OXFORD STUDIES IN TYPOLOGY AND LINGUISTIC
THEORY
,-----_
..... -
--~-
._..........._..__ . __ . -...
--~~-
SERa,s EDl mRS: Ronnie Cann, UlliFersit)' o/Edinburg/;, William Croft, UII/pasi!), of
i\1W/{'/iesfer, Mark Durie Un/vasill' oj IHelhollrT1e, Anna Siewierska, University of
Lancaster
This series offers a forum ror orginal and accessible books on language typology
and linguistic universals. Works published will bc theoretically innovative and
informed and will seek Lo link theory and empirical research in ways thaI are
mutually productive. Each voillme will also provide the reader with a wide range
of cross-linguistic data. The series is open to typological work in semantics, syntax,
phonology. and phonetics or at the interfaces between these fields.
Puhlished:
in(/(:jinite
Martin
PI"01101lllS
Ha.~pclmath
Inlmnsifi)'!' Predicatioll
Leon Stassen
Cla.l·slliers: 11 Tvpology oj NO/Ill Calegori::atioll
Alcx(lnJw A. Aikhenvald
AnI/plIOI'(!
Yan I·luang
III prCI)(ll'aliow
The /1/(11111 Phrase
Jan Rijkhoff
Douhle Ohiee! CUl1slrucriolls
Maria Polinsky
D('1'/('('.)"
CLASSIFIERS
A Typology of Noun
Categorization Devices
ALEXANDRA Y. AIKHENVALD
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX26Dr'
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chenaai
Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Ist<J.ubul KarachI Kolkata
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbili Nairobi
Sao Paulo Sbanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and certain other countries
Published in the United States
by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
© A. Y Aikhenvald 2003
The moral fights of the author have been asserted
Database right ·Oxford University Press (maker)
First published 2000
First published in paperback 2003
All rights re~erved, No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, ill any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxit)rd University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organizations. Enquines concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding Of cover
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Data applied for
ISBN 0-19-823886 X
ISBN Q..-19-926466-X (pbk.)
I 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
Typeset in Times
by J&L Composition, Filey, Nurth Yorkshire
Printed in Great Britain
on acid-free paper by
BiddIes Ltd, Guildford & King's Lynn
For Bob, okojibotee
Preface
This book ailn~ at providing a cross-linguistic analysis of noun classification
systems across the languages of the world, also dealing with a variety of
other problems such as the morphological status of the markers of these
categories, agreement phenomena, and the syntactic and semantic
classification of adjectives and numbers. It is generally accepted that
linguistic categorization of nouns is a reflection of human mind and culture.
The present study thus has far-reaching implications for cross-cultural as
well as cross-linguistic studies of human cognition, and will provide new
insights concerning the mechanism~ by which human language functions.
Languages with extensive systems of noun classification devices,
especially those which combine classifiers and genders, present a true
challenge for the typologist. My first encounter with these unusual systems
was through fieldwork 011 Tariana and Baniwa, Lwo closely related North
Arawak languages spoken in Northwest Amazonia. The more I worked on
the topic. the more exotic and unusual systems I encountered, especially
among littlc-knmvn South American languages, and languages of the
South Pacific. This book came ill to being as an attempt to integrate these
systems into a cross-linguistically based typological framework.
This study is an up-to-date introduction to the fIeld, and will be of value
not only to a wide variety of linguists and linguistic students but also 10
anthropologists, cognitive psychologists, and philosophers who arc interested
in language and the mind. It can be used both as a sourcebook for further
typological studies, and as a textbook. The discussion in the book is in
terms of basic linguistic theory, the framework of linguistic analysis in
terms of which most grammars are cast, and in terms of which significant
typological generalizations are postulated. (l have avoided llsing any of the
more specific formalisms. which come and go with such frequcncy.)
Some terminological clarifications arc in order. First, my conception of a
lexical entry for 'noun' roughly corresponds to thc notion of 'lexeme' as
outlined by Lyons (1977 vol. 1: 19). Second, throughout the book 'lingui~tie
categorization of a noun' is used to mean 'linguistic categorization
the
referent of a noun', just as in many linguistic usages 'human noun' is a short
\vay of saying 'noun with a human referent'. Third, the term 'noun categorization' is used here in a sense close to the 'noun classification' (cf. Craig
I 986a; Derbyshire and Payne 1990) or 'nominal classification' (d. Harvey and
Reid 1997) employed by other authors. The term 'classifier system' reiCrs to a
grmmnatical system of noun categorization device(s) in a particular language.
or
viii
Pre/ace
In order to limit the book to a reasonable size. I have only been able to
refer to a portion of the available literature. There are many other sources
that 1 have consulted, which only provide additional exemplification for
points that are already well covered. When a language is introduced for the
first time, its genetic affiliation and the source of information on it are
given in parentheses; further on, this information is only repeated where
relevant. Examples, tables and diagrams are numbered separately within
each chapter.
