should be understood that Public Administration is the non-political bureaucratic
machinery of the government for implementing its laws and policies in action, for
example the collection of revenues, maintenance of laws and order, running of railways,
postal services, maintaining an army, running schools and hospitals. All the above are
public administration acts. Public administration operates within a political context. One
may put it in a context that it’s a means by which the policy decisions made by the
political decision makers are carried out.
Public Administration is identified with the following: Public administration is
focused at activities of public nature, meant for all people living in a country, both
citizens and non citizens. Governments are concerned that they are areas of our life which
is public and needs public attention. These areas cover the following:
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The formulation and implementation of public Policies: It’s the duty of
every good government to formulate and implement good policies that will act
as guidelines to providing good life to the citizens. Participation and
consultation are very important in policy making. Every area of human life
needs a good policy on which the government will focus all its energy to target
to achieve [Sapru, 2007, pg 6].
The Executive branch of government: The Executive arm of government
supervises the creation of policies and ensure the policies are implemented
with the support of citizen participation. The executive arm enforces the
application of the law enacted by Parliament and also creates the budget and
run it to the benefit of the citizens who are the major stake holders. The
executive functions serve to maintain a system of cooperative function, as they
act in an impersonal manner as they address the needs of the people [Pugh
D.S. 1982, pg 167].
Organisational structure and machinery of administration: Public
administration followed clearly laid down procedures of carrying out
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government duties. This makes the operations of the Public administration to
be predictable and clearly known [Pugh D.S. 1982, p 166].
Administrative processes: Government operates following laid down
systems approved by the executive with the participation of all stakeholders.
The systems are guided by the approved policies and procedure.
Administrative acts, decisions, rules and regulations are formulated and
recorded in writing, even in cases where oral discussions is the rule or is even
mandatory [Pugh D.S. 1982, p 20].
Bureaucracy and it activities: Legal norms may be made through agreement
or imposition by the bureaucracy, on either rational ground or on ground of
expediency, or both system as the case may demand. Officials must be
competent and impersonal in doing government business with a view to unite
people and create an atmosphere of smoothly running the system of good
governance [Sapru, 2012, pg 299].
Coordination of group activities social relationship: Public administration
has the responsibility of coordinating the activities of the State through
allowing all the citizens and stakeholders to participate and create a good
social relation with all those who benefit from government activities [Sapru
2012, pg 373].
Interaction between organisation and their environment: Government has
a duty to ensure they protect the environment as organizations carry out
beneficial activities that will benefit the people and the State. The
organizations should also be responsible and cooperate with Public
administration as they operate [Sapru, 2012, 66].
Public and Private Administration, where is the difference?
One group of thinkers covering Urwick, Follett and Fayol, are of the view that administration
is an indivisible entity, and its basic principles are applicable equally to all organisations
whether public or private. This view is on the basis of observable similarities in the practice
of public and private administration. It is difficult to differentiate the two types of
administrative activity. Though the activities performed by government agencies are defined
as public administration, there are many private agencies which also perform tasks which are
strictly public service or welfare oriented. In the same way there are many tasks performed
by government bureaucracy which may be of a private nature.
Secondly, methods and work procedures may be common to both public and private
administration. Accounting, statistics, office management and procedures and stock taking
are problems of administrative management common to both public and private
administration.
As, public sector enter the industry and run many business ventures, drawing heavily upon
the business knowledge and expertise of private administration to run these enterprises.
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The seven [7] major principles which differentiate public from private administration
are:
1. Uniformity, government activities are uniform unlike private companies which may
differ from one company to another run by the same firm. Government activities are
uniform as they are guided by the policies that are created on the basis of agreement
and mutual cooperation.
2. External financial control, the government activities are not exposed to external
control, the private firms are sometimes owned by foreigner and therefore are
controlled by the owners outside the country.
3. Ministerial responsibility, only government Ministries have Ministerial
responsibility, can be summoned by Parliament to explain their operations, while
using government resources or tax player’s money. The private companies have no
single ministerial responsibility.
4. Marginal return, government aims to give a service to the citizens, so their services
and goods attract very little profit, while the private sector go into business purely to
make money or profit.
5. Monopolistic, government has the responsibility to provide services like education,
health, roads, bridges, security and etc whether they have money or not, where the
private sector provides these same services the public has to pay for them, those who
cannot pay will be eliminated from enjoying these services.
6. Use of government money, only the governmental activities are funded using
government funds while the private sector uses provide funds for their business.
7. Government operations are not cost effective: government incur a lot of looses as
they perform business due to lack of seriousness and the I don’t care type of work
culture. The private sector are business focused, when they incur looses, they will be
thrown out of business and be bankrupt.
The popular view or idea of public administration is that it is bureaucratic, characterised by
red tape, inefficiency and inertia, where as private administration is efficient and business
like. The following are the differences between the two types of administration as addition to
what has been given here above:
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Political direction or ministerial responsibility: Public administration which is
the machine and tool used by the State to run the affairs of public life for citizens
and non citizens living in a given country has the responsibility to given direction
in terms of politics to the nation. The Private sector may be influenced by the
politics of the day but will not join in as their core purpose of being created is to
do business [ Pugh 1982, p 166].
Profit motive or marginal return: while government their reason is to give
service to the people and make as little profit as possible, thus marginal return, the
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private sector aims to maximize profit making as much as they can do. The
purpose of existence for the private sector is to make profit whenever they, can
Social necessity: The public institutions exist to give services to the people,
where services and goods are for sell, it will be at a minimum cost, however,
sometimes even the private sector does also give free services to their clients as a
way to appreciate the clients.
Public responsibility: It’s a duty of public administration to ensure both the
citizens and all those living in a country to be safe and be sure of them being taken
care off, as for the private sector they take advantage of the secured environment
to make business.
Conformity to laws and regulations: It’s the duty of the Public administration to
make laws and observe them if possible, while the private sector may avoid the
law if they can, for example many big companies have run business without
paying tax even when they are making huge sums of money.
Is Public Administration a science or art?
Public administration has two components namely administering governmental affairs, which
is an art. While, when you look at Public administration as an academic discipline, then it
becomes a science. .
Ordway Tead writes “Administration is the comprehensive effort to direct, guide and
integrate associated human strivings which are focused towards some specific ends or
aims. Administration is, in short, a fine art, because it summons an imposing body of
special talents on behalf of a collaborative creation which is integral to the conduct of
civilised living today”.
Quite obviously public administration is the art of government, in reality it is government in
action.
Woodrow Wilson, the pioneer of Public Administration as a subject of study called it the
“Science of Public Administration” as early as 1887. In 1926, W.F. Willoughby said that in
administration there are certain fundamental principles of general application analogous to
those characterising any science. In 1937, a collection of papers on the subject made its
appearance under the significant title of papers on the science of Administration edited by
Luther Gulick and Urwick.
The existence of a body of principles in a discipline entitles it to claim the title and status of
science. If public administration can prove that it has developed a set of principles, it
obviously qualifies to be rated as science.
For any subject or program to be called a science, public administration, inclusive, has to
meet the three criteria namely:
1. The place of normative value should be identified
2. Greater understanding of human nature and
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3. The principles of administration could be derived from a body of cross-cultural
studies, thereby making them relatively free from cultural bias.
Evolution and Growth of Public Administration
Public administration as an activity is as old as civilisation but as an academic discipline is a
little over a hundred years old. This, however, does not mean by implication that thinkers in
earlier ages had never said anything significant about public administration. The functioning
of governmental machinery has attracted the attention of scholars and administrators since the
earliest periods of history.
Many factors had contributed towards the growth of the study of public administration in the
USA as a separate academic discipline in the 20th century. The contributing factors included:
1. The development of modern sciences and technology made an impact on the life of
the people and the functioning of the government.
2. The scientific Management movement founded by FW Taylor which began in the
USA, towards the 19th Century, gave great impetus to the study of Public
Administration
3. A third factor which significantly helped in the growth of the subject of Public
Administration was the gradual evaluation of the concept of welfare state. The
philosophy of state functions everywhere has now decisively shifted from the
traditional notion of laissez – faire to that of social welfare. Government functions
have largely increased.
4. The movement for governmental reform gathered momentum in the USA from the
early years of the present century which encouraged a steady development and growth
of an autonomous and specialised field of knowledge based on the structure and
functioning of public administration.
What is New Public Administration?
The new era of new public administration directed attention towards political or policymaking processes and specific public programmes. Like many other disciplines, in social
science, public administration was also shaken and influenced by the social turbulence and
crisis ridden period of the sixties. Since 1968, the evolving discipline of public
administration has come to be enriched by the emergence of what has come to be known as
the ‘New Public Administration.’ The literature on new public administration lays emphasis
on four [4] major themes namely relevance, value, equity and change.
1. Relevance – Public administration has traditionally been interested in efficiency and
economy. The new Public administration movement pointed out that the discipline
had little to say about contemporary problems and issues and therefore became
irrelevant. The new movement demanded radical syllabi change to facilitate
meaningful studies oriented towards the realities of modern day public life.
17
2. Value: The new era rejected the value neutral position taken by behavioural political
science and management –oriented public administration.
The new public
administrator should be less ‘generic’ and more ‘public’ less ‘descriptive’ and more
‘prescriptive’ institution oriented and more ‘client-impacted oriented’, less ‘neutral’
and more ‘normative’.
3. Social Equity: New Public administration clearly states that the distributive functions
and impact of governmental institutions should be public administration’s basic
concern. The aim of Public action should be reduction of economic and social
disparities and the enhancement of life opportunities for all social groups inside the
organization.
Writers like Frederickson take a bold action-oriented stance inviting Public Administrators to
work for the removal of the wrongs of society and openly side with the socially deprived
groups.
4. CHANGE: To bring the cause of social equity is to actively work for social change. This
is considered as the motto of new public administration. The attack is on the status quo and
against the powerful interests entrenched in permanent institutions [Sapru R.K. 2012, pages
370-386].
ON GOING CONCERNS
The foregoing discussion proves that public administration has come a long way since 1887.
It has really established it’s credentials as an autonomous field of enquiry, with an everexpanding literature and concerns which have greatly influenced it’s evolution as an
academic discipline.
Scholars of public administration have sought to borrow a lot from other disciplines,
making it truly inter-disciplinary in nature. Organisational dynamics also draws heavily on
the management sciences. Public administration has faced both empirical and normative
thrust from time to time. It has also incorporated much new developments from the field of
policy sciences.
Though public administration is not even a hundred years old, it has been marked by a
growing output of literature mostly originating in the USA where the federal systems of
government, a relatively open social system and rapid technical change provide fertile ground
for reform movements and experimentation.
SCOPE
Public administration is concerned with the activities of all the three branches of government,
but the widely accepted view is that public administration is connected with the activities of
the executive branch only.
In the words of Marx, “at it’s fullest range, public administration embraces every area
and activity under the jurisdiction of public policy....By established usage, however the
18
form ‘public administration’ has come to signify primarily the organization, personnel,
practices and procedures, essential to effective performance of the civilian functions
entrusted to the executive branch of the government.”
It has much to do with the activities of the executive branch of the government at all levels
national, state and local.
Bibliography
1.GeraldCaiden,[1971] The Dynamics of Public Administration, Guide Lines to Current
Transformation in the Theory and Practice, Hoit, Rinehait and Winston, New York, page
25 to 31.
2. F.M. Marx [ed],[1964] Elements of Public Administration, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi, page 4.
3. Pfiffner and Presthus,[1960] Public Administration, the Ronald press co. New York, page
3.
4. L.D. White,[1955] Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, Macmillan Co.
New York, page 1.
5. Dimock E. Mashall,[ feb, 1937] The Study of Administration, “American Political
Science Review”, page 31 to 32.
6. J.M. Pfiffner,[1960] Public Administration, page 6.
7. Felix A. Nigro, [1965] Modern Public Administration, Harper and Row, New York,
page 12
8. John J. Corson and Joseph Harris,[1963] Public Administration in Modern Society,
McGraw-Hill, page 12.
9. Frank J. Goodnow,[1914] Politics and Administration, New York, Macmillan, page 22.
10. Gulick and Urwick [ed] [1937] Papers on the Science of Public Administration,
institute of Public Administration- Past and Emerging .
11. W.S. Sayer, [1958] “Premises of Public Administration-Past and Emerging”, Public
Administration Revise,18 page 102 to 103.
12. H.A. Simon, [1947] Administration Behaviour, Growell, Collien and Macmillan New
York.
13. R.A Dahl, [1947]“The Science of Public Administration: Three problems”, Public
Administration Review , page 1 to 11.
14. F.W. Riggs, [1961]The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia Publishing House,
Bombay.
19
15. The Honey Report and various commentaries on it have been published in Public
Administration Review, Vol XXVII, NO.4, November, 1967.
16. James C. Chailesworth [ed] [1968] Theory and practice of Public Administration:
Scope, Objectives and Methods, Philadelphia, the American Academy of Political and
Social Sciences, page IX.
17. Robert T. Golembiewski,[1947] Public Administration as a Developing Discipline,
Mancel Dekker, luc, New York, page 8 to 24.
18. R.S. Parker, [1965]“The End of Public Administration” Public Administration
[Sydney] 34, June, page 99.
19. F.M. Marx, Elements of Public Administration, page 5.
20. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public administration, page 3.
21. Pugh D.S. 1982, Organization Theory, Cox and Wyman, Great Britain, pages 15, 148166.
20
CHAPTER TWO: PRINCIPLE THEORIES AND APPROACHES IN THE STUDY
OF ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
In chapter two [2] of the course program, students will be required to understand the listed
below:

The students should be able to define a theory and understand the limits of a theory.

Students should be able to define classical theory, bureaucratic theory, scientific
management and human relations theory.

Students should be able to differentiate the above listed theories showing the
strengths and weaknesses of each theory.

Students should be able to point out clearly the criticisms of each theory and
underline the contribution of each theory to public administration as we know it
today.

Students will be required to know the detailed characteristics of each of the theory
referred to above.

Students should be able to identify each of the theories in the current administration
of institutions.
These theories covering classical theory, bureaucratic, scientific management, and human
relations in their own capacity have contributed highly to administration as we know it today.
Each theory contributes consciously and unconsciously to public administration.
(a) Classical Theory of organisation:
A “Theory” is an idea or set of ideas that tend to explain something about life or the world,
especially an idea that has not yet been proved to be true. It is a general principle [s] and an
idea [s] about a subject. An idea or opinion that someone thinks is true but for which they
have no proof [Dictionary Of Contemporary English, New edition, Advanced Learners,
page 1828].
Classic may mean standard, near to uniform in terms of ideas but with differences in the
presentation of ideas, but are similar in a way.
The other name of classic theory is structural theory, and the major authors in this theory is
Henry Fayol, Luther Gulick, L.F. Urwick, J.D. Mooney, A.C. Reiley and etc.
The most important concern for classical theorists was the formulation of certain universal
principles of organisation. This theory deals with the formal organisational structure. The
theory assumes that there are certain fundamental principles on the basis of which an
21
organisation can be established to achieve a specific objective. The two important wards in
this theory are efficiency and economy. The principles tried to state that if the two words are
adopted and used wisely, the result will be maximum organisational efficiency and economy.
Fayol attempted to critically discuss classical theory, [1841-1925], he said management was
an under taking common to all human activities.
He argued that management was a
teachable, theory dealing with planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and control
of all works process. Fayol’s theory of management is after considered the first complete
one. Fayol was concerned with the job of the Chief Executive and pinned his faith in the unit
of command. Henry Fayol divided all activities in an organisation under six [6] groups,
technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and administrative.
Fayol in his book, General and Industrial Administration, he discussed fourteen principles
of organisation, as listed here below:

Division of work: Division of work put emphasis on specialization as a natural
thing in the world order, The purpose of division of labour was to produce quality
and specialized work. Division of work brings in an aspect of a worker
concentrating on specific tasks which one is required to know very well and
execute them with a high level of skill and knowledge.

Authority and responsibility: Fayol defined authority as ‘the right to give order
and the power to exact obedience’. [Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 103]. Authority carries
with it responsibility by the authority holder. Those who fail to follow orders must
be given sanctions.

Discipline: Discipline carries with it obedience, application, energy, behaviour
and respect of good orders given to an individual in accordance with the standing
agreements. As a result, discipline is what comes out of one’s actions which are
guided. Discipline brings unity and a focus in what is to be achieved.

Unity of Command: an individual employee must receive orders from one single
supervisor if order and discipline is to be achieved, this makes the workers to
predict every course of action at work place and can control abuse of employees.
It’s a known factor that dual commands are very common almost in every case at
home, school, company both small and large thereby result in confusion and
frustrations and failure to make any single meaningful development.

Unity of direction: this idea is usually expressed as ‘one head and one plan for a
group of activities having the same objective’ [ Hugh D.S. 1982, pg 107]. A group
22
that has two heads is a monster, and there are high chances of the institution
failing to achieve its objectives. Unit of command should not be confused with
unity of direction the two mean two different things in the life of an organisation.

Subordination of individual interest to general interest: This point attempts to
advice that the interest of an individual or group of individuals should not take and
over shadow the interest of a given organization. Staff who enter a firm must to
gather set aside their interest and focus on the interest of a firm, its survival and
growth will be a benefit to all employee, its demise will leave all employees
without work. Its true to say ignorance, ambition, selfishness, laziness, weakness
and all other human passions and vices causes the general interest to be lost and
thereby cause the firm to lose direction and purpose of existence.

Remuneration of personnel: This should be considered as a price or reward for
the services rendered to the company by the employees. The reward should be fair
to both parties the employee and the company, as both are required to survive and
move on. There is need for bonus and profit sharing between the employees and
the company, non should disadvantage the other party.

Centralisation: for Fayol centralisation belongs to the natural order, the centre of
the organisation is the brain from which everything starts from in terms of
operation. Without the centre holding to power and deciding what to do, then
there will be disorganization and disorder. ‘Centralization is not a system of
management good or bad of itself, capable of being adopted or discarded at the
whim of managers or of circumstances, it is always present to a greater or les
extent. The question of centralization or decentralization, is a simple question of
proportion, it is a matter of finding the optimum degree for the particular concern’
[Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 114].

Scalar chain which means a laid down hierarchy: This is the flow of authority
from the chief executive to the lower man or woman in the rank of authority. This
is the route followed by authority in a given institution, small or large, private or
public, all official communication may follow this path. This path comes into
being because of the principle of unity of command.

Order: For Fayol he coined order to mean ‘a place for everything and everything
in its place’ and it may mean ‘a place for everyone and everyone in his place’
[Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 118]. In view of the forgoing, one would see that order is
23
very important for everything, persons, materials, plans and anything to be done
must at all times follow an agreed pattern of doing things. Where ever, there is no
order, things will not move in the right direction, and everything and everybody
will be affected in a way.

Equity: One might ask, why equity and not justice? Justice attempts to put into
practice already established conventions, which might not for see everything else
that might happen, these will need to be interpreted or bring out their inadequacy
with a view to supplement them. The desire for equity and equality in dealing with
all employees is need for core existence and for peace and progress. Where people
feel and see that they are not being treated fairly, they will be a spirit of rebellion
and conflict which will result in affecting the operation of the organization.

Stability of tenure of personnel: The employee needs to be sure that the job is
his or hers, otherwise there will be no commitment to the tasks to be done. A
worker needs to be sure that the job is his or hers and cannot be taken without a
reasonable cause. Insecurity will lead to non commitment to work and lack of best
performance. ‘Instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and effect of
bad running. In common with all the other principles, therefore, stability of tenure
of personnel is also a question of proportion’ [Hugd D.S. 1982, pg 120/121].

