Chapter Two
Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Animal and Human Play
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Play is not found in all animals, but only in
those that are the most sophisticated (e.g.,
birds, mammals)
Play is rare among mature animals
We shouldn’t generalize too much when
comparing humans and lower animals
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Play As Pretense
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In humans and other animals, play is
characterized by taking a behavior out of
context
It is a “simulation” and it gives you a chance
to try out behaviors in a safe setting
Animals who play the most when young
develop better motor skills and are more
successful in adult situations.
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Animal Play Looks Like Aggression
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Animal play usually contains a good deal
of aggression, such as chasing, biting,
butting, and wrestling.
This type of play becomes especially
noticeable at the time the animal is trying
to establish its position within the peer
group.
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Animal Play Isn’t Real Aggression
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It’s joyful rather than serious
It’s modified so that no one will be hurt
It involves role changes
It usually includes pauses
It looks like a fine-tuned version of aggression
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Animal Play and Socialization
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The most social animals, who live in hierarchical
societies are the most likely to play.
Monkeys not allowed to play with peers are delayed
in social and sexual development as adults
Monkeys not allowed to play are usually rejected by
peers later on.
Play must teach the rules of social interaction.
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Culture and Object Play
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Toddlers in the U.S. play in elaborate ways with
objects
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They manipulate them
Relate them to one another
Examine them to understand their properties
But in some cultures toddlers simply pick up and
drop objects, mouth them, or bang them
Differences are due to parental support and
encouragement for object play
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Culture and Symbolic Play
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Children enact roles that reflect everyday life
experience
If exposed to adult roles, dramatic play is
highly realistic
If separated from adult activities, dramatic
play has greater elements of fantasy
The functions of make believe play depend on
the values of the culture
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Comments Mothers Make to Toddlers
in Free Play
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Give the baby a kiss.
This has a square shape.
Show me the toy that
has a round shape.
What does the doll say?
What color is the doll’s
dress?
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
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Can you push the truck and
make it go?
Do you think the doll
would like some food?
The baby’s crying. Can
you make her all better?
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Comments Mothers Make to Toddlers
in Free Play:
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Do you think the doll
would like some food?
Give the baby a kiss.
What does the doll say?
The baby’s crying. Can
you make her all better.
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
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Can you push the truck and
make it go?
What color is the doll’s
dress?
This has a square shape.
Show me the toy that has a
round shape.
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
How are the Comments Different?
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Emphasize dependency
on others
Emphasize
relationships
Draw children close to
them
Japanese Moms
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Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Emphasize
independence
Encourage physical and
verbal assertiveness
Encourage attention to
and exploration of
environment
American Moms
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Cultures With No Games
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Subsistence economies
Simple technology
Homogeneous cultural values
No social stratification
Little need for competition
Little emphasis on obedience training of
children
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Cultures With Only Games of
Physical Skill
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Simple subsistence economies
Simple technology
Small communities
No social stratification
Games resemble skills needed in adulthood
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Cultures With Games of Chance
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Wide range of cultural diversity
Environmental, individual, and social
uncertainty
Stricter child socialization
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Cultures With Games of Strategy
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High degree of cultural complexity
Advanced technology
Social class stratification
Severe child socialization
Emphasis on responsibility, achievement, selfreliance, obedience to rules
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Competition and Cooperation
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Not mutually exclusive
Few cultures are only competitive or only
cooperative when they play
Competition and cooperation often happen
within the same game
The difference is in the proportion of each of
them
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Why Are There Cultural
Differences?
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Economic Factors
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People are the most competitive in cultures that
are:
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Affluent
Technologically advanced
Highly Complex
Competition is often discouraged in poor
societies. Why?
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Collectivism Versus Individualism
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Collectivism:
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Group Goals
Group Loyalty
Group Identification
Communal Labor
Communal Property
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
Individualism
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Loyalty to self before group loyalty
Individual rather than collective identity
Work is to benefit the individual and his or
her family rather than the state
Individuals have a right to own property
Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives
American
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Choose difficult goals
for children
Refuse to lower
standards if child fails
Encourage children not
to admit defeat
Mexican
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Children, Play, and Development, Fourth Edition
Choose easier goals
Praise children for
trying even if they fail
Suggest new tasks if
child is having
difficulty
Strongly discourage
aggression toward
peers
Chapter 2: Ethological and Cultural Perspectives