The orthography used in the examples and language names follows that
of the sources (unless indicated otherwise).
A study like this could only be definitive when good and thorough
descriptions have been provided for most of the world's languages; we are
at present a long way from this situation. Nevertheless, I hope that this
study will provide a framework within which fieldworkers and typologists
will be able to work, and which can be amended and adjusted as new data
and new insights emerge.
It is my hope that this book will encourage people to study noun
classification devices, especially in little·known or undescribed languages,
going out into the field and documenting languages threatened by extinction (before it is too late to do so).
Acknowledgements
My gratitude goes to all those native speakers who taught me their
languages and their unusual classifier and gender systems: Candido, Jose,
Jovino. Graciliano, and Olivia Brito (Tariana); Humberto Baltazar and
Pedro Angelo Tomas (Warekena); the latc Candelario da Silva (Bare);
Afonso, Albino and Joao Fontes, Celestino da Silva, Cecilia and Laureano
da Silva, and the late Marcilia Rodrigues (Balliwa); the late Tiago Cardoso
(Des ana, Piratapuya); Alfredo Fontes (Tueano); Marilda and Carlita
Paumari (Paumari); Raimunda Palikur (Palikur); Simone Nientao
(Tamachek) and-··last but not least-Pauline and James Laki (Manambu).
I am also indebted to students in the Federal University of Santa Catarina,
Brazil, and in the Australian National University. I learned a lot from
working with Rute Amorim, Lilias Chun, Christiane Cunha de Oliveira,
Tim Curnow, Michael Dunn, Catriona Hyslop, Dorothy Jauncey, Yunseok
Lee, Eva Lindstrom, Peita Littleton, Rina Marnita, Silvana Martins,
Kazuko Obata, Kristina Sands, Eva Tatrai, Angela Terrill, Simoni
Valadares, and Jacki Wicks. My warmest thanks go to Silvana and Valteir
Martins and Lenita and Elias Coelho de Assis, without whose friendship
and assistance a great deal of my fieldwork would have been impossible.
Special gratitude goes to Diana Green, who revealed to me the beauty of
genders and classifiers in PalikuL
I am most grateful to those people who helped me by sending copies of
their papers, answering my questions and commenting on various parts of
this manuscript: Jose Alvarez, Mengistu Amberber, Felix Ameka, Peter
van Baade, Janet Barnes, Candida Barros, Edith Bavin, Walter Bisang,
Kim Blewett, Paula Boley, John Boyle, Friederike Braun, Lea Brown, Bill
Callister, Lyle Campbell, Eugene Casad, Meiyun Chang-Smith, Adam
Chapman, Shirley Chapman, Hilary Chappell, Helen Charters, Bernard
Comrie, Bob Conrad, Grev Corbett, Tim Curnow, Des Derbyshire, Connie
Dickinson, Tony Diller, Gerritt Dimmendaal, Mark Donohue, Nancy
Dorian, Mark Durie, Tom Dutton, Nora England, Nick Evans, Cindi
and Jim Farr, Bill Folcy, Lys Ford, David roris, Paul Frank, David Gjl,
Cliff Goddard, Elsa Gomez-Imbert, Ian Green, Rebecca Green, Colette
Grinevald (Craig), Geoff l-iaig, Mark Harvey, Rie Hasada, Bernd Heine,
Debbie Hill, Chu-Ren Huang, Rodney Huddleston, Suanll Ikoro, Liisa
Jarvinen, Jae Jung Song, Aleksandr 1. Kibrik, Harold Koch, Antonina r.