Initiative: Thinking out a very good plan and put it into practice and it works is
one of a factor to motivate an employee and create future platform, where success
is the target. Initiative is the power to think and execute your thoughts into a
successful action that benefits the organization and brings motivation to the
thinker to bring many more ideas that will bear fruit. Blocking initiative is a
danger to the organization and the individual himself or herself.

Esprit de corps: meaning a common spirit of comradeship, enthusiasm, and
devotion to a cause among the members of a group. Others have said ‘union is
strength’ [Hugh D.S. 1982, pg 121]. Harmony, union among the staff of a given
company will raise moral and will move the workers to put in their best. Unity of
command is one fundamental principle to be observed and taken serious, while the
pitfall will be the misguided interpretation of the motto ‘divide and rule’ and the
abuse and misuse of written communication that may provoke the workers and set
them high to raise against the institution [ Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 121].
24
Mooney and Reileys worked on onward Industry as a pioneering work on the development of
organisation theory and is considered the first coherent approach to the establishment of an
organisation universally. Mooney argued that organisation structures are based on a system
of superior- subordinate relationships arranged in a hierarchical order. This he called scalar
principle. This means in every organisation there is a grading of duties in a varying degree of
authority and corresponding responsibility. The scalar chain constitutes the universal process
of coordination through which the supreme coordinating authority becomes effective
throughout the entire structure. The scalar process has its own principle process and effect.
These they termed as Leadership, delegation and functional definition.
The other two known writers who have contributed to classical theory are Luther Gulick and
Lyndal Urwick. Gulick defined major management techniques by the ward POSDCORB.
Each letter of the word stands for a different technique covering planning, organising,
staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
Gulick talks of ten principles of organisations, namely:

Division of work or specialisation: Division of work was targeted to bring
specialization at a place of work. Specialization makes workers sharp their skills
and increase efficiency in work performance. Among the ten [10] principles of
administration, Gulick has put emphasis on the principle of division of work as
supreme foundation to administration. He argues that division of work is the basis
for every organization, it makes organization easy and predictable, as you divide
work to officers, you also place responsibility on such officers, and it’s the reason
why we organize. Work division means that the job to be carried out is broken
into its component functions and further each component function is to be broken
into simple and clearly repetitive activities or tasks to be carried out by specific
officers who are also responsible for such [D. Ravindra Prasad and others Ed.
2012, pgs 84/85].

Base of departmental organisations: Organizations are better run when they are
streamlined in departments. The departments are divided in accordance with
specializations found in the organization.
25

Coordinating through hierarchy: the best way to coordinate the activities of any
organization is by following hierarch which is a clearly established channel of
organization.

Deliberate coordination: Coordination should be planned and deliberately taken
to make things work out in a given system of doing things.

Coordination through committees: Gulick finds coordination done by a
Committee to be helpful and neutral in nature, individuals when given duties tend
to do it their way, which may not be the way for the entire organization.
Committees regulate each other and minimize each other as they attend to
business in an impersonal way.

Decentralisation: For Gulick decentralisation was taking power to where the
people are and the tasks are carried out, this avoids remote control and brings
reality to the workers who are on the spot to decide what to do and when to do it.

Unity of command: Unity of command entails that one superior only gives
instructions to a particular subordinate or official under him, this makes the
subordinate to be focused and know what is expected of him at a given time.
Where several bosses give instructions to one worker or subordinate, the
subordinate will be confused, and over loaded with work thereby make him or her
to be inefficient.

Staff and line: in an hierarchy, the central hierarchy of the organization is called
‘line’, while those that fall on the margin, are known as ‘staff’ and ‘auxiliary’
agencies. The term ‘line’ is drawn from military organization where in line refers
to command. The hierarchy, which commands the military forces in the battle
field is known as line. Those agencies which help the commanders are known as
‘staff’ and ‘auxiliary’. The difference between the two kinds of services is
essentially based on the type of work performed by the different branches or units
of a department or agency. Most of the functions performed by the several
divisions or units of an agency are regulatory or operational meant for the
achievement of line services. Besides, in any given department or agency there are
certain housekeeping activities, institutional or managerial activities without the
performance of which the substantive function of the department cannot be
achieved. These activities are known as staff [Rumki Basu, 2007, pg225].
26

Delegation: Delegation may mean the transfer of professional duties to your
subordinate to perform on your behalf, while you still remain responsible and
answerable.
Delegation makes work to move fast, as you also train your
subordinates, while you may not be sure of the quality of work to be produced,
and you over load yourself as you will need to cross check all work done for you
to be sure before you adopt it as your own work [Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 186].

Span of control: the term refers to the number of subordinates one is capable of
supervising in performing his/her duties. This covers the number of direct,
habitual communication contacts between the chief executives of an enterprise
and his or her principle fellow-officers. For specialized works you can only
supervise few subordinates, while to perform unskilled tasks, you can supervise a
little more subordinates [Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 188].
BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
Max Weber’s bureaucratic model continues to be the most dominant paradigm in Public
Administration. The word ‘bureaucratic’ comes from the French Ward ‘bureaucratic’.
The classical writing on bureaucratic can be traced to several sources which include Marx,
Max Weber and Roberts Michaels. Karl Marx attempted an explanation of bureaucracy in a
scientific manner as he did of every term that he used. Marx examined it, as Weber tried to
do as an ideal type which can exist only in abstraction, but as a set of relationships that arise
in a specific socioeconomic context.
“The bureaucracy is a circle from which no one can escape. Its hierarchy is a hierarchy of
knowledge. The top entrusts the understanding of details to the lower levels, whilst lower
levels credit the top with understanding of the general and so all are mutually deceived”.
Bureaucracy as an organisational model was first developed systematically by Max Weber,
an eminent “German Sociologist in the nineteenth century. In his words, every organisation
can be defined as structure of activities [means] directed towards the achievement of certain
objectives [ends].
The bureaucratic form of organization in the words of Weber is distinguished by the
following structural and behavioural characteristics:
27
1. Division of Labour: This reflects the competences that officials have, based on
qualifications and special training.
2. Hierarchy: hierarchy is the second fundamental characteristic which is the feature of
any bureaucratic form of organisation. There is a clear separation between superior
and subordinate office, the higher office supervise the lower office.
3. Rules: bureaucracy operates on the basis of laid down rules. The role of rules was
stressed by Weber.
4. Rationality: Weber’s views on efficiency and rationality are closely related to his
typical model of bureaucracy. The state is the most rational form of administration.
5. Impersonality: The system has no room for personal whims, fancies or irrational
sentiments. Official activity is conducted in a business manner with a high degree of
operational impersonality.
6. Rule orientation: Rationality and impersonality are mainly achieved through
formulation of rules and procedures which clearly define official spheres of authority
and conduct, which the employees are to rigidly maintain in carrying out their duties.
7. Neutrality: Bureaucracy is supposed to be non political and neutral in its orientation
and support to the political regime it serves. It is also value-neutral committed only to
the work it is meant to perform.
CRITICISM
The bureaucratic theory of organisation is criticised along several lines.
1. The formal aspect of the bureaucracy wears down efficiency as compared to informal,
was the observation of behavioural theories like Herbert Simon.
2. Bureaucracy tends to have internal contradictions for example expertise and
obedience based on discipline.
3. Bureaucracy has weakness for not paying attention to human behaviours, relations,
morale and motivational factors.
4. Bureaucracy ignores the whole range of socio cultural environment and behavioural
characteristics of large formal organisations.
5. Bureaucracy is characterised by a passion for routine in administration, the sacrifice
of flexibility to rules, delays in the making of decisions and the refusal to embark
upon experiments.
28
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR - SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
Scientific Management and its early advocates
Productivity emerged as a serious business problem during the first few years of the
twentieth century. Business was expanding and capital was readily available, but labor
was in short supply. Hence, managers began to search for ways to use existing labor
more efficiently. In response to this need, experts began to focus on ways to improve
their performance of individual workers. Their work led to the development of Scientific
Management. Some of the earliest advocates of Scientific Management are Frederick
Winslow Taylor [1856-1915], Frank Gilbreth [1860-1924], Lillian Gilbreth [1878-1972],
Harrington Emerson [1853-1931]. Taylor played the dominant role.
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Taylor gave up going to college and started his career as an apprentice pattern maker and
Mechanist. He joined a steel company called Midvale in Philadelphia as a Mechanist in
1878 and rose to a position of Chief Engineer after earning himself a degree in
engineering through evening classes. He made high speed steel cutting tools and spent
most of his life as a consulting engineer.
Taylor is generally acknowledged as the “Father of Scientific Management” because he
was the first to advocate the adoption of scientific methods in the field of industrial work
process and management to promote industrial efficiency and economy. His experience as
an apprentice, a common laborer, a foreman, a master mechanic and then Chief Engineer
of a steel company gave Taylor a chance to know first hand the problems and attitudes of
workers and to see the great possibilities of improving organizations. His major concern
was basically promoting efficiency of production. He was concerned with organization
improvements and believed that this could be achieved through recruiting of qualified
staff.
What motivated Taylor to come up with Scientific Management?
Taylor developed his theory of "Scientific Management" as he worked his way up from a
laborer to a works manager in a US steelworks.
From his observations, Taylor made three key assumptions about human behavior at
work:

Man is a rational economic animal concerned with maximizing his economic
gain, the question normal human beings always ask is what is my gain as I work
for the organization? Is my gain equal to the effort and risk am putting in the
organization? If the input does not equal the output in terms of gain, employees
will also put in less, if the gain is high, employees naturally will consciously or
unconsciously going to put in more too. This is something that friends or
management may not influence as its related to the two the input and gain.

People respond as individuals, not as groups, here the assumption is that no
matter how much you want to influence fellow employees to raise against the
29
organization, at the end of it, whatever decisions employees will take are decisions
reached by each individual, as much as others may attempt to influence others,
finally each individual will choose what to do, either join the strike or riot or
ignore depending on the decisions of each individual employee.

People can be treated in a standardized fashion, like machines, Taylor here
believed that human beings whether man or woman are made in the image of one
person, so they are the same, whatever one does, the other person can as well do,
thus he designed work procedures to be followed by all in the work place, this
would mean persons had the potential to achieve the same at work as long as they
put in their best, and supervisors would expect similar output from all workers.[
Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 130].
Taylor had a simple view about what motivated people at work - money. He felt that
workers should get a fair day's pay for a fair day's work, and that pay should be linked to
the amount produced [e.g. piece-rates]. Workers who did not deliver a fair day's work
would be paid less [or nothing]. Workers who did more than a fair day's work [e.g.
exceeded the target] would be paid more.
The implications of Taylor's theory for managing behavior at work were:

The main form of motivation is high wages, linked to output, Taylor believed that
High wages motivate employees to put in the best at work, not considering that they
are other factors that may influence performance at work, other than money.

A manager's job is to tell employees what to do, the thinking here was that its
Managers that think and plan the work, the job of the worker is simply to carry out
lawful instructions without questioning the thinking of the Manager.
 A worker's job is to do what they are told and get paid accordingly, to Scientific
management theory the workers simply carry instructions without any single
modification, what one is told to do does it in that manner and gets paid for what he has
done. [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 129].
 Fundamental Assumptions of Scientific Management
[i] Industrial processes can be made open to scientific observation and experimentation.
The work procedures of labor can be reduced to basic motions to ascertain the
longest, shortest and average time needed for each motion, for example walking a
stretch of 10 meters, bending down to pick up something, etc.
[ii] The standard time prescribed for each operation can be used to achieve a designated
standard of efficiency and economy.
[iii] The workers can be trained in the best methods for achieving the industrial
objectives, by
the management.
Taylor's 4 Principles of Scientific Management
After years of various experiments to determine optimal work methods, Taylor proposed
the following four principles of scientific management:
30
[a] Development of a Scientific Method for each element of a person’s work to
standardize work methods and replace the old rule of the thumb.
This was to be achieved by scientifically investigating the working conditions and
total quantum of work to be done in any enterprise in a given period, and then fixing
daily task assignments so that work may be done in a planned way, with higher
productivity and lower unit costs. A worker who achieves optimum level of
production must be rewarded, but if he fails to increase his output, he should be
punished.
[b] Scientific Selection, Training and Development of workers
Taylor argued that workers must be scientifically selected, trained and placed in jobs
for which they are best suited by their physical and intellectual abilities. This,
according to Taylor would ensure high productivity and efficiency in organizations [
Rumki Basu 2007, pg 130].
[c] Equal Division of work and responsibility between management and workers
Taylor had noted in his observations that managers placed increasing burden on the
workers, while assuming for themselves only minimum responsibilities. Equal
division did not mean everybody doing the same work. It simply meant that
managers must take over all work for which they are better suited and better trained
e.g. planning, organizing, controlling, directing and determining work methods. This
is in the same way that men and women in a family setting share work according to
their abilities, disposition and training [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 130].
[d] Mutual cooperation between workers and managers
There must be active cooperation and cordial relations between managers and
workers. This is the responsibility of both management and workers. Taylor believed
that by maximizing the productive efficiency of each worker, scientific management
would also maximize the earnings of workers and employers and hence all conflict
between capital and labor would be resolved by the findings of science [ Rumki Basu,
2007, pg 130/131].
Successes of Scientific Management
[a] Taylor’s principles were implemented in many factories, often increasing productivity
by a factor of three or more. Henry Ford applied Taylor's principles in his automobile
factories, and families even began to perform their household tasks based on the
results of time and motion studies. For example, in homes when you are baking you
use time and motion to ensure that your cake comes out well. When writing
examinations especially practical examinations, you also apply time and motion.
[b] According to its proponents, Scientific Management became the accepted
management philosophy because:
31

It provided a response to labor unrest and production problems that prevailed
at the time.

Its labor-oriented features won its acceptance by managers.
[c] Scientific Management had a strong and positive impact on administrative thought
and practice and was an important step in the evolutionary development of
management thought. Its growth can be measured by the growth of a science of
management through the application of scientific method.
[d] Scientific management helped economies in the USA , Soviet Union and Europe
to grow because of the increased productivity in industries and the harmonious labor
relations brought about by Taylor’s ideas.
Drawbacks of Scientific Management
[a] While scientific management principles improved productivity and had a substantial
impact on industry, they also increased the monotony of work. The core job
dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback all
were missing from the picture of scientific management.
[b] While in many cases the new ways of working were accepted by the workers, in some
cases they were not. The use of stopwatches often was a protested issue and led to a
strike at one factory where "Taylorism" was being tested. Complaints that Taylorism
was dehumanizing led to an investigation by the United States Congress. Despite its
controversy, scientific management changed the way that work was done, and forms
of it continue to be used today.
[c] The basic ideals of scientific management and trade unionism were incompatible at
the time Taylor came up with scientific management.

Weaknesses in Taylor's Approach
[a] The First and most obvious weakness in Taylor's approach is that it ignores the
many differences between people. There is no guarantee that a "best way" will suit e
very one.
[b]
Secondly, whilst money is an important motivation at work for many people,
it
isn't for everyone. Taylor overlooked the fact that people work for reasons other than
financial reward. In addition, he ignored the human factor in management because
the workers wanted justice, status and opportunity above everything else, and as such
simply a rise in wages could not automatically lead to added efficiency.
[c] Thirdly, Taylor’s approach was mainly concerned with organizational efficiency
viewed in purely mechanistic terms. It completely ignored the human element in the
production process and treated workers like machines which can be programmed. It
is not practical to set standard time for the performance of each activity by all
individuals and use a “whip” to enforce your scheme.
[d] Fourthly, while scientific selection or merit recruitment based on technical
32
qualifications and competitive examination of workers is ideal, it does not guarantee
high performance or efficiency. Furthermore, although training of workers is vital, it
nevertheless can drain an organization’s resources without necessarily bringing any
returns. For example, if an organization spent its time, financial and material
resources to train workers who then decide to leave the organization thereafter, would
you say that such an organization has benefitted from its investment? It seems that
many organizations today prefer to engage people that are already trained and
experienced so that there is no loss of resources in training and development.
However, the question that may arise here is – can one guarantee the loyalty of such
an employee to the organization which did not train them?
[a] In addition, Scientific Management concerned itself mainly with production,
efficiency and managerial problems and ignored the psychological and emotional
problems of workers, the routine and monotony of their work, uncertainty of
employment etc. all of which affected their productivity.
[b] Finally, it has been argued that Scientific Management was only relevant during
Taylor’s time and it is archaic and unsustainable in today’s organizations.
[ Pugh D.S. 1982, pg 124-146].
HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY
This theory puts primary emphasis on human beings, psychological innovations and informal
group behaviour in contradiction to the structuralists, exclusive concern for the principles of
the organisation. It lays greater stress on the behaviour of role occupants in an organisation
than on the formal structure of the organisation.
The greatest single influence of human relations theory came from the Hawthorne experiment
which were carried out in the USA by Elton Mayo and his colleagues of the Harward
Business School in the late twenties and early thirties of this century.
The experiment offered a higher salary for much work, but workers only worked up to a point
of earning enough, they avoided over production that it will lead to retrenchments.
Men are motivated by a variety of factors, not purely economic in work and are influenced by
the social environment.
The results of Western Electric Company at Hawthorne in the USA is a historic land mark in
organisational theory since it helped to develop the Human Relations School of organisation,
which focuses on the human being as opposed to focusing on the formulation of the
organisations as a way to influence work performance. The human relations theory or
33
organisation rejects formal institutionalisation. It considers the informal, day to day function
of the structure more revealing than the mechanistic study of structure and principles of
organisation. It points out that the study of organisational behaviour is very complex process
which has to take into account, both economic and the non-economic variables. In case you
want to know the truth, all the realistic analysis of workers’ behaviour need to be considered,
all the factors motivating them to be studied. White while supporting human relations school
of thought, wrote, “it is the set of work relationships that grow out of the mutual interactions
of persons working together over a long period of time. The informal organisation is more
subtle, reflecting such matters as social and economic status, race or language differences,
educational levels and personal likes and dislikes. The formal organisation tends to be
rational and impersonal, than informal, emotional and personal. The two usually overlap,
may nearly coincide, or may be far apart, [Rumki Basu, Public Administration Concepts
and Theories, page 140].
Abraham Maslow has also contributed to Human Relation School of thought by bringing in
motivation. Maslow arranged human needs in the hierarchy, the physiological and security
needs, and the higher order needs, the self-actualisation need. In between, there are social
and self esteem needs, which may be called middle order need to surface itself. The meaning
and implication of each of the five needs in the hierarchy versus physiological, security,
social, esteem and self actualisation. A satisfied need is not a motivator. Maslow’s theory of
need hierarchy was criticised mainly on the grounds of sophistication and validity of his
research data and the order of hierarchy of needs. Some criticise that the needs from a lower
order to a higher order do not necessarily operate in the same order all the time. His concept
of self-actualisation is criticised as vague, imprecise and too general. However, all these
theories, they have made a contribution or two, to theories of management and public
administration.
HIERARCHY [SCALAR PRINCIPLE]
Any organisation entails essentially the division of functions among people. The distribution
of functions and responsibilities can be both horizontal and vertical. When additional levels
are added in an organisation structure, its called vertical expansion. But when more functions
or more positions are added without increasing the number of levels like top management,
middle management, supervision and the other levels it is called horizontal growth.
The basic features of a hierarchical organisation may be stated as:
1. A person has only one superior from whom he/she receives orders and instructions.
34
2. No intermediate level [of authority]
3. A job incumbent who is given responsibility for getting a work done is also endowed
with authority which equals his or her responsibility
4. The entire administrative organisation is divided in successive units and sub units.
5. It is structured in a pyramidal form
6. Authority, command and control in the organisation descends from the top down
wards step by step [ Rumki Basu, 2007, pg 185-221].
The need for the scalar system is important for two major reasons:
1. The division off work into its most economic parts with a view to pursue the ideal of
tasks specialisation is so essential to managerial philosophy; and
2. The patterns of integrating the voluminous behaviours and actions of the
specialisations into one combined effort.
AUTHORITY
Different organisations have different levels of authority, varying from one to ten or more.
The levels will depend on the type of work done, either clerical or manual work. Fayol
defined authority as “the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience’. [Robert C
Appleby, Modern Business Administration, page 154]. While Herbert Simon defined it as
‘the power to make decisions which guide the actions of another.’ Page 154. Authority is not
power, authority can be delegated while you cannot delegate power.
Weber in attempting to define authority he stated, ‘the probability that one actor within a
social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance’.
‘Impersonal control’ or authority on the other hand may mean, probability that a command
with a given specific content will be obeyed by a given group of persons [ Rumki Basu, 2007,
pg 191].
Authority can be considered as the right or power to delegate responsibility and it emanates
in a company from shareholders to the Board of Directors, and down the scalar chain.
There are three [3] types of authority namely Legal Rational Authority, Traditional Authority
and Charismatic Authority. The Legal Rational Authority rests in the Legality of normative
rules, meaning legal authority, in the other word the law gives authority to an office, and the
35
officer holding office exercises the authority. The authority as guided by the law. The legal
rational Authority draws its power from the law, you have to meet all the set standards in
order to occupy office, entry into office and removal from office will be based on the law and
not arbitrary.
Traditional Authority is passed on from one to another on the basis of inheritance and
lineage. This authority is for life and cannot be questioned even when the office holder goes
against the culture of the people. The practice of this authority at times goes against the
human rights and accepted international conduct, for example King Mswati is expected to
marry one woman every year till the time of his death, in a modern life with issues of HIV
and Aids, one may be considered out of order to have multiple partners, however, this act
takes place every year.
Charismatic authority, is one based on grace, may be strong at one time and may wither at
another time. Charismatic authority depends on loyalty, the moment loyalty goes down,
authority will go too. Charismatic authority will depend on the personality and influence to
make people move and tender in loyalty, here you cannot question, as soon as loyalty
disappear, power is lost too.
RESPONSIBILITY
Is an obligation to use authority to see duties or tasks that they are done. It is in another way
an obligation to perform duties owed to a person’s superior. Accountability is concerned with
the fact that each person who is given authority and responsibility must recognise that the
executive above him or her will judge the quality of his or her performance [Rumki Basu,
2007, pg 185].
When an officer accepts authority, a person donates the acceptance of responsibility and
accountability. The person or officer who is delegating requires subordinates to allow their
performance to be reviewed and evaluated and holds them accountable for results.
Any sound organisation attempts to define the power of its various members through rules
that control the conduct of its officers. Power is the ability of individuals [officers] or group
of officers to induce or influence the beliefs or actions of others. This ability may be derived
from various sources of rules and a manager must understand these rules and further develop
36
them in order to gain and maintain the support of followers and understand the social
relationships among them.
Power exists in many ways namely legitimate power, reward power, exercise power and
information power. Other forms of power, covers expert powers, connection powers, and
referring power.
DELEGATION
Delegation may mean entrusting of one’s occupational authority to another, usually a
subordinate, to facilitate work in the organisation. Authority is always delegated to officers
of a lower rank who should always be accountable for the use of the delegated powers to the
person who delegates them. Delegation of authority is a common feature in all types of large
organisations. For Mooney, delegation is the devolution of authority by a superior person to
his agent or subordinate, but must always supervise and control his subordinate. Delegate is
not a final transfer of power and responsibility to the delegated authority.
Why delegate?

