Lecture 1.4: Rules of Inference, and
Proof Techniques*
CS 250, Discrete Structures, Fall 2011
Nitesh Saxena
*Adopted from previous lectures by Cinda Heeren
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8/25/2011
Lecture 1.4 - Rules of Inference,
and Proof Techniques
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Outline
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Rules of Inference (contd.)
Other Proof techniques
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Lecture 1.4 - Rules of Inference,
and Proof Techniques
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Complex Example: Rules of Inference
Here’s what you know:
Ellen is a math major or a CS major.
If Ellen does not like discrete math, she is not a CS major.
If Ellen likes discrete math, she is smart.
Ellen is not a math major.
Can you conclude Ellen is smart?
MC
D  C
DS
M
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Lecture 1.4 - Rules of Inference,
and Proof Techniques
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Complex Example: Rules of Inference
1. M  C
2. D  C
3. D  S
4. M
Given
Given
Given
Given
5. C
6. D
7. S
DS (1,4)
MT (2,5)
MP (3,6)
Ellen is smart!
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Rules of Inference: Common Fallacies
Rules of inference, appropriately applied give valid
arguments.
Mistakes in applying rules of inference are called
fallacies.
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Rules of Inference: Common Fallacies
If I am Bonnie Blair, then I skate fast
I skate fast!
Nope
 I am Bonnie Blair
((p  q)  q)  p
Not a tautology.
If you don’t give me $10, I bite your ear.
I bite your ear!
 You didn’t give me $10.
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Nope
Lecture 1.4 - Rules of Inference,
and Proof Techniques
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Rules of Inference: Common Fallacies
If it rains then it is cloudy.
It does not rain.
 It is not cloudy
Nope
If it is a car, then it has 4 wheels.
((p  q)  p)  q
It is not a car.
 It doesn’t have 4 wheels.
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Not a tautology.
Nope
Lecture 1.4 - Rules of Inference,
and Proof Techniques
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Direct Proofs
A totally different example:
Prove that if n = 3 mod 4, then n2 = 1 mod 4.
7 = 3 mod 4
HUH?
7 = 111 mod 4
37 = 1 mod 4
37 = 61 mod 4
94 = 2 mod 4
94 = 6 mod 4
16 = 0 mod 4
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Lecture 1.4 - Rules of Inference,
and Proof Techniques
16 = 1024 mod 4
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Direct Proofs
Coming back to our Theorem:
If n = 3 mod 4, then n2 = 1 mod 4.
Proof:
If n = 3 mod 4, then n = 4k + 3 for some int k.
This means that:
n2 = (4k + 3)(4k + 3)
= 16k2 + 24k + 9
= 16k2 + 24k + 8 + 1
= 4(4k2 + 6k + 2) + 1
= 4j + 1 for some int j
= 1 mod 4.
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Direct Proofs: another example
Theorem: If n is an odd natural number, then n2 is
also an odd natural number.
Proof:
If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1 for some int k.
This means that:
n2 = (2k+1)(2k+1)
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2j + 1 for some int j
 n2 is odd
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Proofs by Contraposition
Recall: Contrapositive: p  q and q  p
Ex. “If it is noon, then I am hungry.”
“If I am not hungry, then it is not noon.”
We also know that: p  q

q  p
Therefore, if establishing a direct proof (p  q) is difficult
for some reason, we can instead prove its contraposition
(q  p), which may be easier.
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Proofs by Contraposition: example
Theorem: If 3n + 2 is an odd natural number, then n
is also an odd natural number.
Proof:
If n is not odd, then n = 2k for some int k.
This means that:
3n+2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 2(3k) + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
= 2j for some int j
 3n+2 is not odd
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Proofs by Contraposition:
another example
Theorem: If N = ab where a and b are natural numbers, then
a <= sqrt(N) or b <= sqrt(N).
Proof:
If a > sqrt(N) AND b > sqrt(N), then by multiplying the
two inequalities, we get
ab > N
This negates the
proposition N=ab
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Proofs by Contradiction
Recall: Contradiction is a proposition that is always
False
To prove that a proposition p is True, we try to find
a contradiction q such that p  q is True.
If p  q is True and q is False, it must be the case
that p is True.
We suppose that p is False and use this to find a
contradiction of the form r  r
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Proofs by Contradiction: example
Theorem: Every prime number is an odd number
Proof:
A: n is prime
B: n is odd
We need to show that A  B is true
We need to find a contradiction q such that:  (A  B)  q
We know:  (A  B)  (A  B)  A  B
This means that we suppose (n is prime) AND (n is even) is True
But, if n is even, it means n has 2 as its factor, and this means
that n is not prime.
This is a contradiction because (n is prime) AND (n is not prime) is
True
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Proofs by Contradiction: example
Theorem: If 3n + 2 is an odd natural number, then n is also an
odd natural number.
Proof:
A: 3n + 2 is odd
B: n is odd
We need to show that A  B is true
We need to find a contradiction q such that:  (A  B)  q
We know:  (A  B)  (A  B)  A  B
This means that we suppose that (3n + 2 is odd) AND (n is even) is
True.
But, if n is even, it means n = 2k for some int k, and this means
that 3n + 2 = 6K+2 = 2(3K+1)  even.
This is a contradiction: (3n + 2 is odd) AND (3n +2 is even)
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Disproving something: counterexamples
If we are asked to show that a proposition is False,
then we just need to provide one counter-example
for which the proposition is False
In other words, to show that x P(x) is False, we can
just show x P(x) = x P(x) to be True
Example: “Every positive integer is the sum of the
squares of two integers” is False.
Proof: counter-examples: 3, 6,…
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and Proof Techniques
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Today’s Reading
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Rosen 1.7
Please start solving the exercises at the end
of each chapter section. They are fun.
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and Proof Techniques
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