Koval', Randy LaPolla, Jason Lee, Jennie Lee, JetT Leer, W P. Lehmann,
Adrienne Lehrer, Frank Lichtenberk, Eva Lindstrom, Elizabeth Lobel,
x
Acknowledgements
Ivan LOvve, Harriet Manelis-Klein, Jack Martin, Marianne Mithun,
Catherine McGuckin, Ulrike Mosel, Otto NekiteJ, Bee Chin Ng, Johanna
Nichols, Masayuki Onishi, Patricia Pacloni, Helma Pasch, Peter Paul,
Andrew Pawley, David Payne, Vladimir Plungian, Bill Poser, Kostantin
Pozdnjakov, Bruce Rigsby, Phil Quick, Susan Quigley, Katya Rakhilina,
Henri Ramirez, Nick Reid, Keren Rice, Aryon Rodrigues, Malcolm Ross,
Carl Rubino, Alan Rumsey, Filomena Sandalo, Risto Sarsa, HansjakQb
Seiler, Lucy Seki, Gunter Senft, Bcatriz and Rodolfo Senn, Gj-Hyun Shin,
Tim Shopen, Edgar Suter, Chad Thompson, Irina Toporova, Joe Tsonope,
lone Vasconcelos, Alejandra Vidal, Tiit-Rein Viitso, Viktor A. Vinogradov,
Julie Waddy, Bruce Waters, Laurel Watkins, Anna Wierzbicka, Mary Ruth
Wise, Stephen Wurm, and Roberto Zavala.
I am most grateful to those who read through the whole draft of this book,
or parts of it, and provided comments, corrections and ideas--Peter Denny,
Nancy Dorian, David Foris, Cliff Goddard, Nikolaus Himmelmann, Frank
Lichtenberk, Edith Moravcsik, Patricia Pacioni, Helma Pasch, Doris Payne,
Nick Reid, Malcolm Ross, Fritz Serzisko, and Roberto Zavala. Invaluable
comments on almost every page came from R. M. \V Dixon, Keith Allan,
Walter Bisang, Lyle Campbell, Gerritt Dimmendaal, Mark Durie, Vlrike
Mosel, and Gunter Senft.
My deepest gratitude goes to the SIL Library in Ukarumpa, and to Paul
Frank, the director of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (Colombia),
who provided me with invaluable materials on languages of Papua New
Guinea and Colombia respectively.
I am also grateful to the members of Ecsti Noortc Grupp of CanberraReet Bergman, Krista Gardiner, and Reet Val1ak--who helped me realize
that communicating in a language without genders or classifiers can be
great fun.
Suzanne Kite carefully read through several drafts of this book and
corrected it with her usual skill, dedication, and good humour. Thanks
are equaHy due to her.
Jennifer Elliott provided a wonderful working atmosphere at the
Research Centre for Linguistic Typology. This book would have been
scarcely possible without her.
Plea
This book is far from being the last word on noun categorization devices. I
welcome reactions, counterexamples, new ideas and data, to further
develop, refine, and improve the generalizations put forward here. Please
send them to me at Research Centre for Linguistic Typology, La Trobe
University, Bundoora Vic., 3083 Australia.
Contents
List of Maps
xx
List Of Tables
XX)
List of Diagrams
List of A bbreviatiol1s
XXIV
xxv
]. Preliminaries
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
General remarks
Classifiers: an illustration
Theoretical framework, data, and sources
Approaches to the typology of classifiers
Parameters for the typology of classifiers
The structure of this book
2. Noun Class and Gender Systems
2.1 General remarks
2.2 Properties of noun class systems
2.3 Principles of noun class assignment
2.3.1 Semantic assignment
2.3.2 Morphological assignment
2.3.3 Phonological assignment
2.3.4 Mixed principles of assignment
2.4 Noun classes and agreement
2.4.1 A working definition of agreement and
agreement properties
2.4.2 Principles of noun class agreement
2.4.3 Variability in noun class assignment and
variable agreement
2.4.4 Determining the number of noun classes in
a language
2.5 Markedness and resolution in noun classes
2.5.1 Markedness
2.5.2 Noun class resolution
2.5.3 Markedness relationships in noun classes
2.6 Realization of noun classes
2.6.1 Overt and covert noun class marking
2.6.2 Morphological realization of noun classes
2.6.3 Double marking of noun classes
1
1
4
5
13
16
19
19
20
22
22
25
25
25
28
28
31
41
45
50
50
52
54
56
57
58
63
XIV
Content.\'
2.7 Languages with more than one kind of noun class
2.7.1 Nominal and pronominal noun class
2.7.2 Different kinds of noun class in the same
environment
2.7.3 Languages with more than one kind of noun class:
a summary
2.8 Distribution of noun classes in the languages of the
world
3. Noun Classifiers
3.1 Properties of noun classifiers
3.2 Noun classifiers: discussion and exemplification
3.2.1 The choice of noun classifiers and the
co occurrence of several classifiers within one
noun phrase
3.2.2 Semantic functions or noun classifiers
3.2.3 Size of inventory and degree of
grammaticalization of noun classifiers
3.2.4 Syntactic functions of noun classifiers
3.3 Noun classifiers and numeral classifiers
3.4 Realization and grammaticalization of noun classifiers
3.5 Overt noun class marking and nOHn classifiers
3.6 Distribution of noun classifiers in the languages of
the world