No one person can carry out all tasks in an organisation

Way to avoid delays in administrative bottle necks

In some cases proper adjustment of policy and programme to local conditions requires
discretionary field decisions

As a way to train and educate his subordinates in the out of sharing responsibilities
and making decisions, which is possible only through delegation

Lack of time or energy

Complexity of rules and new techniques means specialists are needed

Need for training for management succession
What are the disadvantages of delegation?

Can be a source of spreading rumours as many members of staff will have access to
information on files delegated to other staff.

You are not assured of competent work, as some officers delegated to will either be
new in the system of less qualified to handle such matters.

You over load yourself, as you have to check again all the work done by others,
thereby slowing down your work pace and speed.
37

Can bring conflict between the boss and those delegated to who will feel used by
there boss who claims all the credit for work done.

It encourages the boss to be lazy as he will pass all the files to others.
CENTRALISATION
Refers to the withholding of delegated authority at the centre. This may mean all operations
are done under one roof or one location. The degree of centralisation to be adopted is not
easy to determine, it various from one organisation to another. Centralisation slows decision
making and results in having development at the centre while the outside may not see any
single meaningful development.
DECENTRALISATION
Decentralisation should be distinguished from delegation. Decentralisation may mean the
transfer of administrative authority from the centre to local agencies, who function
autonomously in the field. While delegation on the contrary, implies devolution of authority
by a person to his agent or subordinate subject to his right of supervision and control.
Delegation is distribution of power of functions and not authority and responsibility, which is
delegated only in decentralisation. Creation of institutions like local authorities is not
decentralisation, till authority and power to make decisions is passed on to the local authority,
its at this point that we can talk of decentralisation.
There are two major defects of centralisation:
1. Remoteness of control resulting from loss of contact with Local centres.
2. Top heavy management or over load of work at the centre
Advantages of decentralisation:
1. It helps in the extension of popular control over a large number of functions
2. Facilitates the adjustment of national policies
3. Gives powers to the local units and encourages speedy disposal of cases
4. Decentralisation brings administration closer to the people encouraging participation.
Disadvantages of decentralisation:
38

You may not find suitably qualified and experienced staff in some rural areas to
employ and do the work.

Once the little resources are spread to all districts the impact of such little funds to
bring development may not be meaningful

You may encourage tribalism and nepotism as other tribes who have settled in those
local areas may be slide lined in employment and involvement in local matters.

The centre may have difficult to supervise the local areas which are far apart and etc
COORDINATION
In the words of Mooney, coordination “is the orderly arrangement of group effort to provide
unity of action in the pursuit of a common purpose”.
Coordination is needed for three main reasons:
1. Prevent over lapping, conflict and constant interdepartmental functions
2. Enable the employees to take a broad over view of administration instead of a narrow
departmental one
3. To ensure that the right people and right resources are available in the right quantity
in the right circumstances at the right time.
Mac Farland has proposed four (4) major ways of achieving effective coordination:

Clarifying authority and responsibility: one way to achieve coordination is to
ensure the supervisor clearly specify the authority of all involved in a task and
each one understands where his or her authority end to avoid over lapping and
specify each officer’s responsibility so that non does the other person’s work.

Checking and observation: as officers carry out their duties the supervisor must
check and observe that non takes tasks to be done by another, this will strength
good work relation and coordination.

Facilitating effective communication: Coordination is almost impossible
without good and effective communication, communication makes everyone to
appreciate what others are doing, and also know to what extent one should do his
duties without interfering with other people’s duties.
39

Coordination through leadership: Coordination is not a duty for everyone,
coordination is done through leaders who are supervisors. Good leaders know
their responsibility in coordinating the work and the result is effective
performance, which is supervised and coordinated by the Leaders.
There are two [2] major means of coordination:

Planning: Coordination is only possible if work is planned, and each person
knows his or her duties according to the plan. The plan gives guidance of what is
to be done, when is it to be done, and by whom is it to be done. This process
brings coordination and steady performance of duties.

Sound principles of organisation: The organization may have a good written
plan and officers are given details how to work within the plan, if the institution
has no principles to guide in performance of duties, coordination will break as
there are no rules or principles to guide workers in performing their tasks. Rules
and principles, play the role of control of excesses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rumki Basu, Public Administration, Concepts and Theories, 2007, New Delhi,
India, pages 128-153, 185 – 221.

Robert C Appleby,[1994] Modern Business Administration, Kent, China, pages
144-168, 132-143.
CHAPTER THREE: DYNAMICS IN ADMINISTRATION
This chapter will introduce leadership to the students. The term ‘leadership’ may mean a lot
of things and no single author explains all details on what leadership may comprise in full.
The major objectives of the topic on leadership among others include:

Students should be able to define the word leadership.

Students should be able to give the different types of leadership that exist.

Students should be able to identify and discuss the different qualities that leaders
may have.

Students should be able to discuss and know the behavioural theories of leadership.

Students should be able to discuss theories X and Y and know their impact and
influence on leadership.
40

Students should be able to know what Peter Principle advocates and teaches, and of
what use is this principle to leadership.

Students should be able to discuss whether leaders are born or made out of training.

Students should be able to outline and critically discuss the known characteristics of
leaders.
While the lecturer will introduce students to leadership, It’s important that each student finds
time to read widely on leadership.
What is Leadership?
Leadership is a means of directing .A Leader’s actions are directed to helping a group to
attain its objectives. Leadership is the ability of management to induce subordinates to work
towards group goals with confidence and keen interest. Leadership may mean that the
Leader accepts responsibility for the achievement of the group objective and it is therefore
essential for trust and cooperation from both sides to be in evidence all the time.
What are the types of leaders that exist?
So far, leadership appears in two forms or type known as authoritarian and democratic.
These two can either be formal or institutionalised or informal.
The Authoritarian Leader gets others to do things by giving them orders and threats, or little
scope to influence decisions. He or she uses fear, threats, and his authority and personality to
get his way to what he/she wants done. On the other hand, the democratic leader seeks to
persuade and considers the feelings of persons and encourages their participation in decision
making.
Studies over the years have shown that the democratic methods gives followers greater job
satisfaction and enables them to co-operate better but there is doubt as to whether decisions
taken under this sort of leadership are better. Recent studies are more doubtful about
democratic leadership because outside influences for example government, consumers, exert
pressure and if a leader becomes too employee – centred, production may suffer and morale
fall.
Leadership can be formal, having delegated authority, and can exert great influence. Informal
leaders can initiate action, but do not have the same authority. The choice of a leader should
be based on an accurate diagnosis of the environment, taking into consideration that effective
Leadership depends upon many conditions.
What are the qualities of a Leader?
No two persons would ever agree on the desired qualities, as almost every human strength or
virtue will be required. The elements of persuasion, compulsion and example may be
considered to be essential to effective leadership.
41
Lord Montgomery, in his book “Path To Leadership”, noted that ‘.... one who can be
looked up to, whose personal judgement is trusted, who can inspire and warm the hearts of
those he leads, gaining their trust, and confidence and explaining what is needed in a
language which can be understood”.
As for Chester Bernard in his function of an executive considers a leader as one who has
skill, technology, perception, knowledge, physique, memory, imagination, determination,
endurance and courage.
It should now be clear to everyone that the Leadership qualification that are needed in a
particular situation are not usually found in any one individual. From this hypothesis it can
be seen that, if a particular vacancy has to be filled, the strengthens and weaknesses of the
person who is being appointed should be considered, along with those of the people he will
be working with, as no single person may have all the qualities in himself or herself.
In view of the foregoing, a successful leader therefore can be considered to be perceptible and
flexible and able to act appropriately, in one situation he/she is strong, in another he/she is
permissive. It is worth noting also that the formal status of an individual does not indicate the
ability he has to influence others, as such ability is rather a combination of his position and
his personality.
What are the known behavioural theories of Leadership?
As we already know, a theory is an idea, opinion which has not been tested or proved. In this
regard one would say the theories of leadership begun when unique leaders’ traits were
questioned in the 1940s. It was considered that the qualities of leaders could be analysed
better by looking at their behaviour or their behavioural style that causes others to follow
them.
Trait theory?
A trait is a physical or psychological characteristic that counts for the behaviour of a person.
Trait theories grew out of quality found in greater or well known natural leaders, whom it
was thought were born with leadership qualities.
It was later agreed that if traits of natural leaders were identified, it would be possible for
others to acquire them through learning and experience.
The known social psychologists were interested in Leadership as an aspect of behaviour in
the work place and not just in personal characteristics. Two studies on leadership, which are
important, occurred at the University of Ohio and Michigan in the USA. The studies were
led by R. Stogdill and R. Likert and both concluded that there were two principle aspects of
Leadership behaviour namely:

A concern for people

A concern for production
42
These two studies led to the development of a matrix to depict managerial leadership styles.
The study concluded that in making an appropriate choice of how autocratic or democratic to
be, a manager needed to consider three sets of issues.


Personal concerns –own values, level of confidence, confidence in the subordinate

Subordinate concerns – subordinated needs for responsibility and independence,
then knowledge and interest of the problem at hand
Concern for the situation: nature of the problem, competences of the group in handling
the problem and time available
Leadership style as presented in theory X and theory Y by D. McGregor:
McGregor presents two theories of management based on the assumption of two human
characters. Theory X is a traditional view of direction and control, while Theory Y is the
integration of individual and organizational goals. In theory X, the argument is that in
every managerial decision or action are assumptions about human nature and human
behaviour.
Theory X assumes that:
[i] The average person has an inherent dislike or dislikes work and will attempt to avoid
work if possible, management has a responsibility to counteract an inherent human
tendency to avoid work.
[ii] People therefore must be coerced, forced, controlled and directed and threatened with
punishment in order to get them work towards organisation goals. The dislike of work is
so strong that even the promise of rewards is not generally enough to overcome it. People
have a tendency to accept rewards and demand continually higher ones, but these alone
will not produce the necessary effort. One will assume that the threat of punishment may
move people to do work.
[iii]The average person prefers to be directed and wants to avoid responsibility; he has if
any, little ambition and desires security above all.
In the views of McGregor he considered this approach was based upon wrong
assumption about motivation and theory Y was preferred which entails:
[i] Expenditure of physical and natural energy is as play or rest. Work can be a source of
satisfaction. Here we find that an average human being does not inherently dislike work,
they want work without supervision of any kind. Depending on the conditions available,
work may be a source of satisfaction, thus can be performed voluntarily, or could be a
source of punishment, thus will be avoided if possible.
[ii] People can exercise self direction and control to achieve objectives to which they are
committed. Here the argument is that external control and threats of punishment are not
43
the only means for bringing about effort toward organizational objectives. Man will
exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is
committed.
[iii] Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement, the thinking here is that the satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs,
can be direct product of effort directed towards organizational objectives.
[iv] Under proper condition people can learn to accept and seek responsibility. This
means that an average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept
but to seek responsibility. For anyone to avoid responsibility, lack of ambition and
emphasis on security are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human
characteristics.
(v) Ability to use imagination and creative thinking is widely distributed in the
population. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity
and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly,
distributed in the population.
(vi) The intellectual potential of the average person in industrial life is only partially
realized. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of
the average human being are only partially utilized.
One would in this view conclude that the practical manager can be helpful by analysing
various approaches to leadership styles, but he/she must come to his/her own conclusion
and adapt to the actual situation.
[ Pugh D.S. 1982, Organization Theory, pages 305-323].
WHAT IS CONTINGENCY OR SITUATIONAL THEORIES OF LEADRSHIP?
The most recent approach to understanding of leadership is based on the previous
behavioural theories. The theories state that the value of the actions of a leader depend
upon the actual situation in which actions are taken. An autocratic leadership approach
may, for example, be a situation for managers in a factory but not for managers of the
development and design staff.
This is known and called the contingency or situational approach, and attempts to
explain leadership within the context of a larger situation in which it occurs. This is in
contrast to earlier theories which concentrated on the behaviour of leaders.
Research into leadership by F. Fiedler in Ohio, USA, has been summarized in his book
‘A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness [1970, McGraw-Hall]. Leaders are placed on a
scale depending upon whether they are task-oriented or people-oriented. R. Likeit was
involved in these investigations and he finds this approach to conform to research by
others. This showed that whenever foremen created an atmosphere which contributed to
44
discussion of work problems in a relaxed, national way, when they had time to discuss
personal problems Leaders could stand up and support their men, the result showed the
workers had a higher satisfaction and low absenteeism.
Fiedler suggested that the extent to which a manager should be democratic or
authoritarian in leadership style related to:
[a] The authority and power he had in his position as manager because he/she has the
right to hire dismiss and reward.
[b] The extent and nature of the interpersonal relations between the leader and members
of the group, for example, high as on a conveyor assembly while low or unstructured as
on investigation, needing wide discretion.
In this contingency or situational theory of leadership, he suggested that where relations
between members and leaders are good and the task basically unstructured and the power
of the leader weak, his style should be more democratic and considerate. If the opposite
was the case, then more authoritarian style would appear to be appropriate.
WHAT PETER PRINCIPLE ADVOCATES AND WHAT IT TEACHES?
There are people who arrive at a senior position through their abilities, but these abilities
may not act to their advantage when they are there. This seems to reflect the approach
taken by Laurence J. Peter in his book the “Peter Principle”. Which states “in a
hierarchy, each employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence: Every post tends to
be occupied by an employee incompetent to execute his duties”. He illustrates this by
suggesting that usually competent workers become incompetent senior executives. The
fact is that there are competent person at the top of hierarchy, but only because there are
not enough ranks for them to have reached their levels of incompetence. This idea has
wide implications, particularly for management training, but must not be considered a
universal statement applying to all organization or persons.
LEADERSHIP TRAINING
Some abilities that leaders have may take a person to the top but may not work well for
him or her when he/she reaches the top. This means that any member of the team may
become a better leader if there are circumstances that enable him or her to perform the
needed functions of leadership, and different persons may contribute in a different way to
a leadership of the group. This implies that leadership is an organizational function rather
than a personal quality.
Training for leadership is organised around the eight elements. The eight [8]
elements are objective setting, planning, controlling, evaluating, motivating, organizing,
briefing and setting examples. Any good training for Leaders will take into account the
eight [8] elements, each element should be taught carefully so that the Leaders understand
the importance and value of each item
45








Objective setting: The objectives usually give direction to where the group
wants to go. This will only be achieved if the leader takes interest in setting good
and clear objective which are achievable and can easily be measured to see how
much you have achieved in terms of execution.
Planning: A plan gives the details of what a group wants to achieve, it will give
details of activities to be done, by whom, when and the cost of such activities.
The plan should be clear and detailed enough to be understood by every member
of the group.
Controlling: Control is very important, even where objectives and the plan are
clear, if there is no control, nothing will move, the leader must learn the art and
act of controlling other without putting their morale low. The control must be
within what the objective and plan intends to achieve.
Evaluating: The purpose of evaluation is to determine whether you are in line
with the objectives and the plan. The current thought is that as you begin to
implement the plan and the objectives, you begin to evaluate immediately, this
will help you to change direction the moment you see that you are off target, and
you will waste little resource than wait to go a long way in the wrong direction
and later return.
Motivating: A lot of workers and members of the teams always limit motivation
to receiving money or rewards, and yet, good work culture and practices can also
motivate people to higher standards. The good working environment can also
play a very important role in motivating those that are led.
Organizing: Organizing brings in the aspect of putting human resource, material
resource and financial resources where they are needed and at the right time and
in right quantities. This will avoid wastage and un necessary work stoppage due
to running out of necessary materials.
Briefing: Briefing may mean passing information to concerned personnel so that
they understand and appreciate what is going on, and why they are doing things
the way they are doing them. Lack of briefing results in speculations, rumours
and brings the morale of the team low, they lose direction and confidence.
Setting examples: You can only be a good leader if you understand the tasks
done by the group you lead. Since you know the tasks being done, you can do
them to show others what to do, thus leading by example. Even, before a mistake
is done, you will be able to know as you understand the whole process of doing
such an activity.
It should be noted that the idea of the model is to encourage a flexible approach to
leadership and he considers leadership to be more in the adopting of appropriate
behaviour than of person traits.
SYSTEMS APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP:
A system approach to leadership would require the leader, to follow a situation as interdependent units all engaged in the production of desired out puts, and would consider
46
what are the relationships involved and to what extent are they aimed at mutual goals?
There are several key factors to consider in a more modern approach that the leader and
the group adjust their behaviour dynamically to each other.
It is not easy to summarise briefly the various approaches, but it appears that no one type
of person, or set of personality characteristics, can be associated with successful leaders.
Factors which were considered important were found by examining the type of task
personally done, whether the leader is elected or appointed and any special competence of
the leader.
The last few years have seen a great deal of uncertainty confronting managers in their role
as leaders. Many factors which were usually considered fixed are now unpredictable.
Like many other authors on leadership, John C. Maxwell in his article, ‘Developing
the Leader in You’, [Nashville: Thomas Nelson, inc, 1993] pages ix, 201 and 202 has
attempted to list qualities of a successful leader as follows:




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

Uses his/her own power for good at the right time and in the right way: the
Leader uses his or her power for the good of the institution and at the right time.
He or she never uses public time and resources for private ends.
Is accountable for his/her mistakes: A good Leader accepts his mistakes, does
not look for praise, he or she attributes success to the group and not an individual.
One is accountable for his mistakes without pushing them under the carpet or
throwing them to his junior.
Is honest in not just large but the small things as well: Honest is to start with
small things then latter in big things, if one I not honest in small things how can
one be honest in big things? In big things its easy to cover up than in small things.
Motivates and inspires others: The Leader has an important role of motivating
others and giving them hope, if the Leader is the first to get discouraged then
everyone else will give up. The Leader give hope and motivation to others in the
group.
Leads by example: A good Leader leads by example, does not expect others to
do what he/she fail to do, what he or she fail to do, will not demand others to do,
what the leader does and achieves, will then motivate others to do after him or her.
Puts others first : The majority of Leaders, especially in the Political arena are
bad Leaders, they want to be worshipped and praised, they always want to get the
best out of the nation, some want to enjoy even in their death at the expense of
those they lead. Good leaders always put the needs of the lead first, and their
needs last, just like a good parent wants first his or her children to eat first and the
parent last.
Overcomes adversity: A good Leader always never give up, attempts to fight on
till it completely fails. The Leader who gives up to soon, discourages the group he
or she is leading. A good Leader has good determination and is focused to the
point.
47
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
Hold fast to integrity: Integrity is the standard expected of Leaders and other
employees. To build integrity takes along long time, to destroy integrity is a one
second business. Therefore, one who is a Leader needs to be careful of activities
one gets involved in, as some activities may spoil your good integrity built after a
long time.
Knows when to compromise without compromising principles: The world has
a big challenge as we encourage participation, which calls for compromise, a good
Leader may compromise on general issues but not principles of the organisation,
any compromise on the principles will affect the integrity, reputation and the
business ethics, and may damage the image of the company or group. The
principles on which the firm, company or group stands should never be
compromised.
Bibliography
Robert C. A Appleby, Modern Business Administration, 1994, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall,
London, pages 190 to 197.
John C Maxwell, 1993, Developing the Leader within You, Nashville, Thomas Nelson, inc,
pages ix, 201-202
Rumki Basu, 2007, 5th edition, Public Administration- concepts and theories, Sterling
Publishers private Limited, India page 233.
CHAPTER FOUR: PUBLIC PERSONAL ADMINISTRATION
This topic intends to introduce students of Public Health to Public Personal Administration.
The topic aims to make students familiar with the process of recruitment and selection. With
a focus on patronage versus merit systems, minorities in the job market and give sound
reasons why each ruling party in Africa claims the ownership on Civil Servants of their
respective countries.
This topic has several objectives among which are:

Students should have basic knowledge on the content of recruitment policies and
procedures.

Students should know generally important questions that should be considered in
developing questions for recruitment.

Students should know in details the recruitment and selection process.

Students should be able to outline and discuss the critical points to be considered on
job description.
48

Students should be able to discuss the whole process of selection and recruitment
from the time that the vacancy is filled.

Students should know the various tests that are necessary in the selection and
recruitment process.

Students should know the difference between patronage and merit system of
recruitment and be able to give the merits and demerits of each system.

Students should be able to know and identify the minorities on the job market and
create an environment in which all human beings will be treated in the same way in
the market.

Students should be able to know the general preparations that are required to be done
before an interview is set in motion.

Students should be able to explain in details the preparations that are made for an
interview.
Recruitment and Selection
This topic addresses and outlines the typical stages of recruitment and selection process in
organizations, and considers certain aspects of the process in greater details.
There is a difference between “recruitment” and “selection”. The main aim of recruitment is
to make sure that the organization‘s demand for employees is met by attracting potential
employees [recruits] in a cost effective and timely manner. The aim of selection is to identify,
from those
coming forward, the individuals most likely to fulfil the requirements of the
organization. To put it in another way, recruitment is concerned with assembling of the raw
materials and selection is the right blend for the organization, at a particular point in time.
RECRUITMENT: POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
Recruitment policies and procedures constitute the code of conduct which the organization is
prepared to follow in its search for possible recruits on the market place. Some good
examples of reputable policies in the field are as follows:

Advertise all vacancies internally before use of external sources.

Always advertise under the company name when advertising externally.
49

Endeavour to ensure that every applicant for a position in the Company or Ministry is
informed in advance about the basic details of the vacancy, and the basic conditions
of employment attached to it.

Endeavour to ensure that applicants are kept informed of the progress through the
recruitment procedure.

Seek possible candidates on the basis of their ability to perform the job required

Avoid making knowingly exaggerated or misleading claims in recruitment literature
or job advertisements.

Avoid discrimination or unfairness against possible candidates on the ground of sex,
race, age, religion or physical disablement.
The recruitment activities of an organization are carried out mainly by the human resources
officers. These activities represent the marketing role of human resource, reaching out across
the organization’s external boundaries into the labour market. It’s important, therefore, that
such activities are conducted in a manner that sustains or enhances the good reputation of the
organization.
What are the critical points to be considered on a job description?
ITEM QUESTION TO BE CONSIDERED
1
Has the vacancy been agreed by the responsible manager?
2
Is there an up – to – date job description for the vacant position?
3
What are the conditions of employment [salary, hours, holidays etc] for the vacant
position?
4
Has a candidate specification been prepared?
5
Has a notice of the vacancy been circulated internally?
6
Has a job advertisement been agreed? Have details of the vacancy been forwarded to
relevant agencies?
SELECTION PROCESSES:
In the recruitment process, there are six [6] stages namely: Man power planning, attracting
job candidates, selecting job candidates, medical examinations, engagement and finally you
induct the new employee into the organization through the laid down procedure.

Man power planning: Man power planning is a task for Human Resource
Department. A good and well run HRA always takes stock of its staff, by ensuring
50
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
they have a quarterly staff return, for all employees. This will ensure you know when
any single employee will retire and get replaced. Those on contract, you will know
when their contracts will come to an end and either renew or advice them to leave the
organization following laid down procedures. This is a very difficult task as its
difficult to know who will die or even resign from work, however, this should not
stop us from planning.
Attracting job candidates: this can be done through internal and external job
advertise. These should be put, in terms of external, in news papers that are read
widely.
Selecting job candidates: You can select job candidates either by interviews or
screening of curriculum vitae. Following the company or organization policy you may
be guided as to which method to use.
Medical examinations: Those applicants who are chosen may be subjected to
medical examinations, however, individuals should not be subjected to HIV/Aids tests
against the wish of the applicants. HIV /Aids tests may be taken by respectful
applicants voluntarily if there is a benefit to be received by those who are found
positive during the test.
Engagement: Those applicants chosen may at this point be saved with letters of
appointment to the organization. The letters will spell the conditions of engagement
and the formal way to separate, or disengage.
Induction: This is the method by which an organization introduces its new employees
to how the organization operates and works. This is a two way process, the worker is
introduced to the work environment and to the exactly tasks that an employee will be
performing in an organization.
THE SELECTION INTERVIEWS:
There are basically three [3] types of interviews namely selection interviews, appraisal
interviews and exist interviews. The three types of interviews are used for separate
reasons.
Selection interviews: This type of interview method is used when you want to recruit
persons in an organization. Individuals appear before a panel to assess their suitability for
employment to a vacant post.
Appraisal interviews: Carried out to assess the employees for promotion or for training
opportunity. The panel attempt to assess the suitability for promotion, or establish the
gaps in skills so that they are sent for further training, to improve skills and close the
gaps.
Exit interview: These are interviews to establish reasons why a particular employee has
resigned from employment.
When does interviews begin for an applicant?
51
Interviews for a serious applicant begins the moment you tender in your application, you
will need to begin gathering information about the institution and the particular post you
have applied for. You can collect information through the Public Relations office of the
organization or from any reliable source.
How to prepare for interviews as an applicant?


Collect all the necessary information that you may require during interviews.
The information to collect may cover, duties of the post, structure of the
organization, why the organization exist, salary structure especially for your
particular post, etc
 Prepare all your academic and professional papers
Know where the interviews will be held, timings for the interviews and the necessary
requirements to carry
SELECTION TESTS:
There are many types of tests given to effect a selection of employees, this paper will
attempt to given a brief on six [6] of the tests commonly used in Zambia, The
following are the Common tests used:
 Interview test: The most common method used is interview test, this can
either be oral or written, guided or unguided, random or specific.
 Psychological tests: Standard tests designed to provide a relatively objective
measure of certain human characteristics.
 Intelligence test: These are designed to measure the thinking ability. How one
can get from his or her brain what he or she has not been taught, purely using
intelligence.
 Aptitude tests: Basically are tests to measure innate skills, skills which exist
in a person before they are developed and put to use.
 Attainment tests: These measure the depth of knowledge the one has grasped
or acquired.
 Personality tests: Usually a choice of questions in response to theoretical
situations. Identify an individual’s principal personality traits or dimensions
for example introverts, sociable or isolate.
PATRONAGE VERSUS MERIT SYSTEM:
Basically there are two [2] major systems used in recruitment namely by patronage and by
merit.

Patronage: The term patronage may mean the power of employers, both public and
private, and elected officials of government to make appointments on partisan
considerations and to confer licenses, contracts, honours, franchises and other
benefits on political supporters, friends or relatives. One would say this system is an
52
incentive or ‘spoil system’ by filling of public offices with political supporters or a
favour to a political supporter.



What are the merits of patronage?
Allows for the appointment of people who are not only well qualified but are also
flexible and adaptable to the employer’s philosophy.
You employ someone you know and you are comfortable to work with and can trust.
You employ people that you know their capabilities and skills that they will bring in
the organization to put it on high.
What are the demerits of patronage?



This may compromise on efficiency in the organization as people without suitable
qualifications and relevant experience might be employed.
Officials employ without regard to suitability, as a result performance, nepotism and
corruption may destroy the organization.
The employee may not perform neither follow organizational rules as he or she feels
protected by the boss who single handed employed him or her.
Recruitment by Merit: Recruitment on the basis of merit principle by contrast, is
seen as selection of candidates on the basis of technical and professional
qualifications, competitive examination, equal opportunity and political neutrality.
Recruitment on merit means meeting the basic standards and requirements as
articulated by selection criteria that reasonably relates to work to be done. It is an
objective, and often quantifiable measure, requiring few value judgement apart from
the professional judgement of those involved in determining educational
qualifications or aptitude test standards.
Merit recruitment is usually associated with Max Weber’s model of Bureaucracy. His
argument was that a Bureaucrat should recruit the best personnel possible, and that
merit recruitment was the only criteria that guaranteed filling the available positions
with the most qualified personnel.



What are the demerits of merit recruitment?
Takes no account of the importance of harmony in the working relationship. People
are recruited without out considering how the new employee will relate with his
supervisors and other employees in the organization.
Possession of technical and professional qualifications alone does not necessarily
guarantee efficient performance.
You may recruit a person that you will need to teach the job, regardless of their
academic qualifications.
What are the benefits of Merit recruitment?

You tend to recruit employees purely on the basis of the set standards without
favouring your relatives and friends.
53


Work is done professionally
You accept to work with anybody who has the set qualification regardless of their
tribe, origin, etc
WHO ARE THE MINORITY IN THE JOB MARKET?
The term minority means any group of employees who are few in any given firm or
organization. These include the blind, the lame or physically challenged, the deaf,
uneducated, over qualified with no experience, foreigners with legal documents to be in the
country, and those who are properly qualified but lack experience as they are straight from
college and universities. These find it hard if not impossible to penetrate the job market
unless helped by those that know them.
HOW CAN YOU ENSURE THE MINORITY’S INTERESTS ARE PROTECTED IN
THE JOB MARKET?
The fact that the minority are discriminated against is a very serious issue, their human rights
are affected, and may live in their own country as if they are refugees. The government of the
day has a responsibility to protect the interest of the minority or disadvantaged. The
following measures can be taken to protect the minority in the job market:




Develop a system backed by a law which can be used by the minority to complain
about injustice and an immediate remedy be enforced to correct the situation.
Develop a system where all vacancies are advertised and a transparent method of
recruitment is used which removes all manner of favour and nepotism.
Stiffen the punishment for those practicing the evil.
Introduce monetary gains through reduction of tax by those who show details of the
minority accessing employment in such firms.
What should an organization do in preparing for interviews?
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Advertise in popular media all positions.
Short list suitable candidates.
Hire conference facilities in a good place.
Contact all the short listed candidates after fixing a day for interviews, better you
follow up with phone calls to be sure they have received invitation letters.
Inspect facilities at the hired conference.
Prepare scoring sheets in good time.
Confirm with the people on the panel that they will be available.
Ensure refreshments are of good standards.
Let the panel agree on how they will be scoring candidates during interviews.
Agree on ground rules to be followed during interview sessions.
54
RECRUITMENT PRACTICES IN THE ZAMBIAN CIVIL SERVICE:
The Zambian Civil Service has used both patronage and merit systems in recruiting Civil
Servants. Interviews has been applied as a tool to select would be employees to enter the
Civil Service, while all positions of Permanent Secretaries and Commissioners are filled on
patronage by each of the five [5] Presidents that Zambia has had, this has greatly dragged the
standing of the Civil Service to higher levels of compromise and mistrust by the General
Public. Of late Party interference in the recruitment of the Civil Servants has largely
increased, which results in the ruling Party claiming ownership of the Civil Service.
[Gary Dessler, 2011, pages 28-254]
CHAPTER FIVE: POLITICAL EDUCATION
This chapter will give a brief discussion of political education. Students of Public Health may
wonder whether it’s necessary that they have knowledge of political education. All public
workers including, health workers cannot avoid politics as their employer is government run
by politicians. In this regard, politics are a necessary evil that cannot be avoided. In real
sense, the topic is broad, but for the purpose of a student in Public Health, the requirement is
to know the basic concepts. In view of the foregoing, students will be required to know a list
of concepts.
The listed below are the objectives of the study in Political Education:






Students should be able to define, understand and explain to others the following
terms Parliament, Executive, Judiciary [Legal System] Marxist, Non – Marxist,
Pluralist, Theories, Democratisation, Good Governance, Elections, Electoral Systems,
Constitutions, Constitutionalism, Policy Design, Policy Decision Making, Policy
Implementation and Policy Evaluation.
Students should be able to understand and explain to others the core existence that is
found between Parliament, Executive and Judiciary in Zambia and other countries,
while using the differences on the interaction of the three arms of government
between developed countries and underdeveloped countries or third world countries.
Students should be able to understand, explain to others and appreciate the theories
and roles of the state covering Marxism, Non – Marxism and Pluralist theories.
Students should be able to understand, explain to others and appreciate the role of
democratisation as related to good governance and how the later may foster
development in a given nation.
Students should be able to explain the role elections and electoral systems may play as
an effective input on social economic development.
Students should be able to understand that a Constitution is a primary law of any
given country on which all other laws in that land point to.
55

Students should be able to understand that a policy is not what is on a piece of paper
in black and white, but the actual practices of a nation or an institution both local and
international.
Topic One: Administering National Government
The Zambian government has three arms of the government, namely the Executive, the
Legislature and the Judiciary. In general, and world over there are two [2] types of
Executive, namely the Parliamentary and Presidential. Zambia falls in the hybrid type, it
neither Parliamentary nor Presidential, combines some of the elements from the two [2]
major systems.
A careful analysis of the Cabinet and Presidential types of chief Executive reveals many
points of difference. In countries having the Parliamentary System of Government, the real
Chief Executive is the Cabinet, which is a plural body, power is not in a person but persons
that form Cabinet [Rumki Basu, page 233.]
The Prime Minister, who is the head of the Cabinet, is only a first among equals and regards
other members as his colleagues. Unlike, the Chief Executive in a Presidential system of
government is a single individual, the President. The US President has ten Secretaries in
charge of the ten administrative departments, his subordinates, not colleagues, and are
removable by him [Rumki Basu page 233].
The second difference between the two systems, Parliamentary system and Presidential
system is that the difference concerns the Executive-Legislature relationship. In a
Parliamentary government, the Members of the Parliament, the Members of the Cabinet are
also Members of the Parliament, in fact, they provide legislative and fiscal leadership to it,
the Ministers imitate, pilot legislation and the budget. The cabinet is accountable to the
Parliament, which has a ultimate power of removing it from the office. This means that there
is continuous and ultimate executive and legislative relationship. When you look at the
presidential system on the other hand a President is neither a Member of Parliament nor
accountable to and removable by it, this creates some of genuine separation of powers and a
system of checks and balances. This makes the Presidency and the Congress two separate coequal entities, independent of each other and does induce in the Congress a feeling of distrust
towards the Chief Executive [Rumki Basu page 233]
The Swiss Executive belongs to neither of the two systems discussed above, though it has
features of both systems. The Swiss Executive is a plural body of seven [7] members of equal
status, thus eliminating a situation of any one like a Prime Minister. These members have
seats in the legislature to which they are accountable, but have no right to vote. The Swiss
Executive is elected for a fixed period during which it cannot be ousted or removed from
office. This elected body has no power to dissolve the legislature. The collegiate type, thus
retains the principal merits of both Parliamentary and the Presidential system.
56
What are the Functions of the Chief Executive?
[I]. in the modern era, the Chief Executive has many functions and duties to perform which
fall into major categories namely; Political and Administrative. Political covers the
obtaining and retaining legislature support for his policies and programmes, by providing
leadership to the nation. These are very important functions, which the Chief Executive
cannot afford to neglect only at the risk of his losing power or office. The administrative
function covers planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, reporting, and
budget which Gulick called ‘PODSCORB’.
[II]. The Chief Executive authorises the structure of the organization through which the
administration functions. New activities may cause the creation of new departments and
agencies. Generally speaking, the internal structure of the department or ministries are
usually determined by the Chief Executive.
[III]. The Chief Executive is the custodian of the power of the government personnel
administration, he appoints and dismisses Public Officials. He gets his/her power from the
constitutional system of the Land. Thus the power of the Chief Executive differs from
country to country depending on the content of the Constitution which gives him or her
power.
[IV]. The Chief Executive issues directives, proclamations, orders, to make the
administrative activities conform to the statutory provisions. The tone of administration is
largely set by the quality of the directives or orders etc issued by the Chief Executive.
[V]. The Chief Executive has budgetary responsibilities. The Chief Executive prepares and
submits the annual budget to the legislature, after the approval by legislature, it executes and
implements it.
[VI]. Coordination is among the most important functions of the Chief Executive. In
administration, conflicts and differences do occur; it’s his or her duty to coordinate and solve
out all conflicts and differences. Also at times more than one department might be engaged in
some single activity, which may result in duplication and over lapping. It is among his/her
major functions to see that the many activities currently under taken by several departments
in pursuance of a particular policy lead up to the realisation of the desired objectives. No
single person can do all these activities by himself, he appoints Ministers and others that help
him/her carry out the functions, but he/she remains responsible and answerable to the voters.
The Legislature
Normally legislature performs the task of Law-making in a political system. This does not
mean that they have independent decision making power or that they actually frame the
official policy. It’s often said that the British and Indian Parliaments merely consent to laws
that are originated by political parties and pressure groups, framed by bureaucrats and
introduced in the legislature by the government. This is because the government enjoying a
comfortable majority in the legislature knows that it can get any measure of its choice passed
by Parliament, [Rumki Basu, page 450].
57
In the course of approving or passing the law, Parliament performs other important functions
like deliberating, scrutinising, criticising, publicising government policies and their
consequences for the public on the floor of the House. However in the American system of
separation of powers, legislature often take an independent and final decision in matters of
the law-making. In the USA Congress, the Standing Committees have ultimate authority over
proposed legislature [Rumki Basu, page 450.]
In the American system, in matters of foreign and defence policy, the Congress is guided
more by Presidential initiatives. An individual legislator while voting will be guided more by
his Party affiliations than personal bias ideological orientations. He may also be guided by his
or her constituency requirements in particular cases. In Parliamentary democracy[s]
especially in third world countries voting is essentially on party lines. [Rumki Basu page
450.]
In comparison, the Chinese National Legislature often merely ratifies or confirms decision
made by high officials within the Communist Party. One would conclude that legislatures
generally tend to show greater independence in policy formulation in presidential system
[USA] than in the Parliamentary [India].
Finally, in the Parliamentary system, a mass of legislation is made under the power delegated
to the Ministers, a mass of legislation is made under the powers delegated to the Ministers by
parent statutes for reason of pressure on Parliamentary time, the technical quality of such
legislation, and need for sufficient time to develop adequate administration machinery.
However in most countries only small proportion of such statutory instruments delegated
legislation receive any Parliamentary scrutiny at all [Rumki Basu, page 451]
The Zambian legislature is founded on the Constitution, Articles No: 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
68, 69, 70, 71, 72,73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, Section 63
gives the Membership:
1. 150 elected
2. 8 nominated
3. The speaker of the National Assembly.
In the Zambian scene, the Executive sits in Parliament which results in compromise on the
separation of power. Parliament among other things does the following:


Pass laws: Parliament in Zambia passes all laws which are later assented to by His
Excellence the President of the Republic of Zambia to become Laws, until they are
amended they remain law to be obeyed by all living in the country both citizens and
no citizens.
Ratify appointments: All constitutional appointments covering Secretary to the
Cabinet, chief Justice, Supreme Court judges, High Court Judge, and other
constitutional officers are ratified before they take office.
58




Pass budget: Parliament debates and passes the national budget, any additional
expenditure is further approved by Parliament.
Discuss policy and give policy direction: Parliament while in sitting, they discuss
and give direction to any policy. All policies must be in line with the approved law of
the land. Ministers of respectful Ministries, from time to time present Ministerial
statements which are debated on the floor of the House.
Delegates legislation to Ministers: Parliament delegates to respectful Ministers the
power to make Laws outside Parliament, which laws are known as Statutory
Instruments [S.I.], these are supposed to be later approved by the whole House.
Scrutinize expenditure by government and other agencies that are government
run: Public Accounts Committee and the Auditor General are the major institutions
used by the Government to monitor and scrutinize public expenditure.
Etc
The Legal System and Judiciary
In countries where Courts have power of Judicial review, they have [as in the United States]
plays an important role in policy formulation. The courts have often greatly affected the
nature and content of public policy through exercise of the power of judicial review and
statutory interpretation in cases brought before them.
However, the judiciary, in any political system, participates in the policy making process
indirectly. Courts are approached to interpret and decide the meaning of Legislative
provisions that are often generally stated and permit conflicting interpretations.
The Judiciary in democratic systems play a major role in the formulation of social and
economic policies. Much of the law relating to such matters, equal protection of the law
relating to property ownership, corporations, and the position of women in society has been
developed and applied by the Court in the shape of Common law.
The Zambian Judiciary is founded on the Constitution, Articles 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
and 99. The Zambian Judiciary has four [4] major levels, Supreme Court, the final Court of
decision or appeal, the High Court and Industrial Relations Courts, the Magistrates Court,
with three grades or classes, namely Class one, Class two and Class three and the Local
Courts. The President directly appoints Supreme Court Judges and High Court Judges, with
the Chairman or Deputy Chairman of the Industrial Relation Court. The appointment of
Judges by the Head of State is ratified by Parliament.
The world call for the separation of the three arms of the government, but must at all times
interact, it’s the thin area where separation may exist. In third world countries, separation is a
myth and may never take root, unless the mind set of individuals change as to make laws that
will make it possible to operate in a separation but interactive manner.
59
The Constitution of Zambia gives the Executive powers of creation and existence in Articles
33 to 61
TOPIC TWO: THEORIES AND ROLES OF THE STATE
The study of Political Education entails exploring the nature of the State and Society. This
implies that citizens need to know what constitutes the State, the activities of the State, and
how the State relates to a citizen and society at large. In order for one to gain such knowledge
he/she must first of all have basic knowledge about the rules and the regulations that control
the State. This is in view of the fact that the State is a legal association. The State, in this
sense, is distinguished from society, nation and other associations by virtue of its being the
exclusive possessor of a cohesive power, a power that issues forth in the form of law. Every
State is therefore, known by the system of laws it maintains because this is what makes it
possible for one to distinguish bad governance and good governance. Considering that the
functions of the State is not merely limited to the execution of law, but also to enforcing law
in a just manner, this unit introduces the theories of the role of the State covering Marxist,
non- Marxist and Pluralist theories. The knowledge of these theories will enable one to
understand how Public Policies are not made in a vacuum, but that their formulation and
implementation are guided by a legal frame work on the basis of the beliefs of the rulers and
the ruled.
THEORIES AND THE ROLE OF THE STATE:
The term State is used interchangeably with other terms like ‘government’, ‘nation’,
‘society’, ‘country’ although one would argue that the State is distinguishable from all above.
However, different views about its nature with the result that it ranges from anything like an
agency of positive good to the liberals and the democratic socialists to an instruments of
exploitation and oppression by one class over another to the anarchists and the Marxists, or
from its idealisation at the hands of Hegel in the form of ‘the march of God on earth’ to its
condemnation as an almost unnecessary and undesirable evil at the hands of Proudhon [Johari
JC, 2012, pg. 39]. One needs to know that the State is the fundamental theme of the discipline
whose best manifestation appears in the form of power that, in the words of Austin, makes a
society, political as well as independent [ Johari, 2012, pg 40].
MEANING AND ELEMENTS OF THE STATE:
The word ‘State’ in a literal use, may mean different things to different people. It may mean a
condition or description of things, it can as well refer to anything official, in contrast to things
that are private owned or controlled, in this sense it becomes synonym of the word
‘government’. However in Political theory or arena, it has a technical expression implying a
human association having four [4] essential elements, population, territory government and
sovereignty. The term State is very old, but its last elements [sovereignty] is a contribution of
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the modern age. The Greeks used the term ‘polis’ that meant ‘city-state’ and as such, political
science was like a municipal science for them.
Population: Since State is a human association, the first essential elements is the people.
There is no exactly fixed number that makes a State. Plato suggests a figure of 5,040 people
for his sub-ideals State in the laws and a modern thinker like Rousseau prefers the population
of 10,000 in a real democratic State. The fact is that the ‘State” of the world vary in terms of
demographic strength. We have States with a population of more than 100 million as China
and with a strength of few thousand people like San Marino. Aristotle argues that the
population of a State should neither be so large that administration may be a problem, nor o
small that the people may not lead a life of peace and security. It should be so much that the
people may lead a life of self-sufficiency [Johari JC 2012, pg 41].
Territory: Always the State has a territory of its own. The nomadic tribes cannot have a
State of their own for the reason that they do not have a fixed territory. The territory of a
State covers land, water, and also the air space, it has maritime jurisdiction extending up to a
distance of 5 kilometres, while others claim up to 25 kilometres. The whole territory answers
to the laws of a specific sovereign, who forms the State and the laws that the State develops.
We have very large States like Russia and China, while there exists very small states like Fiji
and Mauritius in respect of their territorial make up [Johari JC 2012, pg 42].
Government: The government is the soul of the State. This is the tool used to implement the
will of the Community, where there is genuine democracy. The government protects the
people against conditions of insecurity. The State is considered as the first condition of a
civilized life, its due to the existence of a government that maintains law and order and makes
‘good life’ possible.
The government is the machinery that terminates the condition of anarchy. Government is
another name for administration. If we deeply scrutinize the views of the anarchists who want
to abolish the State root and branch, we may take note of the fact that even they desire the
administration of public affairs in some form by the free and voluntary associations of the
people. Its now widely accepted that as long as there are diverse interests in society, some
mechanism is needed to bring about and maintain a workable arrangement to keep the people
to gather in a good order and harmony [Johari JC, 2012, pg 42].
Sovereignty: Sovereignty is one modern attribute of any given State. This is the highest
power of the Stat that distinguishes it from all other association of the people in any given
area. This has two [2] aspects the internal and the external. This implies that inside the State
there can be no other authority that may claim equality with it. While the external means that
the country should be free from foreign control of any kind or type. However the State can
willingly accept some international obligations in the form of Membership of the League of
Nations or the United Nations. The existence of sovereign authority appears in the form of
law. It is for this reason that the law of the State is binding on all and its violation is visited
with suitable punishment. The world over now agrees that a sovereign State is legally
competent to issue any command which is binding on all citizens and their associations.
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Leacock in addressing the State and sovereignty, points out that the territory and population
in question must form no part of a wider political unit, nor must the territory contain any
portion or portion which, while forming geographically a part of it, are not a part of it
politically [Johari JC, 2012, pg 43].
A State has four essential elements, as such, a proper definition of this term should include its
physical and spiritual elements. It is important that the four [4] elements be studied in the
order given above. We have many definitions of the State, but the point of difficulty is that
most of them either fail to include all the four [4] elements.
It is now evident from the definitions, that the concept of State as a concept of political
science and public law, is a Community of persons more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly so of external control, and
possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience [Garner, pg 52].
The State has a key role to organize its Community in an order that will create an atmosphere
of peace and order that will facilitate development and result in ‘good life’ for the majority of
its citizens.
MARXIST THEORIES: The State is neither a product of human consciousness, nor is it an
artificial institution based on the consent of the people, nor is it a mere consequence of a very
long evolution effected by the factor of kinship, religion, consent and force, nor is it an
instrument of positive good. It is nothing else than an instrument of exploitation and
oppression by one class over another. The State has the source of its origin in the evolution of
the fact of class contradictions and it should continue until class contradictions are finally
resolved. Lenin describes a State as ‘an antagonistic class society the State is a political
instrument, a machine for maintaining the rule of one class over another’ [Lenin, ‘The State’
in Collected Works, Vol 29, pg 478].
Marxist tells us that the mode of production of the material means of life determines in
general the social, political and intellectual processes of life. In the social production of the
means of life, officers join into definite and necessary production relations which correspond
to a definite stage in the development of their productive forces. Marxism argues that there
was no state in the primitive communistic system as there were no contending classes.
However, with the new inventions of the new means of production like cultivation of land
and smelting metals caused significant social changes. Social divisions emerged and grew
that led to the disappearance of the primitive pattern of communistic life, private property
system arose and that opened the way of exploitation of the ‘have nots’ by the ‘haves’. The
first exploiting State was the slave-owning State. It was succeeded by the feudal States,
which in turn was superseded by the capitalist State. Although there certain differences, all
the three had one task in common, to keep the people in check and to crush any attempt of the
working people to emancipate themselves from exploitation [Afanasyev V.G.Marxist
Philosophy, pg 283-84].
The State is always characterised by three [3] basic features or attributes namely:
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1. It is a public power in contrast to the direct organization of the armed people which
existed in tribal societies. A feature of the State is not its power, of coercion in general
which is to be found in some form or other in any society, but above all its public
power, that coincide with the mass of production and is exercised by a special
category of people. A permanent Civil Service, special contingents of armed men and
women [Army, Police, Secret Police].
2. The State organization of society presupposes the levying of taxes that are needed for
the up keep of the appointments of the power. As internal and external contradictions
become more intense and the State apparatus grows, its maintenance swallows up
more and more resources of society. Not for nothing is the exploiting State compares
to a gigantic octopus, whose tentacles encircle all society and suck its blood.
3. The subjects of State are divided not according to blood relationship but on the basis
of territory. The power of the State is exercised directly over a certain territory and its
population. The territorial division of people effects the development of economic ties
and the creation of political conditions for their regulation. The State usually or
always protects the interests of the ruling class primarily within the boundaries of the
given territory, keeping the oppressed classes there in subjection. When the ruling
classes has eaten, all is well and the oppressed too must be satisfied and praise the
oppressors, consciously or unconsciously [The Fundamental of Marxist-Leninist
Philosophy, pg 408-9].
THE MARXISM THEORY OF NATURE OF THE STATE MAY BE CRITICISED
ON THREE IMPORTANT GROUNDS:
1. It is reasonably wrong to say that the State is a mere instrument of exploitation and
oppression by one class over another. It is an agency of public welfare and it is
ultimate aim is, as Aristotle said to make ‘good life’ possible for its citizen.
2. The factor of exploitation should not be treated as the only or decisive factor in
making and sustaining the entire political structure. The authority of elders over the
younger kin was not exploitation, but it played a part in the making of the State.
3. It will not be fair, to treat a State as a mere apparatus of coercion, as this is a mistake.
It could be true that most States uses force to deal with its enemies and those who
oppose them. But force is not always the only factor that commands obedience of the
people. The role of other factors like habits, social customs, good sense of the people
etc. Should also be given due recognition. Coercive power is a criterion of the State
but not it essence. There are many other influence, more subtle and even more
resistless which restrain and control us [Maclver, pg 223].
NON-MARXIST:
The Non-Marxist Theory is also known as the Idealist Theory by Plato and Aristotle. The
clear expression of the idealist or metaphysical theory is contained in the interpretations of
Hegel that a State is a ‘perfected rationality’ an absolute fixed end in itself. It means that
human consciousness procreates claims in an environment of freedom that are translated into
‘rights’ after receiving recognition of the community and ultimately State is needed to protect
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the whole system of rights by the machinery of law. The sovereign authority which uses force
must in the ultimate analysis be reduced to the society itself, or rather to the common
consciousness creates rights, it creates the sovereignty which is the condition of their
maintenance [Barker pg 28].
The whole idea may be contained in these words ‘that the State alone is self-sufficing and
that in it alone is the individual capable of living the good life and releasing the highest end
of his existence. The idealists exalt political authority to highly philosophical and mystical
heights and instead of actualising the ideal, they do the job of idealizing the actual that is
imperfect in the form of an all-wise ruler [as conceived by Plato] or the sovereignty of the
general will [as conceived by Rousseau] or the infallibility of the nation- State [as affirmed
by Hegel]. The aim of the theory is to study the State in its past and present manifestations, it
should also be broad enough [Garner pg 239].
PLURALIST THEORIES:
Opposed to the school of Monism is the school of Pluralism. The Pluralists present a new
interpretation of the real nature of sovereignty. They consider Monism as being a futile
doctrine. They distinguish between State and society and try to bring down the State from a
place of Supremacy to that of servitude. The State is just one of the social associations. Due
to this relationship, the State cannot claim total allegiance of man. The authority should be
shared by other social groups also that satisfy man’s need and play an important part in the
working of social mechanism. This implies that the new kind of State that is not Omnipotent
[having total power, able to do anything] nor Omnipresent [present everywhere], it is just a
little superior from other social groups and organizations. The State is a multiplicity in its
essence and manifestation, it is divided into parts and all parts are important [Johari JC, 2012,
pg 123]. Pluralism aims to change the position of the State from that of honour to a place of
servitude. The State should look at the citizens as Masters, while the State is the servant of
the citizens who should provide a service and should not be worshiped [Johari JC, 2012,pg
123]. One author points out and outline the following as characteristics of Pluralism:
1. It emphasises individual freedom
2. It emphasises the importance of social organizations
3. A good political system includes the government, and law and emphasises all social
relations between men as many-sided moral beings
4. Looks at the manifestation of a whole some reaction to paternalism and absolution of
the Political State.
5. It has helped western political thought to develop from abstract Monism through
abstract Pluralism to concrete Monism.
6. It compels and forces Monists to restrict the State to it narrow political sphere. The
State should not have too much power [Hsiao K.C. Political Pluralism, pg 8].
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ESSENTIAL FEATURES THE DOCTRINE OF POLITICAL PLURALISM:

The doctrine of Political Pluralism rejects the sovereignty of the State. The
State should not interfere with other social groups and associations become
insignificant.
Social groups and associations have a ‘personality’ of their own and if they
meet the requirements of their members, the State must compete with them
while maintaining the federal structure of the society. It must compete with
churches, trade unions, employers’ associations, friendly society, political
parties and the like. The State is like an association of associations of society, as
such it should not expected a peculiar merit
[Johari, JC, 2012, pg 124].

Miss M.P. Follet summaries the essential features of the doctrine of Pluralism as:
1. The pluralists deny and don’t support the idea of a State being supreme.
2. That all social groupings are important and should share the same platform with the
State.
3. They request that a revivification [To give new life or health to something] of local
life.
4. They see that the interest of the State is not always identical with the interest of its
points or other social groupings.
5. Pluralism is the beginning of disappearance of its crown.
6. Pluralism has seized upon the problem of identity of association and of federalism.
Pluralism wants to advice the State to relate with other associations in the country on
a fair footing. The State is just one of the association so should not take supremacy
over other associations [ Johari JC, 2012, pg 126].
CRITICISMS OF PLURALISTIC THEORY:



To say that sovereignty should be shared by all important social groupings and
associations is understandable, but there is no unanimity [complete agreement about
something among a group of people] of thought on this point.
We have already seen that sovereignty is a whole thing, it cannot be divide. Calhoun
argues that the division of sovereignty would mean it destruction.
The pluralists adopt a reactionary approach. They draw inspiration from the social
system of the middle ages when guilds, burghers and other corporate entities were in
existence to manage affairs of the people.
[Gilchrist, p 108].