4. Numeral Classifiers
4.1 Properties of numeral classifiers
4.2 Numeral classifier constructions and morphological
realization of numeral classifiers
4.2.1 Numeral classifiers as independent lexemes
4.2.2 Numeral classifiers attached to numerals
4.2.3 Numeral classifiers attached to the head noun
4.3 Languages with more than one morphological type of
numeral classifier
4.3.1 Different types of numeral classifier in
complementary distribution
4.3.2 Different types of numeral classiller which
occur together
4.4 Problems with numeral classifiers
4.4.1 Mensural and sortal classifiers: distinguishing
classifiers from quantifying expressions
4.4.2 Incipient numeral classifiers
4.5 Distribution of numeral classifiers in the languages of
the world
67
68
70
76
77
81
81
82
82
84
84
87
90
91
92
97
98
98
101
101
105
110
112
112
113
114
114
120
121
Contents
xv
5, Classifiers in Possessive Constructions
5.1 Categorization in possessive constructions
5.2 Possessed classifiers
5.3 Relational classifiers
5.3.1 Relational classifiers and their properties
5.3.2 Types of possession and relational classifiers
5.4 Possessor classifiers
5.5 Interaction of possessed and relational classifiers
5.5.1 Integrating relational and possessive classifiers
5.5.2 Languages with two types of classifier in
possessive constructions
5,6 Contrasting classifiers in possessive constructions
5.7 Distribution of classifiers in possessive constructions
in the languages of the world
125
125
126
133
l33
137
l39
140
140
6. Verbal Classifiers
6.1 Properties of verbal classifiers
6.2 Realization of verbal classifiers
6.2.1 Classificatory noun incorporation
6.2.2 Verbal classifiers as affixes
6.2.3 Suppletive 'classificatory verbs'
6.2.4 The interaction of the three types of verbal
classifier
6.3 Verbal classifiers and syntactic function of the argument
6.4 Combinations of different types of verbal classifier
6.4.1 Different types of verbal classifier in complementary
distribution
6,4.2 Distinct systems of verbal classifiers
6.5 Distribution of verbal classifiers
149
149
149
150
152
153
7. Locative and Deictic Classifiers
172
172
i72
176
7.1 The structure of this chapter
7.2 Properties of locative classifiers
7.3 Properties of deictic classifiers
7.3.1 Examples of deictic classifiers
7.3.2 Conclusions and discussion
8., Different Classifier Types in One Language
8.1 General observations
8.2 Coexisting classifier sets in different environments
8,3 Different classifier sets in the same environment
8.4 Conclusions
l42
144
147
J 60
162
163
163
167
169
177
lSI
IS4
184
185
198
201
XVI
Contents
9. Multiple Classifier Languages
Noun categorization in multiple classifier languages
9.1
Multiple classifier languages and noun class agreement
9.2
on multiple targets
9.3 Fuzzy types: overlapping classifiers in multiple
environments
9.3.1 Multiple classifiers in Baniwa
9.3.2 Multiple classifiers in Tariana
9.3.3 Fuzzy types and borderline cases
10. Classifiers and Other Gnlmmatical Categories
10.1
Classifiers and number
10.1.1 Noun classes and number
10.1.2 Number and other classifier types
10.2 Classifiers and person
10.3 Classifiers and grammatical function
10.3.] Noun classes and grammatical function
lO.3.2 Verbal classifiers and grammatical function
10.4 Classifiers and types of possession
IOA.1 Noun classes and types of possession
1004.2 Classifiers in possessive constructions and types
of possession
10.5 Classifiers and politeness
10.6 Classifiers and declensional classes
10.7 Classifiers and verbal categories
10.8 Classifiers and deictic categories
10.9 Classifiers, derivation, and lexicon
10.1 0 Conclusions
11. Semantics of NOLln Categorization Devices
ILl
204
204
228
230
230
235
240
242
243
243
249
252
255
255
257
257
258
259
260
262
263
266
266
268
271
Semantic parameters in noun categorization
271
11.1.1 Basic parameters of categorization
271
274
11.1.2 Additional semantic characteristics
11.1.3 Semantic rciationship between a classifier and
the referent
11.2 Semantics of classifier types
11.2.1 Semantics of noun classes
11.2.2 Semantics of noun classifiers
11.2,3 Semantics of numeral classifiers
11.2.4 Semantics of classifiers in possessive
constructions
11.2.5 Semantics of verbal classifiers
275
275
275
283
286
293
295
Contents
11.2.6 Semantics of locative and of deictic classifiers
11.2.7 Semantic parameters in languages with several
different types of classifier
11.2.8 Semantic parameters in multiple classifier
systems
11.2.9 Conclusions
12. Semantic Organization and Functions of Noun
Categorization
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
Semantic organization and functions of classifier
systems
12.1.1 Semantic complexity in classifier systems
12.1.2 Semantic roles of classifiers
12.1.3 Discourse-pragmatic fUllctions of classifiers
12.104 Applicability of classifiers and default classes
Human cognition and classifiers
12.2.1 Perceptual correlates of noun categorization
12.2.2 Cognitive mechanisms and noun categorization
Social and cultural issues in noun categorization
12.3.1 Social structure in noun categorization
12.3.2 Environment and culture in noun categorization
12.3.3 Culture-specific metaphorical extensions
12.3 A Socio-cultural motivations for change in noun
categorization
Conclusions
13. Origin and Development of Noun Categorization Devices
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
Lexical sources for classifiers
] 3.1.1 From a noun to a. classifJer
13.1.2 Repeater phenomena and the origin of classifier
constructions
13.1.3 From a verb to a classifier
13.104 Classifiers from deverbal nominalizations
13.1. 5 Classifiers of mixed origin
From a closed class to a noun categorization system
Languages with several classifier tYPl:S, and the relative
age of noun categorization devices
Internal evolution of noun categorization
Grammaticalizatioll and reanalysis in nOlln
categorization systems
13.5.1 Grammalicalization in the development of noun
categorization
13.5.2 Reanalysis in noun categorization
XVII
300
301
303
305
307
307
308
317
320
334
337
337
339
340
342
343
346
347
350
352
353
353
361
362
365
366
367
370
372
374
374
377
Contents
XVI
9. Multiple Classifier Languages
9.1
9.2
9.3
Noun categorization in multiple classifier languages
Multiple classifier languages and noun class agreement
011 multiple targets
Fuzzy types: overlapping classifiers in multiple
environments
9.3.1 Multiple classifiers in Baniwa
9.3.2 MUltiple classifiers in Tariana
9.3.3 Fuzzy types and horderline cases
10. Classifiers and Other Grammatical CaLegories
10.1
Classifiers and number
10.1.1 Noun classes and number
10.1.2 Number and other classifier types
10.2 Classifiers and person
10.3 Classifiers and grammalical function
10.3.1 Noun classes and grammatical function
10.3.2 Verbal classifiers and grammatical function
10.4 Classifiers and types of possession
10.4.1 Noun classes and types of possession
10.4.2 Classifiers in possessive constructions and types
of possession
10.5 Classifiers and politeness
10.6 Classifiers and declensional classes
10.7 Classifiers and verbal categories
10.8 Classifiers and deictic categories
10.9 Classifiers, derivation, and lexicon
10.10 Conclusions
11. Semantics of Noun Categorization Devices
ILl
Semantic parameters in noun categorization
11.1.1 Basic parameters of categorization
11.1.2 Additional semantic characteristics
11.1.3 Semantic relationship between a classifier and
the referent
11.2 Semantics of classifier types
11.2.1 Semantics of noun classes
11.2.2 Semantics of noun classifiers
J 1.2.3 Semantics of numeral classifiers
11.2.4 Semantics of classifiers in possessive
constructions
11.2.5 Semantics of verbal classifiers
204
204
228
230
230
235
240
242
243
243
249
252
255
255
257
257
258
259
260
262
263
266
266
268
271
271
271
274
275
275
275
283
286
293
295
Contents
11.2.6 Semantics of locative and of deictic classifiers
11.2.7 Semantic parameters in languages with several
different types of classifier
11.2.8 Semantic pa rameters in multiple classifier
systems
11.2.9 Conclusions
12. Semantic Organization and Functions of Noun
Categorization
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
Semantic organization and functions of classifier
systems
12.1.1 Semantic complexity in classifier systems
12.1.2 Semantic roles of classifiers
12.1.3 Discourse-pragmatic functions of classifiers
12.1.4 Applicability of classifiers and default classes
Human cognition and classifiers
12.2.1 Perceptual correlates of noun categorization
12.2.2 Cognitive mechanisms and nOlln categorization
Social and cultural issues in noun categorization
12.3.1 Social structure in noun categorization
12.3.2 Environment and culture in noun categorization
12.3.3 Culture.spc<.:ific metaphorical extensions
12.3.4 Socio-cultural motivations for change in noun
categorization
Conclusions
13. Origin and Development of Noun Categorization Devices
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
Lexical sources for classifiers
13.1.1 From a noun to a classifier
13.1.2 Repeater phenomena and the origin of classifier
constructions
13.1.3 From a verb to a classifier
13.1.4 Classifiers from deverbal nominalizations
13.1.5 Classifiers of mixed origin
From a closed class to a noun categorization system
Languages with several classifier types, and the relative
age of noun categorization devices
Internal evolution of noun categorization
Grammaticalization and reanalysis in noun
categorization systems
13.5.1 Grammaticalization in the development of noun
categorization
13.5.2 Reanalysis in noun categorization
XVIl
300
301