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Johari JC, 2012, Principles of Modern Political Science, Sterling Publishers
Private Limited, New Delhi, India, page 39-130.
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
Johari JC, 2011, Comparative Politics, Sterling Publishers Private limited,
New Delhi, pages 32, 34, 36, 93 and 99.
TOPIC THREE [3].
DEMOCRATIZATION AND GOOD GOVERNANCE:
OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC:




The student should be able to define the term democratization,
The student should be able to explain in details the linkage between democratization
and development,
Students should be able to explain how the democratization of any given nation may
improve in its economic development,
Students should be able to understand and explain how democratization may enhance
good governance.
Democratization has many definitions among them are:









“A government of the people, by the people, and for the people” John Locke and
Edmund Burke, 2012, page 379.
“Limited government bound by the laws of the land”, Johari JC, 2012, page 379.
Johari JC, quoting Bentham and James Mills who belonged to the philosophy of
utilitarianism, defined democracy as “Greatest good of the greatest number”, Johari
JC, 2012, page 379. For Bentham and his friend, democracy is not about having
periodic elections, its about a large number casting a vote and getting real benefits of
greatest good to those individuals. Where a few rig and win an election is not a
reflection of democracy as those who will be happy will be few.
Democracy is where power is vested in the people not a single person as President
like in most African countries, Zambia included.
The people have certain natural rights which are inalienable and cannot be abrogated
or diminished. This tend to result in one man one vote, the doctrine of happiness of
many measured in term of material pleasure. Its not about elections, its about the
citizen drawing material benefit from the process of governance.
Democracy has many label, pure democracy, liberal democracy, socialist democracy,
guided democracy, participatory democracy etc.
Amazingly the word “democracy” may be recklessly applied to a system that has
hardly anything like democratic in it, Johari JC, 2012, page 383.
Further Johari has put forward, that democracy is a state that has a government where
the people are more powerful, 2011, page 491.
Abraham Lincoln, said democracy was “the government of the people, by the people,
and for the people” Johari JC, 2011, page 491.
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
Democracy has many definitions, it is important for a student to read widely on this
current and topical issue to ensure you begin to appreciate the concept in its right way
and right perspective.
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF DEMOCRACY IN THE WORLD?
The elements are so many, we cannot put them down in one note, example will be put down,
students need to know the elements are in hundreds if we are to go into details. The most
prominent cover:



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


The rule of law: meaning the agreed laws of a country regulate everyone equally
in the whole nation, from the Head of State and Government to the least citizen of
a State and Government, without fear or interference. Any State whose laws
exempt Heads of State because they have immunity means that such States have
no rule of law. The rule of law takes it that all citizens including leaders are the
same and must be treated so.
Participation: means that all citizens are involved in making decisions from the
beginning of making a decision to a point where the actual decision is made.
Leaders must not decide without direct consultation with the beneficiary of the
decision.
Decentralization: This does not mean creation of districts which have no power to
decide what they want to do. Decentralization means power is transferred from
the centre to the districts, people will decide on everything covering, expenditure,
employment, termination of employment, policy and etc without the centre
interfering. For fifty [50] years now Zambia has lamentably failed to implement
decentralization.
Responsiveness: means that the government implements the decisions of the
ordinary people, the government must not behave like a father who thinks he
knows what the children want, citizens are not children and know what they want
as long as it will not break the law or interfere with the human rights of others.
Government must timely respond to the requests and desires of its citizens.
Consultation: may mean real asking the citizens on matters that affect them, not
government imposing its political views on the unsuspecting citizens. The citizen
must be the ones to raise issues, which they feel need decisions, and must be the
one to reach the final decision for the implementation of a democratic
government.
Free and fair election: means that the people are driving the decision, without
being forced or bribed by the ruling party or a few selfish individuals. There can
be no free election when you see the presence of the Police, government agents
and etc.
Independence of institutions of governance: this includes Police, Military, ECZ,
DEC, ACC, and Commissions covering PSC, TSC, PPSC and etc. These
institutions must operate without interference of the Executive arm of
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
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Government and its agent, otherwise they will implement the likes of the ruling
party and so, there will be no democracy and good governance.
Economic freedom and competion: the government of the day will make good
laws that shall set the perimeters in which whoever enters business will operate
within, as a leader and as an ordinary citizen. The State must not interfere in
business in favour of cadres and those who seem to support them.
Political diversity: entails that the government of the day, in practice allow the
people with other views to save in the government, while implementing the
policies of the party in power. Citizens should not loose employment because they
are suspected of having supported the opposition during an election. There can be
no genuine election if everybody belongs to the ruling party.
Fight against corruption and maladministration: means that institutions are created
that report to a body of persons, for example Parliament and not an individual in
the name of the President who might protect his peers and relative, let there be a
body of many and treat all in the same way regarding these vices.
Accountability: where you find accountability, there are already made laws and
sanctions to be given to leaders and public workers who fail to account for what is
put in their care. Judges rule according to the law, and law enforcement agents
implement the sanctions, from 1964, public workers who are sited in Auditor
General’s report go unpunished, rendering the services of AG meaningless and of
no use, if not further wastage of resources that can be used in needy areas.
Transparency: Public work must be done in openness, no public worker must be
annoyed when questioned about any single public action. Let everyone know
what is being down for the public.
Checks and balances: there should be institutions of governance that will check
the activities of the public worker without government interfering in the process.
As earlier pointed the list is endless, you may wish to study and add some more to the list.
THE IMPACT DEMOCRATIZATION HAS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A
NATION:


Democratization results in stable governments, which create an
environment, where genuine investors are attracted. Not investors
who come to sell chicken and cabbages.
Wastefulness in unnecessary by elections in the name of democracy is
avoided. In 2014, we saw in five by elections, Mkushi South,
Zambezi west, Vubwi, Kasenengwa and Solwezi central, more that
two hundred ballot papers where printed in the UK, and only fortythree [43,000] voted, the rest of the ballot papers were thrown, what a
waste in this generation.
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


Creates institutions that can check every one from the President of a
Nation, at the time he or she is in office, there and then, to the
ordinary citizen, ACC, DEC, etc.
Creates an environment in which monitoring of the uses of public
resources is clear, wastage is controlled, for example, where the ruling
party carries cadres to campaign using public resources while the
opposition use private resources.
Politics is turned into service and not an opportunity to plunder, etc.
ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY
Citizen Participation
Citizen participation denotes the process by which citizens of the country are involved in the
process of problem solving, decision making and decision implementation. Citizen
participation is also seen as a mental and emotional involvement of citizens in group
situations that encourage them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them.
Beginning in the late 1960, the term ‘participation’ has grown in importance and used almost
everywhere in the word. The word has become so popular that a lot of meanings have been
generated, some to a point where they give a misleading definition. Participation has not yet
achieved a full meaning and depth, though a very popular word and a measuring tool for most
governments in terms of good governance. Of late it represents a revived interest in the
philosophy of participatory democracy promoted by the French political philosopher Alexis
de Tocqueville who spoke much that individual citizen participation is essential to the
survival of a democracy, he also argued that democracy will be undermined and collapse if
citizens are incapable of influencing government decisions. The author has further argued
that a state that ignores the needs and interests of large sections of their society in setting and
implementing policies is not an effective state. The United Nation has also emphasized
popular participation in government decisions and development as one of the ideals in
democracy and is reflected in Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which
states that ‘everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives……The will of the people shall be the basis of the
authority of government’ [Sapru R.K. 2012, pg 355].
Sapru argues that ‘citizen participation has come to mean the direct involvement of citizens in
the process of administrative decision-making, policy formulation, and policy
implementation. In relation to development, it embraces all forms of action by which they
participate in the operation of development administration. It refers to the role of citizens as
distinguished from that of public servants [in their official capacity] in exerting influence on
developmental activities of government’ [ Sapru R.K 2012, pg 355].
United Nation has further defined participation as ‘involvement of people in contributing to
the development effort, sharing equitably in the benefits derived there from and in decisionmaking in respect of setting goals, formulating policies and planning and implementing
economic and social development programs’ [Sapru R.K. 2012 pg 355].
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What is the importance of citizen participation?
There are many merits or advantages of citizen participation which include the following:

It kindles the interest of local people in imparting a new thrust to programs of
which they are the beneficiaries. It is a means of showing, by their behavior and
action, that they are capable of assuming responsibility.

Participation is a means of ventilating their feelings and thoughts. They are
attached to the product because they had it in mind and later in reality.

Participation creates an environment where the citizens take an opportunity to
demonstrate their willingness to do constructive work and show that they are
good citizens.

It is also a cure for the unresponsiveness and repressiveness of traditional
decision-making mechanism. It allows the citizens, especially the poor, to gain
control over decision affecting their lives through direct participation in
program operations. It is a remedy to check corrupt practices.

Community based programs is that they may be less of a financial burden on
governments since they can be managed by volunteers or community-based
workers.

Citizen participation ensures that the accruing benefits of education, health, and
family planning programs, for example, reach the residents of remote and rural
areas.
Why should participation be very important this time?
Many people have argued that participation is very important today than it was yesterday due
to the change in the expected social relations in a democratic era, the three major reasons for
participation today are:

The increasing expansion of government responsibilities has given one important
reason why participation has grown in importance. Government has assumed
increasing responsibilities in regulating the economies, planning for financial
resources for accelerating development and exploitation of natural resources.

The second reason which has led to the growth of citizen participation is the
explosion of knowledge and communication. More new knowledge in science and
technology and education has been develop in the last thirty years than in the
previous history of mankind.

The third contributing factor in the citizen participation is the perceived failure of the
bureaucracy to meet the growing demands of the citizens at the local level. The
bureaucracy has been accused of biases, which has caused an urgency in desiring
popular participation to replace the biased bureaucracy.
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[ Sapru R.K. 2012, pg 359].
There are three principal themes in this definition and these are as follows:
The Thesis of Mental and Emotional Involvement
Of prime importance, participation means mental and emotional involvement rather than
mere muscular activity. In other words, a person’s self is involved rather than his skill. This
involvement is psychological and not physical.
The Thesis of Motivation
A second important theme in participation is that it motivates citizens to contribute their ideas
to various issues. They are given an opportunity to release their own resources of initiative
and creativity towards the objectives of the organization. Participation usually improves
motivation by helping citizens understand and clarify their goals.
The Thesis of Accepting Responsibility
A third idea in participation is that it encourages people to accept responsibility in their group
activities. It is social processes by which people become self involved in an organization and
want to see it work successfully. When they talk about their organization they begin to say,
“we” instead of “they”. When they see a problem, it is “ours” not “theirs”. Participation,
therefore, helps people become responsible citizens rather than non responsible citizens. As
individuals begin to accept responsibility for group activities, they begin to be interested in,
team-work. They also become receptive to team work. The idea of getting the group to want
team-work is a key step in developing the same approach into successful work unit.
Broad Application of Citizen Participation

Citizen participation is not a useless theory developed by people for the purposes of
looking for a new idea. Whenever there is a problem, like Zambia has several
problems covering need for a new constitution, creation of jobs, food on the table,
housing for all, clean water, freedom of expression, freedom of association, quality
medical services for all, good roads, and the least is endless. Where there is genuine
popular participation, its not for the Head of State, the member of Parliament,
Minister or Councilor to choose for the people, people know what they want, give
them time and space to let there views be known to you, as Leaders, its wrong for the
Leaders to tell the led that they need a road and not a constitution, such conduct
belittle the intelligence of the people who later feel disrespected by people who were a
few months ago begging for votes later they turn to appear they have no regard and
respect of those who sent them to office. Popular participation means the people have
a voice that should be heard, right from thinking, planning, deciding and
implementing while monitoring the project.
The greatest benefit of citizen participation is that it restores to people their birth right to be
contributing members of the communities in which they live. It also builds human values in
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communities and promotes a sense of belonging, duty, affection and giving. This
improvement of human values in communities is very important for the health of not only
citizens, but the nation as a whole.
Citizen participation has also been noted for the fact that it increases the power to both the
rulers and the governed. It is claimed that the power of a leader depends heavily on certain
conditions such as trust, feeling of team-work and a sense of responsibility. Citizen’s
participation, it is argued, improves these conditions. It is further noted that since citizens
feel more cooperative and responsible, they are likely to be more responsive to the influence
placed upon them by their rulers. In simple terms, therefore, what occurs is that rulers make
social transactions with the people they govern. These transactions ultimately improve
goodwill and responsibility.
There are various methods which are used to induce citizen participation. For example,
citizens can participate in committees, workshops and can join organizations which would
enable them participate effectively in identifying problems as well as finding solutions to
issues that affect their communities.
Administrative Ethics
There is no academic consensus on the definition of the term administrative ethics. At one
level, concern about administrative ethics centers around the code of conduct which assume
that a bureaucrat must represent the welfare and interest and should not therefore be
sacrificed for self interest. At another level administrative ethics are equated with the high
standards of integrity and conduct from public servants. This approach suggests that any
conduct that may be influenced by a desire for private gain by public servants should be
strictly prohibited. Taken together therefore, administrative ethics emerge as norms or rules
of behavior which prohibit public servants from:
[a] Having a direct or indirect financial interest that may conflict substantially with their
official duties and responsibilities.
[ b] Accepting or soliciting a fee, payment of expense, gratuity or any other thing of monetary
value in circumstances in which acceptance may result in or create the appearance of
conflict interest.
[c] Influencing or coercing other to gain a financial or other advantage for themselves or a
family member.
[d] Engaging directly or indirectly in a financial transaction as a result of information not
available to the general public.
These are the four principal dimensions which have influenced some countries the world
over to turn to independent commissions to help check the abuse of power. They stand as
protestors of citizens against oppressive and corrupt public servants. In Zambia, for
example, the establishment of the Anti-Corruption Commission and the Commission for
Investigations are testimony to this.
72
[Sapru R.K. 2012, pg 355-369].
THE ELECTORAL AND CODE OF CONDUCT ACT NO 12 OF 2006 OF THE
LAWS OF ZAMBIA.
OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC

Students should be able to understand and appreciate that the Electoral and Code of
Conduct Act, solely was enacted to foster the smooth running of elections,

That the Electoral and Code of Conduct Act, Chap of the Law of Zambia, if put in
practice would create a seemingly conducive environment to enhance
democratization,

That the Electoral and Code of Conduct Act, in its present form, if put to practice as
written may be a first step to democratization.
ELECTORAL CODE OF CONDUCT, STATUTORY INSTRUMENT NO. 52 OF 2011;
ARRANGEMENT OF REGULATIONS:
PART I
PRELIMINARY
Regulation
1. Title
2. Interpretation
3. Enforcement of Code
4. Publication of Code
5. Rights of Person PART 11 CODE OF CONDUCT
6. Duty of Person during election campaigns or elections
7. Duties of commission
8. Campaign Period
9. Political Party and Candidate to subscribe to Code
10. Duties of Political Parties and Candidates
11. Duties of Election Agents and Polling Agent
12. Duties of Zambia Police Force
13. Duties of Media
14. Allocation of Airtime
15. Election Results Programme
16. Monitors and Observers
17. Powers of Commission
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18. Complaints
19. Conflict Management Committee
20. Prohibition of Coercion and Intimidation PART 111 GENERAL
PROVISIONS
21. General Offences
22. General Penalty
23. Revocation of S.I. No. 90 of 2006
IN EXERCISE of the powers contained in section one hundred and nine of the
Electoral Act, 2006, the following Regulation are hereby made:
PART 1 PRELIMINARY
1. Title
These Regulations may be cited as the Electoral [Code of Conduct] regulations,
2011.
2. Interpretation
In these Regulations, unless the context otherwise requires‘campaign material’ means party or candidate manifestos, posters, chitenges, Tshirts and any other materials with party or candidate symbols or pictures of
candidates used in connection with an election;
‘campaign period’ means such period as the Commission may determine under
regulation 8;
‘candidate’ means a person nominated as a candidate for an election;
‘caricature’ include cartoons, effigy, picture, drawing or sketch of a person for
comic effect;
‘code’ has the meaning assigned to it in the Act;
‘Commission’ means the Electoral Commission established under the
Constitution;
‘Election Officer’ has the meaning assigned to it in the Act;
‘Media’ includes print and electronic media, whether publicly or privately
operated.
‘Monitor’ means a person accredited as such by the Commission;
‘Observer’ means a person accredited as such by the Commission;
‘Polling Agent’ means an agent appointed by a candidate in respect of each
polling station;
‘Public Officer’ means a person holding or acting in any public office but does not
include any person holding the offices referred to in Article 139 [2] and [3] of the
Commission; and
‘Traditional Leader’ means a Paramount Chief, Senior Chief, Chief and Village
Headman.
3. Enforcement of Code
The commission shall promote conditions conducive to the observance of this code.
4. Publication of Code
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The commission, civil society, traditional leaders, the church, faith-based organisations and
political parties shall endeavour to publicise this code through out the Republic.
PART II CODE OF CONDUCT.
5. Right to Person
(1) A person has, subject to regulations 21, the right to –
(a) Express political opinions;
(b) Debate the policies and programmes of political parties;
(c) Canvas freely for membership and support from voters;
(d) Distribute election literature and campaign materials;
(e) Publish and distribute notices and advertisements;
(f) Erect banners, placards and posters;
(g) Campaign freely
(h) Participate freely in partisan political activities; and
(i) Seek the protection of the law from harm as a result of that person’s political
opinion or affiliation.
(2) A public officer shall not engage in any active partisan political activity
referred to in sub-regulation (1) whilst in the public service.
6. Duty of person during elections campaigns or elections
A person shall, during an elections campaign or elections, promote conditions
conducive to the conduct of free and fair elections and be bound by this code.
7. Duties of commission
(1) The commission shall where reasonable and practicable to do so(a) Meet political party representatives on a regular basis to discuss all matters
of concern related to election campaign and election itself;
(b) Ensure that political parties do not use state resources to campaign for the
benefit of any political party or candidate;
(c) Avail political parties with the election notices in accordance with the Act;
(d) Censure all acts done by leader of political parties, candidates, supporters,
Government and its organs, which are aimed at jeopardising elections or
done in contravention of this code;
(e) Declare elections results expeditiously from the close of the elections day;
(f) Ensure that campaign rally or meeting which is legally organised by any
political Party is not disrupted or arbitrarily prohibited;
(g) Ensure that no election officer, police officer, monitor, observer or media
person is not victimised in the course of their election duties;
(h) Ensure that police officers act professionally and impartially during the
electoral process;
(i) Ensure that traditional leaders, do not exert undue influence on their
subjects to support a particular political party or candidate;
(j) Ensure that equal opportunity is given to all stakeholders, particular
political parties and independent candidates to participate in and conduct
their political activities in accordance with the law; and
75
(k) Condemn acts of media organisations and personnel aimed at
victimisation, punishment or intimidation of media practitioners
implementing any of the provisions of this code.
8. Campaign period
The campaign period shall
commission may determine.
commence
and
close
on
such
a
date
as
the
9. Political party and candidate to subscribe to the code.
(1) A candidate for presidential, National Assembly and Local Government
elections shall, when filling the candidate’s nomination papers, subscribe to
the code in form I set out to the schedule.
(2) A political party shall, on such date such the commission direct, subscribe to
the code in form I set out in the schedule.
(3) A person who, or political party contravenes this regulation commits an
offence.
10. Duties of political party and candidate
(1) A political party and candidate shall(a) establish and maintain effective line of communication with the
commission and with other registered political parties and candidates, at
national, political and local level, including the provision of names and the
contact details and addresses of party election agent and other relevant.
(b) accept and respect decisions of the commission in respect of election
results announced by returning officers and the commission in accordance
with the law;
(c) Issue directives of their member and supporters to obverse this code and
take any necessary steps to ensure compliance;
(d) hold public meeting in compliance with the law;
(e) adhere to the election timetable issued by the commission in conducting
election campaigns in accordance with section twenty-six Act;
(f) take appropriate measures to ensure environmental protection and
cleanliness in the course of posting or distributing electoral campaign
materials;
(g) remove campaign materials within fourteen day of the declaration of
election results;
(h) take necessary measures to insure public safety in the course of posting or
distributing electoral campaign material and
(i) carry out campaign meetings and rallies peacefully
(2) a member or supporter of political party or candidate shall not(a) use language which incite hatred or violence in any form against any
person or class of persons or issue any pamphlet ,newspaper r, poster or
76
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
other propaganda which contains material that incite people to violence or
rebellion;
deface, remove or destroy campaign materials of another political party or
publications of the commission;
disrupt another political party’s rally, meeting ,march or demonstration or
seek to obstruct another person from attending a political rally of another
political party;
continuously remain at a polling station during the campaign period or
elections; and
wear any campaign materials within four hundred metres of the polling
station on the polling day.
(3)without prejudice to any other written law, any person who contravenes
sub-regulation(2) commits an offence and shall be liable upon conviction to a
fine not exceeding two thousand five hundred penalty units or to
imprisonment not exceeding one year, or to both.
11. Duties of election agent and polling agent
(1) An election agent or polling agent shall, subject to regulations 10 and 21,
have the following duties during elections:
(a) Observe the opening and closing of a polling station to them on polling day
(b) Witness the voting process
(c) Witness the count of ballot papers for candidates;
(d) Witness the announcement of results; and
(e) Witness the declaration of results, where applicable.
(2) An election agent or polling agent shall counter sign the election results
duly announced or declared by a presiding officer or returning officer, as the
case may be:
Provided that failure to countersign the election results by such election agent
or polling agent shall not render the results invalid.
(12) Duties of Zambia police Force
The Zambia Police force shall(a) enforce law and order at campaign meetings and processions in order to
maintain peace and order;
(b) ensure that police officers do not abuse their authority or government
resources to campaign for benefit of any political party or candidate;
77
(c) Refrain from disrupting any campaign, rally or meeting which is legally
convened by any political; and
(d) Ensure that police officers do not use their office to oppress any political
party, candidate or supporter.
[13]Duties of Media
(1) All print and electronic media shall(a) Provide fair and balanced reporting and press conferences of all
registered political parties and candidates during the campaign
period;
(b) Provide news of the electoral process up to the declaration of
results;
(c) Abide by regional codes of conduct in the coverage of elections
provided that such guidelines are not in conflict with this code;
(d) Be bound by the provisions of this code during elections; and
(e) In liaison with the commission, recognise a representative media
body authorised to receive complaints and provide advice
regarding fair coverage of elections.
(2) A media organisation shall endeavour to
(a) undertake capacity building of media personnel in their respective
organisations;
(b) report election news in accurate manner and not make any abusive
editorial comment, incite violence or advocate hatred based on
race, ethnicity, tribe, gender, sex, political or religious conviction;
and identify any editorial comment it intends to make and separate
it from the factual reporting of the news.
(3) The heads, senior management and staff of public or private media
organisations shall not intimidate media practitioners and shall allow
them to exercise professional judgment without undue influence.
(4) Public and private media personnel shall(a) Conduct interviews with candidates with fairness both in the style
of the interview and in the time given;
(b) Refrain from broadcasting their own political opinions,
commentary or assessment, and where they do so, clearly identify
the opinion, commentary or assessments as their own and carefully
balance it in order to avoid bias; and
(c) Be duly accredited by the commission to enter a nomination centre,
polling centre or totalling centre.
14 Allocation of air time
78
(1) A public television, radio and electronic media shall allocate
public air time equally to all political parties and candidate for
their political broadcasts.
(2) A political party or candidate shall not buy more than thirty
minutes air time in any given language on public television or
radio in any one week.
(3) On polling day all media shall not broadcast any campaign
interviews for political parties or independent candidates or
predict election results.
(4) Broadcasters shall inform the public on the source of any public
opinion poll and shall indicate the margin error.
Election Results Programme.
CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
AIM: To introduce students to the general concepts of constitution and constitutionalism and
indicate how the two concept enhance good governance by a government voted by the people
in a democratic institution.
OBJECTIVES OF THE TOPIC: By the end of this topic, students should be able to