303
305
307
307
308
317
320
334
337
337
339
340
342
343
346
347
350
352
353
353
361
362
365
366
367
370
372
374
374
377
Contenrs
xviii
Reduction and loss of noun categorization deviee~
Language-external motivations for the development
and decay of noun categorization
13.7.1 Language contact and noun categorization
13.7.2 Creolization and nOlln categorization
13.7.3 Language obsolescence and noun categorization
13.7.4 Language-external motivations and their impact
on noun categorization
13.8 Development and loss of agreement
13.8.1 The genesis and development of agreement
13.8.2 Decline and loss of agreement
13.9 Semantic changes in noun categorization devices
13.9.1 From lexical item to classifier: principles of
semantic change
13.9.2 Further changes in noun categorization devices
13.10 Sources of noun categorization devices: a summary
13.6
13.7
14. NOlin Categorization Devices in Language Acquisition and
Dissolution
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
379
382
383
388
389
391
391
391
398
400
40 I
407
411
413
Acquisition and development of noun classes
Acquisition of numeral classifiers
Dissolution of noun classes and of numeral classifiers
Conclusions
413
417
422
423
15. Conclusions
15.1 Properties of classifier lypes
15.2 Cooccurrence of classifier types and multiple classifier
languages; prototypes and continua
15.3 Prospects for future studies
425
432
434
Appendix 1. Noun Categorization by Means Other tl1<111
Classifiers
436
425
Appendix 2. From Nouns to Classifiers; Further Examples of
Semantic Change
(A) Body parts as sources for classifiers; semantic
extensions
(B) Sources for shape-based numeral classifiers
442
446
Appendix 3. Fie1dworker's Guide to Classifier Languages
447
References
452
List of Languages
489
List of Language Families, Linguistic Areas, and Proto-languages
504
442
Contents
X1X
Index of Languages, Linguistic Areas, and Language Families
509
Index of Authors
519
Subject Index
525
List of Maps
I. Distribution of noun classes and genders in the languages
of the world
2. Distribution of noun classifiers in the languages of the world
3. Distribution of numeral classifiers in the languages of the
world
4. Distribution of classifiers in possessive constructions in the
languages of the world
5. Distribution of verbal classifiers in the languages of the world
78
96
122
148
170
List of Tables
Ll
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.1
2.2
Shopping list in Japanese
Differences between noun classes and classifiers
Classifiers, their morphological realization, and semantics
Classijiers and their functions
2
6
.,
I
8
24
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.]2
Semantics of noun classes in Proto-Bantu
Semantic features for the gender assignment of inanimate nouns
in Cantabrian Spanish
Inflection and derivation
Gender marking in Rumanian
Gender marking in Telugu
Gender agreement in Khinalug
A fragment of the Russian nominal paradigm
Noun classes in Ingush
Noun classes in Ndali
'Pronominal' and 'nominal' noun class systems
Ka-class assignment in Paumari
Two types of noun class (genders) in Mba
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Numeral classifiers used with humans in Assamese
Numeral classifiers in Tclugu
Classifiers fused with numerals in Kusaiean
Numeral classifiers in Nivkh
Numeral classifiers in Warekena
Numeral classifiers in Squamish
5.1
5.2
Possessed classifiers in Panare
Systems of two relational classifiers
A system of relational classifiers in Boumaa Fijian
Sample of classifiers in Puluwat
Differences between possessed and relational classifiers
Relational, possessed. and possessor classifier: a comparison
128
134
134
141
145
146
Mescalero Apache classificatory verb categories
Classificatory verbs in Ojibway
Classificatory verbs in Jka
Examples of the use of 'give' in Mescalero Apache
Classificatory verbs in Koyukon: an example
Classificatory verbs in Nevome
Classificatory verbs in Enga
Classificatory verbs in Ku Waru
Verbal classifiers in Waris
155
155
156
157
157
158
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
27
30
46
46
47
48
49
64
68
73
75
102
108
108
109
109
110
159
159
166
xxii
List of Tables
6.10 Classificatory verbs in Waris
6.11 Affixed verbal classifiers in Koyukon
167
167
7.1
175
178
7.3
7.4
Lo(';'llive classificatory suffixes in three Carib languages
Article classifiers in Ponca
A sample of demonstratives in Proto-Guaicuruan
Deictic classifiers in Eskimo
8.1
NouIl classes and noun classiJicrs in Ngan'gityemerri
7.2
8.2 Classillers in Mokilese
181
182
IS6
187
188
188
193
194
194
195
8.3 Numeral classillers in Akatek
8A Noun classifiers in Akatek
11.5 Numeral, verbal, and locative classifiers in Palikur
8.6 Demonstratives in Palikur (singular)
8.7 Gender marking on verbs in Palikur