Define and explain the concept of constitution and constitutionalism.
Explain why it is necessary to embrace the concept of the rule of law as a land mark
for constitutionalism.
Explain and appreciate the concept of constitutional state and constitutional
government.
This topic will focus on the discussion of the terms constitution, constitutionalism and a
constitutional state. Sa is often said, there can be no state without a constitution of its own.
Generally the word constitution has many meanings. The word constitution is used in many
senses as that of constituting a body such as a club, a trade union, a political party etc.
However, here we are concerned with its use in a political sense alone signifying the body
constituting a state. It follows, therefore, that every state has a constitution of its own and its
for this reason that it is called a constitutional state, signifying another term for democratic
political order. The term ‘constitutionalism’ is thus centred on the very idea that every state
must have a constitution of its own and that its government must be organized and conducted
according to the rules of the constitution.
THE CONSTITUTION:
The constitution of a state may be defined as a body of rules and regulations, written as well
as unwritten, whereby the government is organized and it functions. The constitution creates
institutions of government and allocate power to each institution to make it operate
independent of the other institutions. The constitution further guides all institutions not to
interfere with the operations of other institutions of government. It is another matter that in
79
order to meet the requirements of a democratic order, a constitution embodies some more
principles specifying relationships between the people and their state in the form of a specific
charter of their fundamental rights and obligations. Thus, a constitution may be said to be a
collection of principles according to which the powers of the government and the relations
between the two are adjusted. In other words, it may be described as a frame of political
society organized through and by law, in which law ha established permanent institutions
with recognized functions and definite rights. By all means, it is a legal document known by
different names like rules of the state, instrument of government, fundamental law of the
land, basic statute of the polity, cornerstone of a national-state and the like [ Johari, 2009, pg
407].
Further, every state needs some kind of order, some system by which a reasonably orderly
process of government may emerge. Without such an order there is likely to be anarchy. This
order or system, in technical terms called constitution, must lay down certain rules which
define the organs of government and how they originate, their mutual relationships, and the
relationship between government and the people over whom it is authority is exercised. A
constitution is, therefore, the basic designs of the structure and powers of government and the
rights and duties of citizens. There can be no state without a constitution. Sometimes the
constitution of a state is definitely formulated in a document or documents, sometimes it is
found in an established body of rules, maxims, traditions and practices in accordance with
which its government is organized and its powers are exercised [ Kapur, 1996, pg 485.a].
A constitution therefore provides a collection of principles according to which the powers of
the government, the rights of the governed, and the relations between the two are adjusted. It
is used to describe the whole system of a government of a country, the collection of rules
which establish and regulate or govern the government. As already alluded to this democratic
political order is what signifies a constitutional state and hence a constitutional government.
What then, is a constitutional government?
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT:
A constitutional government means government limited by the terms set by the constitution,
not government limited only by the desires and capacities of those who exercise power. It
follows, therefore, that a constitutional government is one that operates within a universe of
positive restraints, therefore, a state can be said to be ‘unconstitutional’ if it has no restraints.
For this reason, it is only in a democratic country that constitutional governments can be said
to exist. However, it must be pointed out that the notion of constitutional government
essentially presents a continuum on which at one pole is located government with very strong
restraints and at the other pole you have governments with very weak restraints, and between
these two poles, can be ranged all actual governments. This scenario is what makes it
possible for one to identify the quality of governance for a given government.
CONSTITUTIONALISM:
Constitutionalism refers to the evolution of constitutional thinking through the ages. While
theorizing on constitutions goes back to Aristotle, modern theory is based on the seventeenth
80
century social contract theorists. The hallmark of modern thinking on constitutions is the
notion of a limited government whose ultimate authority is the consent of the governed [
Shafritz, 1988, 134].
Constitutionalism is a modern concept of that desires a political order governed by laws and
regulations. It stands for the supremacy of law and not of the individual, it imbibes the
principles of nationalism, democracy and limited government. Constitutionalism , by dividing
powers, provides a system of effective restraints upon government action. It is a body of rules
ensuring fair-play, thus rendering the government responsible. Constitutionalism , thus,
stands for the existence of a constitution in a state, since it is the instrument of government,
or the fundamental Law of the land, whose objectives are to limit the arbitrary action of the
government, to guarantee the rights of the governed and to define the operations of the
sovereign power. It is another names for the concept of a limited, and for this reason, a
‘civilized’ government. Restraints are the core of constitutionalism and hence some systems
of restraint is central to the constitution of any regime that aspires for constitutional
government. Simply by establishing the framework of government, any constitution, in a
measure, acts as a restraints on power. The rule of Law is probably the deepest and strongest
tradition of constitutionalism [Kapur, 1996, 592].
One writer states, ‘in every country a national constitution articulates the vision of society,
defines the fundamental principles by which the country is organized, and distributes power
within it, and plays an important role in nation-building and consolidating the national state.
The idea of a constitutional democratic government, or constitutionalism, connotes a
government defined, regulated and limited by a constitution. Constitutional democracy is
founded upon the notion of checks and balances, namely that different institutions, the
legislature, the judiciary and the executive-while operating independently of one another, act
to check each other’s operations and balance each other’s power. In essence, all three
institutions are duty-bound to up hold the rule of law. This necessitates the precise definition
of the roles of each institution and that of public officials’ [Muna Ndulo, 2006, 2].
PUBLIC POLICY-FORMULATION, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUTION
Public policy deals in the sphere which refers to public, meaning it covers all the citizens of a
given state and it’s for public interest as opposed to private interest, [R.K SAPRU page 2 and
3]. The concept of public policy presupposes that there is an area or domain of life which is
not private or purely individual, but held in common, Public dimension is generally referred
to public ownership or control for public purpose. The public comprise that domain of human
activity which is regarded as requiring government intervention or common action. However,
there is always conflict on what is public and what is private.
W.F. Baber has argued that the public sector has ten key differences from the private sector:
81
[i]. It faces more complex and ambiguous tasks;
[ii]. It has more problems in implementing its decisions;
[iii]. It employs more people with a wider range of motivations;
[IV]. It is more concerned with securing opportunities or capacities;
[v]. it is more concerned with compensating for market failure;
[VI]. It engages in activities with greater symbolic significances;
[vii]. It is held stricter standards of commitment and legality;
[viii]. It has a greater opportunity to respond to issues of fairness;
[ix]. It must operate or appear to operate in the public interest;
[x]. it must maintain minimal levels of public support above that required in private industry.
Public administration has emerged as an instrument of the State for securing public interest
rather than private interest. Whereas the political economist’s only markets could balance
private and public interest, the new liberalism was based upon a belief that public
administration was more rational means of promoting the public interest. The public and
private sectors reveal themselves as over lapping and interacting, than as well defined
categories.
The concept of policy, like the ideal of public, the concept of policy is not a precise term.
Policy means, among other elements, guidance for action it may take the form of:
[i]. A declaration of goals;
[ii]. A declaration of course of action;
[iii]. A declaration of general purpose; and
[IV]. An authoritative decision
Hogwood and Gunn specified ten uses of the term policy:
[i]. As a label for field of activity;
[ii]. As an expression of desired state of affairs;
82
[iii]. As specific purpose proposal;
[iv]. As decisions of government;
[v]. As formal authorisation;
[VI] As a programme;
[vii]. As output;
[viii]. As out come
[ix] As a theory or model
[x] As a process
Unfortunately, policy itself is something which takes different forms. Others take it that
policy is an output of political system. In another way, public policy is more less
interdependent, policies dealing with many different activities or areas, tend to focus on the
evaluation of policy decisions in terms of specified valves- a rational rather than a political
analysis. [R.K Sapru page 4]
James Anderson has defined policy as a purposive of action followed by an actor or set of
actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern. (R.K Sapru page 4 ) in this regard, we
may say policy mean a purposive course of action taken or adopted by those in power in
pursuit of certain goals or objectives . This can further be considered as valves for the whole
society [ R.K Sapru page 5] public policy are usually formulated by authorities in political
system, namely, elders, paramount chiefs, executives, legislators, judges, administrators,
councillors, monarchs, and the like [R.K Sapru page 5]. In the words of Thomas Dye’s
definition states: “public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do. While
Robert Line berry says that public policy is “what governments do and fail to do- to and for
their citizens.” In these words, there is divergence between what governments decide to do
and what they actually do [R.K Sapru page 5]
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF PUBLIC POLICY?
A policy may be general, specific, broad and narrow, simple or complex, public or private,
written or unwritten, explicit or implicitly, discretionary, or detailed, quantitative, the
emphasis is on the public policy, which a government choose as a guide to action. Public
83
policies in modern political system are purposive or goal oriented statements. A public policy
may be either positive or negative in form. Public policy has a legally coercive quality that
citizens accept as legitimate, e.g. taxes must be paid unless one wants to run the risk of fires
or jail sentence. Thus legally coercive quality of public policies makes public organizations
distinct from the private organizations.
WHAT IS POLICY MAKING AND DECISION MAKING?
Policy making is closely related to decision-making. However it is not the same as decisionmaking. Policy making does involve decision-making but a decision does not necessarily
constitute a policy. Decision making often involves an identification of a problem, a careful
analysis of possible alternatives and selection of one alternative for action.
Policy decisions are decision made by public officials that authorise or give direction and
context to public action. These may include decisions to issue executive orders, promulgate
administrative rules, or making important judicial interpretations of the Laws.
POLICIES AND GOALS
Policies are distinct from goals and can be distinguished from the later as means from ends.
By goals or objectives one means the ends means the ends towards which actions are
directed. The policy indicates the direction towards which action is sought. Policies involves
a deliberate choice of actions as directed.
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF POLICY
There are six [6] major types of policy which cover:
1. Distributive Policy Issues: Distributive Policy issue is concerned with the distribution of new
resources or wealth to the citizens as to reduce the difference between the rich and the poor,
such a Policy is known as distributive policies.
2. Redistributive Policy Issues: Redistributive Policy Issues are those which are concerned with
changing the distribution of existing resources. The citizens fall into either haves and have
not, government will tax individuals in accordance with the wealth that people have.
3. Regulatory Policy Issues: Regulatory policy issues are those which are concerned with
regulation and control of actives that citizens and people living in the country get involved in,
for example the Energy regulation Board of Zambia, controls the pricing of fuel and other
84
energy sources, the use and storage of energy and how energy is carried from point A to point
B.
4. Constituent Policy Issue: Constituent policy issues are those which are concerned with the
setting-up or reorganisation of institutions. Each of these policy issues forms a different
power arena. However, it may be mentioned here that Lowi’s view of politics as a function of
policies has been criticised as over-simplistic, methodologically suspect, and testability.
Cobbe and Elder, for instance, observe that Lowi’s typology has basic limitations. It does not
provide a framework for understanding change as the types become less clear and more
diffuse.
5. Conflict Policy Issues: Cobbe and Elder propose an alternative classification of policy issues
in terms of conflict rather than content. Their focus is on the way in which conflict is created
and managed. To them a conflict may rise between two or more groups over issues relating to
the distribution of position or resources. These may be created by such means and devices as
:
(a) Manufacture by a contending party who perceive unfairness or bias in the distribution of
positions or resources
(b) Manufacture of an issue for person or group gain ; and
(c) Unanticipated human events, natural disasters, international conflict, war and technological
changes
Such issues then constitute the agenda for policy or decision-making and are known as the
Conflict policy Issues.
6. Bargaining Policy Issues: Hogwood and Wilson use the criteria of costs and benefits from the
point of view of the possibilities of different outcomes, forms or bargaining and conflict and a
range of alternatives. There are redistribution or cuts issues which involve bargaining over
who get what, who gets more, and who gets less. For Wilson, criteria of costs and benefits
may be concentrated or dispersed. An issue, which may have very concentrated benefits to a
small section of society but whose costs are widely dispersed, is of a different kind to one that
may be for “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”.
In most developing countries, the Executive branch of government has either of three [3]
listed below, or all of them:
(i)
The policy-making bodies such as the Cabinet, or National Development
Council, etc.
(ii)
A Planning Commission or a Planning Unit and
(iii)
A Budgeting Unit.
85
An important question here is, whether these units work together with an integrated approach
or independently of each other. From a point of view of institutional development, it is
important for these units to be organized in an integrated Central Policy Cluster. Thus cluster
should consist of the Head of Government, the Cabinet Ministers, and other key political
advisers. Under the political advisers in the Central Policy Cluster there must be economists,
statistician, public administrators, planners, specialists, financial and other experts to analyse
the policies and advice on them and the Policy alternatives or inter disciplinary basis.
Within the Central Policy Cluster appropriate machinery should also be established for
(i)
Policy and Plan Implementation
(ii)
Reporting and Feed back
(iii)
Reviewing, and
(iv)
The adjustment and revision of policies and plans
DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLICY APPROACH
The development of policy approach rested on the ideals that government could by making
good policies solve problems of the society. It was America where initiative towards a more
integrated approach to the study of public problems and policy really began in the work of
Harold Lasswell which resulted in the publication of Lerner and Lasswell’s volume on the
‘policy sciences’. In this development, theorists made substantial contributions [Sapru, page
14]. In the wards of Lasswell, policy-sciences focused on three [3] aspects namely:
(i) Contextual
(ii) Multi-disciplinary and
(iii)Problem-oriented
SIGNIFICANCE AND WHY STUDY PUBLIC POLICY.
It’s argued that the study of Public Policy is an important mechanism for moving a social
system from the past to the future. In other words policy helps to shape the future if properly
implemented with less political interference. Alvin Toffler stated that what may be trivial to
day may be of colossal important in a future decade later. We can understand the future by
walking wisely on the present trends.
CONCLUSION:
86
It can be noted that the field of public policy has assumed considerable importance in
response to the increasing complexity of the society. It’s no longer concerned with the
description and explanation of the cause and consequences of government activities and
actions, but also with the development of scientific knowledge about the forces shaping
Public Policy. The study of Public Policy helps to understand the social ills of the subject
under study. One would say Public Policy is an important tool for moving a social system
from the past to the future. [Sapru page 20]
One need to understand that in the current phase of liberalisation, privatisation, and
globalisation, the role of the government has greatly changed the delivery of goods and
services is important, but it is not the critical role of the government. In the words of Kirlin,
“government is the institution of society with singular obligations to facilitate societal choicemaking and action.” [J.J.Kirlin, A Political Perspective” page 163 {23}].In Lasswell’s words,
the major aim of policy making, he wrote, was the formation of values which could shape the
full development of individuals in the society, the ultimate goal of policy-making was the
progressive democratisation of mankind. [Harold Lasswell power and personality [page 221[55/23].it’s the clarification, shaping and sharing of values so as to extend and enhance
democratisation which still remains the core and vital task of the theory and practice of the
Public Policy. Policies do more than effect change in societal conditions. They also hold a
people together and maintain an orderly State [Sapru page 21]
POLICY ANALYSIS
The study of Public Policy prepares and helps us to cope better with the future. It does greatly
improve on knowledge about the society we live in. An important part of the study of Public
Policy is concerned with society’s future. Gibson Winter notes the problem of policy is
intimately how the future is grasped and appraised. The essential meaning of responsibility
and accountability in human fulfilment in shaping of the society’s future [Sapru, page 50]
MEANING AND ISSUES OF POLICY ANALYSIS
The question of policy ultimately rest on the application of knowledge to political decisions.
Such knowledge is generated both within and outside the government agencies and other
public affairs institutions. An understanding of the causes and consequences of policy
decision permits us to apply the knowledge of social science to the solution of practical
problems.
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Policy analysis is a technique to measure organizational effectiveness through the
examination and evaluation of the effect of a programme. Public Policy analysis is have
nothing more than the impact of Public Policy on the government programmes.
Thomas Dye looks at policy analysis as the thinking man’s response to demands. He says
public analysis involves three major things:
1. A primary concern with explanation rather than prescription
2. A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of Public Policies
3. An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and consequences
of Public Policy and to accumulate reliable research findings of general relevance.
Policy analysis puts data to use in deciding about estimating and measuring the consequences
of Public Policy. Its purpose is to fold forward in organising information that will be of help
in solving societal problems. It provides maximum information with minimum cost about:
[1] The likely consequences of proposed policies, and
[11] The actual consequences of policies and the policies already adopted.
STAGES IN POLICY ANALYSIS
There are basically five [5] stages in policy analysis namely identifying the underlying
problem, determining alternatives for policy choice, forecasting and evaluating the
alternatives, making a choice, and limitations in policy choice.
1. IDENTIFYING THE UNDERLYING PROBLEM:
You first identify whether and why there is a problem at all. Here you define the problem,
you diagnose the form of making failure, that is confronted. Paying attention to the objectives
is very important at this stage of the problem.
2. DETERMINIG ALTERNATIVES FOR POLICY CHOICE
The next step is to determine the alternative courses of action to save the current problem.
Here it is important to determine which kind of intervention is most positive in any particular
situation. Defining alternatives for polices generally offers a chance for creative thought and
makes people to work hard in solving their problems. Often, the process is usually treated
merely as medicinal exercise, and consequently attractive ‘polices are not developed’,
adequate attention rarely proceeds on a straight forward fashion from the identification of the
problem to the selection of the preferred action.
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3. FORECASTING AND EVALUATING THE ALTERNATIVES:
Having identified the underlying problems and having determined the alternatives for the
Public Policy, the desired step is to establish what are the consequences of each of the
alternatives? Here you have to use relevant models for forecasting consequences. If the
consequences of an alternative course of action are uncertain, especially if the possible
outcomes differ widely from one another, the analyst may wish to develop a decision tree and
evaluate the possibility of each outcome. However, evaluation of the outcomes is greatly
importance as it reminds us to look carefully at the cost-benefit analysis of particular policy
choice. To offer, policy choices have been sabotaged or blocked by bureaucrats and
interested politicians. The analysts should seek the advice and counsel of experts on the field
without bias.
4. MAKING A CHOICE: The last step in policy making analysis relates to making the
preferred choice, which means the cause of action. The situation may appear to be simple for
the policy taken he/she can simply look at the consequences predicted for each alternative
and select the one that is best. In contrast, it may be so complex that he will have to think of
this preference among the various possible outcomes, reflecting how the world will behave in
response to the possible choice.
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Policy problem
Problem
structuring
Policy alternative
Evaluation
Policy process
Forecasting
Policy outcomes
Policy selection
Monitoring
Policy action
CYCLES IN THE POLICY PROCESS
5. LIMITATIONS: As the future is always uncertain it is questionable whether policy analysis
can find solutions to the problems regarding the future of society, poverty, unemployment,
inequality, environmental pollution, poor health facilities are some of the major problems in
Africa, of course, this can be considered as an excuse for failing to strive for a better society.
It must be realised that the solutions to these problems may be difficult to find.
It has been observed that policy analysis is gathering dust because they are either too long or
too hard to understand. A policy analysis is of no use if it cannot be communicated to others.
Too often, the policy analysis deals with subjective topics and must rely upon the
interpretation of results. Professional researchers often interpret the results of their analysis
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differently. Obviously, quite different policy recommendations can come out of these
alternatives interpretations of the results of research.
Secondly, policy analysis cannot provide solutions to problems when there is no general
consensus on what the problems are. It’s purely incapable of resolving societal value
conflicts. At best, it can offer advice on how to accomplish a certain set of end values. It
cannot determine what those end values should be. Further, social science research cannot be
value-free.
One may also state that it’s very difference for the government to care for all citizens, even
most of the problems of society cannot receive full attention. The government is constrained
by many forces, both within and outside, such forces cover population growth, patterns of
family life, class structure, religious beliefs, diversity of culture, financial limits, and some
social ills are very complex in nature to be easily and properly handled.
The fact that some ills are complex, posse a challenge to the state to adequately predict the
impact of proposed policies.
Despite the above limits, the government has a challenge to attempt to predict a feasible
solution than sit down and do nothing. Policy analysis may not provide an answer, but it’s an
appropriate tool in approaching policy questions and challenges. Policy analysis is applied to
inform the policy makers about the likely future consequences of choosing various
alternatives.
Models for policy analysis:
Different countries use different models of policy analysis. However the most common ones
cover the systems used for policy analysis, institutional approach to policy analysis and
Rational Policy Making Model.
In analysing public policy we construct models, maps or think in terms of metaphor. These
constitute frameworks within which and through which we can explain problems and social
processes. A variety of models and approaches has been advanced and used by theorists and
social scientists in the world. A few of these models and approaches to policy analysis are
discussed here below.
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[1] Systems Model for Policy Analysis: This model for policy analysis has been
regarded as a black box which converts the demands of the society into policies