8.8 Properties of classifiers and genders in Palikur
8.9 Semantic and functional properties and origin of classifiers
In Palikur
8.10 DilTcrenl classifier sets in different environments in one language
8.11 Different classifier sets in the sallle environment in one language
197
202
202
9.1 Same set of classifiers in several environments (A~D)
9.2 LO(.;<ltive and verbal classillers in Eyak
9.3 Samc morphemes in several classiiler environments
207
209
225
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
10.1
10.2
10.3
lOA
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
10.15
10.16
10.17
Environments in which genders and classifiers are used in Baniwa
and Tariana
Classifiers in Baniwa
Classillers in Tariana
Agreement forms of kwa- in Tariana
Personal pronouns in Tamaehck
Personal pronouns in Lithuanian
Pcrsonal pronouns in Slovene
Personal pronouns in Resigaro aud ill Bora
Gender in Malta
Classificatory verbs in Tewa and tbeir semantics
Animacy marking on verbs in .1arawara (Arawi)
Personal pronouns in Minangkabau (singular)
Personal pronouns in Spanish
Personal pronouns in Tariana
Paradigm of Latin is "this'
Possessed classiliers and speech styles in Ponapean
Examples of possessed classifiers in common and humiliative
speech in Ponapean
Paradigm of !lela-t' 'do' in past tellse in Russian
Paradigm of kala!' 'write' in Modern Hebrew
Variable noun class assignment in Maung
Classilicrs and their interaction with other grammatical categories
230
232-4
236-8
240
245
245
246
247
248
251
251
253
254
254
256
261
261
264
264
267
269
List of Tables
ILl
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
XXlIl
Examples of physical properties in noun class assignment
Semantic basis of gender choice in German: an illustration
Noun classes in Bantu
Shape-based classes in ChiBemba
Size-based classes in ChiBemba
Noun classitiers for humans and deities in .Iacaltec
Noun classifiers for non-humans in lacaltec
Hole classiHers in Tzdtal
Function-bast:d classiliers in Burmese
Verbal classiliers in Ojibway and Cree
Chipcwyan (A thabaskan) classificatory vcrb~
Classificatory existential verbs in K amora (Asmat)
Preferred semantic parameters in classifiers
277
312
12.4
Burmese numeral classiflers ror inanimate objects
Animate classifiers in Burmese
Verified superordinate-subordl11ate pairs in Japanese numeral
classifiers
Recla~sification of an inanimate noun in Burmese
13.1
GroUp$ of nouns ..."hich tend to develop to classifiers
11.6
i 1.7
11.8
11.9
IUD
11. 11
11.12
11.13
12.1
12.2
12.3
13.2 Numeral c1assifers from body parts in Totonac
280
282
282
2~Q
284
285
289
291
297
298
299
306
315
317
319
354
356
357
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
Noun classifiers derived from common n011115 in Mam
Generic classifiers in Minangkabau
Semantic groups of verbs which develop into classifiers
A sample of verbal classifiers in lmonda
Historical changes in Mandarin Chinese classifiers
Typical sources for noun categorization devices
359
362
363
410
412
15.1
15.2
15.3
Scope of classifier types
Assignment or classifiers
Morphological realization of classifiers
427
429
430
List of Diagrams
76
2.1
Tendencies for animacy-based and shape-based noun classes
6.1
Verbal classifiers in Palikur
164
7. J
7.2
Locative classifiers in Palikur
Classifiers with spatial semantics in Toba
173
179
8.1
Semantics of numeral classifiers in Minangkabau
189
9.1
Seman lics and form of demonstratives with classifiers
in Tariana
Semantics and form of articles with classifiers in Tariana
239
240
Animacy hierarchy and expression of number
247
9.2
10.1
11.1
1].2
11.3
11.4
11.5
Gender assignment in Manambu
Extendedness in Proto-Bantu noun classes
Numeral classifiers in Totonac
Numeral classifiers for inanimates in Palikur
Interaction of semantic domains in numeral classifiers in
Minangkabau
11.6 Classificatory verbs in Western Apache
11.7 Semantics of fourteen numeral classifiers in Akatek
11.8 Semantics of fourteen noun classifiers in Akatek
11.9 Poiygrammaticalization of batang 'tree' in Minangkabau
11.10 Classifiers in Nambiquara
11.11 Semantics of classifiers in Kilivila
12.1
] 2.2
12.3
12.4
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
278
283
289
290
292
298
302
302
302
304
304
Structure of the tua category in Thai
Factors regulating the use of classifiers in Malay
Semantic network of the nge-class in Maasina Fulfulde
Gender pronouns in former and contemporary prescribed
English usage
314
324
346
Evolution of gender markers (1)
Evolution of gender markers (2)
Phonological reduction in the development of noun
classifiers in Mixtec
Singular and plural noun classes in Grebo
Gender in Proto-Dravidian (singular)
Gender in Proto-South-Dravidian (singular)
367
368
350
376
377
378
378
List of Abbreviations
A
AnL
,\BS
Ace
AD.!