Inputs: are seen as the physical products of the environment. They are received into the
political system in form of both demands and supports.

Demands: are the claims made on the political system by individuals and groups to alter
some aspects of the environment. Demands occur when individuals or groups, in response to
environmental condition, act to affect public policy.

The environment: Is any conditions or events defined as external to the boundaries of the
political system. The supports of a political system consist of the rules, laws, and customs
which provide a basis for the existence of a political community and the authorities. The
support is given when the individuals or groups accept the decisions or laws.

Output: are the authoritative value allocations of the political system, and these allocations
constitute public policy or policies.
WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE LIMITS OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH TO POLICY
ANALYSIS?
1. This input and output model appears to be simplistic to serve as a
useful aid to understanding the policy making process. This model
employs the value- laden techniques of welfare economics which are
based on the maximisation of a clearly defined social welfare
function:
2. This traditional input and output model tend to ignore the fragmentary
nature of the ‘blade box’. The missing ingredients in the systems
approach are the “power, personal, and institutions” of policy making.
3. The policy makers have a potential of influencing the environment
and policy making process.
4. Both the political and bureaucratic elite fashion mass opinion more
than the actual masses shape the leadership views. In western
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democracies, the bureaucrats’ role in shaping of policy direction is
largely technical and fairly minimal.
5. The extent to which the environment, both internal and external, is
said to have an influence on the policy making process is influenced
by the values and ideologies held by the decision-makers in the
system.
(1) Institutional approach to policy analysis: in a democratic society, a state is a web of
government structures and institutions. The state performs many functions. It attempts to
adjudicate between conflicting social and economic interests. The positive state is considered
as the guardian of all sections of the community. It does not defend the predominance of any
particular class or community. It attempts to protect all economic interests by accommodating
and reconciling them.
In a democratic society, the activities of individuals and groups are generally directed to
wands government institutions such as the Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, bureaucracy etc.
Public policy is formulated, implemented and enforced by governmental institutions.
Government institutions give policy [3] different characteristics:
[1] The government gives legal authority to policies. Public policy is the outcome of a
certain decision and is characterised by the use of legal sanctions. The State commands
the obedience of all the people.
[11] The application of public policy is universal. Public policies extend to all citizens in
the State and those living in its jurisdiction.
[111] Public policies involve coercion. The policy conveys the ideas of a capacity for
imposing penalties, through coercion of a kind usually resolved to the government itself.
[2] Rational Policy-Making Model: the rational idea emphasises that policy-making
is making a choice among policy alternatives on rational grounds. Rational policy
making is “to choose the one best option”[Y. Drov, Public Making Re-examined,
page 132-141/88]. Robert Haueman observes that a rational policy is one which is
designed to maximise “net value achievements” [Robert Henry Haueman, The
Economics of The Public Sector, 1970]. In the words of Dye Thomas ‘a policy is
rational when it is most efficient, that is, if the ration between the values it achieves
and the values of sacrifices is positive and higher than any other policy alternative.
‘[Thomas Dye, Understanding Public Policy, page 28-88]. He further says that the
93
idea of all efficiency involves the calculation of all social, political and economic
values sacrificed or achieved by Public Policy, not just those that can be measured in
dollar or kwacha.
Rational Policy-Making thus requires making hard choices among alternatives. It may mean
following given stages:
[1] The rationality assumes that the policy-makers identify the underlying problem.
[11] The rational policy-maker identifies the range of policy alternatives and options that
might attain some of the set goals.
[111] The calculation of predictions about costs and benefits of policy alternatives. The
rational policy-maker here is required to calculate for each alternative both the
expectation that will achieve the goals and also the costs.
[1v] Although simultaneously with calculating net expectations for each alternative, the
rational policy-maker is required to compare the alternatives with the highest benefits.
[v] The fifth stage is the stage of selecting the most efficient policy alternative. If the rational
policy-maker has done this properly, the policy choice should be straight forward.
Once a policy choice is complimented, the rational policy-maker is required to monitor this
implementation systematically to find out the accuracy of the expectations and estimates. If
necessary, the policy-maker will complete the gaps in policy or give it up all together. This
can also be referred to as ‘the feed back stage’ of rational policy-making. If the decisionmakers make use of the feed-back to monitor and adapt policy, the policy system becomes
self-correcting or cybernetic.
What Are The Possible Constraints To Rationality?
It has been clearly established that rational decision making suffers from many constraints.
The concept of rationality is bandied about so much and so discriminatingly that it threatens
to lose its meaning. It is more widely spoken about than put to real practise. Some of the
known constraints of rational policy-making include:
[a] In accomplishing goals: Rational policy making is a very difficult exercise. By the time
the policy-maker makes a recommendation, the policy in question becomes more complex
that rational prescriptions become decisions which are made on the basis of societal goals.
94
Instead, the try to maximise their own rewards, such as power, status, money and re-election.
Therefore, making a more rational policy is more an exercise than a goal.
[b] In Securing Optimisation: the rational policy-making process is expected to produce
optimal results. However in real life, it does not always do so. Usually the public interests are
taken to be of more importance than being merely the sum of individual interests in political
arena.
[c] Conflict Between Rational Choice And Need For Action: there is usually a conflict
between rational search behaviour and the need for action. As already stated, policy-makers
are not motivated to make decisions on the basis of societal goals, but try instead to maximise
their own rewards such as power, status, money, personal gain.
[d] Dilemma of Political Feasibility: By political feasibility we mean, “the possibility that,
however rational and desirable, a policy option would actually be adopted and implemented
by the political system.” [Ralph Huitt, Political Feasibility, page 263-275/89. Politicians too
often resolve the dilemma of political feasibility by avoidance of conflict.
[e] Problem of Cost-Benefit Analysis: it’s difficult for the policy-makers to calculate the
cost-benefit ratios accurately when many diverse social, economic, political and cultural
values are at stake. Apart from the above, policy-makers have personal needs, inhibitions and
inadequacies which render them incapable of making decisions.
[f] Nature and Environment of bureaucracy: The other barrier to rational policy-making is
the environment of the bureaucracies. Thomas Dye in his words notes ‘the segmentation
nature of policy making in large bureaucracy is difficult to coordinate decision-making so
that the input of all the various specialists is brought to bear at the point of decision’.
Fragmentation of authority, satisfying goals, conflicting values, limited technology,
uncertainty about the possible policy alternatives and consequences and other public
organizations do make rational policies making process difficult.
Conclusion
One might be forced to conclude that rational decision making model sets up goals and
procedures that are both naïve and utopian. It appears like rational policy making is very
difficult exercise to go into. Most theorists have a tendency to think that rational-making is
95
impossible. Yet this model still remains of critical importance for analytic purposes as it
helps to identify the constraints to rationality.
Simon’s Bounded Rationality
Herbert Simon has argued that policy-makers do not really ‘optimise’ but rather ‘satisfy’. To
him a “good” decision will do even if it is not the best decision [Herbert Simon, “a
behavioural Model of rational choice”, page 99-118]. A rational decision depends on
having a clear and well defined goal as well as sufficient authority to coordinate action.
Actual behaviour falls short of rationality in at least three [3] ways:
[1] Complete knowledge of the consequences of choice is necessary for rational
behaviour, but knowledge is always incomplete.
[2] Our valuation of future consequences is usually and most of the times imperfect.
[3] Rationality requires a choice among all possible alternative behaviours, but in reality,
only a few unclear alternatives usually come to mind.
Bibliography



Sapru R.K. [2007], Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation,
Sterling publishers Private limited, New Delhi, India, p 1- 288.
Chapter One of the Laws of Zambia, Constitution.
Rumki Basu, 2007, Public Administration- Concepts and Theories, Sterling
Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pages 450 to 462.
96
WRITING A GOOD ASSIGNMENT
EXAMPLE 0F AN ASSIGNMENT:
The President of the Republic of Zambia has appointed you as Special Assistant to the
President for Politics and Good Governance. The Cooperating Partners have aired their
views that they are concerned with the governance record of the country. HE directs you
to come up with suggestions and good practices for democracy and good governance so
as to improve the relationship of Zambia with the international community.
Prepare a paper in which you highlight the four [4] major actions and practices that
Zambia should take to be considered a democratic nation with a good record of good
governance.
ANALYZING A QUESTION TO ESTABLISH COMPONENTS OF A QUESTION.

Here you will need to carefully look at the question to establish key concepts that
you need to know before you can begin to do a research, the key concepts are
democracy, good governance and the elements of democracy.

Having established these concepts, you will need to research from current books,
in this case books in the range of publication from 2005 to 2014. The recent the
book, the better quality is the information to be obtained in such a book. Avoid
researching on the internet, unless the book you access on the internet has the
name of the author, year of publication, full title of the book or article, where
the book or article was published, which company published the article and
which pages did you refer too. In case your internet article does not give the full
information given above in high light, don’t use that information to support
your writings, in your essay.

You will need to know the details of the definition of democracy, good
governance and the elements of democracy and good governance.

Keep a good record of books you refer to in terms of author, full title of book,
year of publication, who published it and where was the book or article published.
You will need this information for references and later bibliography at the end of
the essay.

Establish what the question wants you to do exactly, in the question above, you
are required to give through discussions the four [4] actions and practices
that will make Zambia a country with a good record of good governance. Any
extra information is unnecessary and unwanted, and there is no marks for what is
not asked for.

Below is a draft answer of the question above. No two people will write exactly in
the same way and using same words, there for take the below as a draft and
guide, in terms of content.
97
A DRAFT SAMPLE OF AN ANSWER
In this essay, I am going to define democracy and then discuss the four [4] major actions and
practices that I will recommend that Zambia take to enable her be considered a democratic
nation with a good record of good governance. The four [4] areas of focus will be the rule of
law, decentralization, rights, liberty and equity and finally the separation of powers and
checks and balances of power among the three arms of government.
Many writers have defined democracy and good governance in many different ways. John
Locke and Edmund Burke have defined democracy as “a government of the people, by the
people and for the people” [Johari JC, 2012, p379]. While another author has defined
democracy a “Limited government bound by the laws of the land” [Johari, 2012, p379]. In
both definitions, there is a focus on putting in place the rules that control both the rulers and
the ruled to a point where non of them has excessive power. All are controlled by the same
laws and rules in a fair way.
In the words of Bentham and James Mills, democracy means “the greatest good of the
greatest number” [Johari JC, 2012, p 379]. This means, if few citizens of a country are happy
with the way things are going, it means there is no democracy unless the majority of the
citizens are the ones that are happy. In the case of Zambia, where few cast their votes in a bye
election, and a candidate win, Bentham and James Mills, will say although an election was
held, there is no democracy in this country since only a few will celebrate and not the
majority.
Some writers have said, surprisingly, the word democracy may be recklessly applied to a
system that has hardly anything like democratic in it [Johari, 2012, p 383]. Most of the
African countries fall in this sad trap.
There are many points that one would want to recommend to HE, in order to make Zambia a
democratic State. These may include rule of law, participation, decentralization,
responsiveness, consultation, political diversity, accountability, transparency, checks and
balances, the list is endless. However, as earlier stated, I will focus on the four [4] areas, as
requested in the question am addressing, which has limited the area of attention.
The first action and practice to be taken by Zambia is to implement the “rule of law”. Muna
Ndulo states, “ the rule of law has become a central focus of domestic and international
effort to promote good governance [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 1]. This means that any country
that does not practice and put in action the rule of law is not a democratic State. The rule of
law should cover the election practices and appointments of those who make and execute
policy as well as fairness in the manner policy is applied. These views are supported by many
authors [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 1].
98
When one addresses the rule of law, this means that the use of State power, through rules of
law make sure it will establish the economic and social system agreed upon by the citizens
through a people driven Constitution [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p1]. This will imply a government
operating under a Constitution has no more power than is granted to the leaders by the
Constitution. All their activities and power are checked strictly by the Constitution [ Muna
Ndulo, 2010, p3]. This will call for the governments which are organized around institutions,
not individuals in the name of the President or Prime Minister, the institutions will engage in
the delivery of goods and services which are quality while ensuring government
accountability for every action and practice done by government [ Muna Ndulo, 2010, p4].
The second action and practice to be effected in Zambia will be decentralization.
Decentralization does not mean creation of districts, entails transferring power from the
centre to districts outside the national capital. Decentralization demands for greater self
determination of the rural poor [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 79]. Yet, the issue of the devolution of
power is one that many African countries give lip service while failing to address the matter
in reality [Muna Ndulo, 2010, p 79]. Decentralization will become a reality if African
countries with its leaders reduce the concentration of power at the centre and allow citizens to
fully participate in their governance. It’s a known factor that decentralization has the
challenge of distributional equity and macro economics as most authors have observed [Muna
Ndulo, 2010, p 83]. The subject of decentralization has proved to be a challenge in Zambia
for fifty [50] years now, due to lack of political will.
The third action and practice to be put in place is one revolving around the human right,
liberty and equity. The human rights, liberty and equity should be given to all individual not
the political parties [Johari JC, 2012, p 134]. All citizens regardless of their political party
affiliation, should enjoy freely their moral rights, legal rights, civil rights and political rights.
Citizens must enjoy their human rights, liberty and equity without any single interference
from the State [Johari JC, 2012, p 141]. Individual human rights should not interfere with the
rights of other citizens. This means where my rights end, other individual’s rights begin.
Liberty and human rights does not mean there is no restrictions and limitations. The rule of
law and the existence of other law enforcement institutions make it possible to restrain and
limit the powers of all individuals against others [ Johari JC, 2012, p 144].
The fourth [4] and final action and practice to be effected is the principle of separation of
powers, checks and balances. Where there is democracy and good governance, the three arms
of government operate in an independent and separate circumstance. The Executive, the
Judiciary and the Legislature are purely separate and provide checks and balances against
each other. This makes the system to be a recipe for good governance and democratization
[Johari JC, 2012, p 279]. Zambia and all other African countries have not moved an inch to
wards this goal. One of the known author, Montesquieu, wrote, “when the legislature and the
executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates, there can
be no liberty, because apprehension may arise, let the same monarch or senate should enact
tyrannical laws, and execute them in a tyrannical manner” [Johari JC, 2012, p 280]. The
separation of powers among the other three arm of government, creates an environment that
99
enables each arm of the government to check and balance the other, without any of the three
becoming more powerful than the other [Johari JC, 2012, p 279].
As I conclude, it is very important that I state that there is connection between a people
driven constitution and social, economic development of a country. For example,
democratization and good governance results in a stable government, which creates an
environment where genuine investors are attracted and results in the growth of the economy
and worth. Further, its also true to state that where there is good governance, wasteful in
unnecessary and unproductive by elections in the name of democracy are put aside.
Democracy can also turn politics into genuine service than an official opportunity of plunder
of national resources.
Given a chance to implement these four [4] recommendations, the nation as a whole will see
sound change in the social, economic and political arena of its citizens.
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100
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