ADV
M'T
AGR
ALlM
A", A;\1:<.1
Al\,\
ARC.MAN
ART
ASP
ATT
AUG
AUX
BEI'iEFACT
CAOS
CL
Cl.HAB
CMPL
COLI.
COMIT
COMPL
CONC
CONJ
C()NT
CONTR
('( IRV
cv
CYLlDR
nAT
DEC
subject of a
transitive verb
ablative
absolutivc
accusative
adjectivizcr
adverb
affix
agreement
alimentary
possession
animate
anaphoric
argument manip"
ulating derivation
article
aspect
attributive
augmented
auxiliary
benefactive
causative
classifier
classifier: habitat
completed
collective
comitative
completive
concordial
conjunctive
continuous
contrast
curved
connective
cylindrical
dative
declarative
DEI
DEle
OEM
DF.R
nET
DIM
DlR
DIS"]"
os
DU
Dl.'R
EMPH
ERG
EXCL
fXT
[·YE\V.PRES
r',
FF.M.
f fern
I'RUST
FUT
GEN
GN
HAil
HON
HORIZ
HFM
lHTMIL
[MAG
IMP
[MPF
INAN, INANIM
INCL.
INDEF
INS
]"r
INTER
IRREG
inc!
defini le
deictic
demonstrative
derivJ tional
determiner
diminutive
di rectional
distal
different
subject
dual
durativc
emphatic
ergative
exclusive
extended
eyewitness
present
feminine
frustrative
futme
generic
genitive
habitual
honorific
horizontal
human
h u milia ti ve
imaginary
impersonal
imperfective
inanimate
inclusive
indefinite
instrumental
intensifler
interrogative
irregular form
or shape
xxvi
List of AbbrCI!iations
LlG
LINK
LlYUEI",G
LOC
lvi, MASC
m. masc
MENS
MIN
MOD
N,NEUT
NCL
l'\IlG
Nf~
nr
NOM
NONPOSS, NPOSS
Nl'
NU1",f.CL
0
OBl
PART
PASS
pel
PERF
pf
PI
PL
poss
POSS,CL
PI'
I'RECONT
ligature
vowel
linker
living
being
locative
masculine
mensural
classifier
minimal
modal
neuter
noun class
negative
nOllfeminine
nominative
n011-
possessed
non past
numeral
classifier
object of a
transitive
verb
object
participle
passive
paucalor
plural
number
perfective
perfect
past
imperfective
plural
possessive
possessIVe
classifier
past
perfective
precontemporary tense
PRED
PREF
PRES
prim
PRO
PROll
PROGR
pIOn
PURP
PX
QUAL
QUANT
RE
REC
REFL
REL
REL.CL
REM,P,lNFR
RES
S
sec
sg,SG
sp
SUBJ
SUBORD
SUFI"
TA
TAM
TH
THEM,CONTR
TNS
TOP
TOP,ADV
TOPO
VB
veL
VERT
predicativc
prefix
present
pnmary
112/3 person
proform
probablility
progressive
pronoun
purposive
proximity
qualifier
quantifier
rererential
reciprocal
reJ1exive
relativizer
relational
classifier
remote pasl
inferred
resu ltative
subject of an
intransitive verb
secondary
singular
species
subject
su bordinating
suffix
tense-aspect
marker
tense-aspectmood marker
thematic
thematic contrast
tense
topic
topic advancing
voice
topical 0
verbalizer
verbal classifier
vertical