Global Business Languages
Volume 12 Security and Business Languages
Article 6
12-1-2007
Approaching Chinese Culture: Strategies American
Expatriates Adopt for Learning Chinese Culture
Hongmei Gao
Kennesaw State University
Deanna F. Womack
Kennesaw State University
Follow this and additional works at: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/gbl
Recommended Citation
Gao, Hongmei and Womack, Deanna F. (2007) "Approaching Chinese Culture: Strategies American Expatriates Adopt for Learning
Chinese Culture," Global Business Languages: Vol. 12 , Article 6.
Available at: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/gbl/vol12/iss1/6
Copyright © 2007 by Purdue Research Foundation. Global Business Languages is produced by Purdue CIBER. http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/gbl
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Hongmei Gao
Hongmei Gao
Kennesaw State University
Kennesaw State University
Deanna F. Womack
Deanna F. Womack
Kennesaw State University
Kennesaw State University
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE:
STRATEGIES AMERICAN EXPATRIATES ADOPT
FOR LEARNING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE:
STRATEGIES AMERICAN EXPATRIATES ADOPT
FOR LEARNING CHINESE CULTURE
ABSTRACT
It is generally believed that cultural sojourners have difficulties adapting to
a wide range of business, academic, and social situations in a host culture.
They need to adopt certain strategies to learn a foreign culture. Building
upon existing literature on intercultural learning, adaptation, and perception,
this research investigates American professional expatriates’ experience of
coping with cultural others in China. In particular, this research investigates
communication strategies that the American expatriates adopt in learning
Chinese culture.
Twenty in-depth interviews were conducted in China to collect data
from multiple perspectives on how American professional expatriates adapt
themselves from home (American) culture to host (Chinese) culture. The
interviewees range from business executives, business owners, to diplomats,
educators, employees at nonprofit organizations and young graduates fresh
out of American schools.
American expatriates utilized three strategies in intercultural learning and
adaptation. The three strategies are independent approach (obtaining information from the Internet, printed publication, TV, radio, and other mass media),
observational approach (obtaining information by active observations in
China), and interactional approach (obtaining information by interacting with
the Chinese people, as well as interacting with fellow expatriates). Details of
these strategies are discussed and future research directions are suggested.
ABSTRACT
It is generally believed that cultural sojourners have difficulties adapting to
a wide range of business, academic, and social situations in a host culture.
They need to adopt certain strategies to learn a foreign culture. Building
upon existing literature on intercultural learning, adaptation, and perception,
this research investigates American professional expatriates’ experience of
coping with cultural others in China. In particular, this research investigates
communication strategies that the American expatriates adopt in learning
Chinese culture.
Twenty in-depth interviews were conducted in China to collect data
from multiple perspectives on how American professional expatriates adapt
themselves from home (American) culture to host (Chinese) culture. The
interviewees range from business executives, business owners, to diplomats,
educators, employees at nonprofit organizations and young graduates fresh
out of American schools.
American expatriates utilized three strategies in intercultural learning and
adaptation. The three strategies are independent approach (obtaining information from the Internet, printed publication, TV, radio, and other mass media),
observational approach (obtaining information by active observations in
China), and interactional approach (obtaining information by interacting with
the Chinese people, as well as interacting with fellow expatriates). Details of
these strategies are discussed and future research directions are suggested.
PART I: INTRODUCTION
The rapid economic growth in China is phenomenal. China’s comparative cost
advantage is striking, and only a few countries such as Vietnam can compete
effectively with China. According to a comparative survey on labor cost in
Asian countries conducted by the UFJ Bank’s Singapore Branch in 2001,
the relative labor cost index was 3.0 in Shenzhen and 9.5 in Shanghai, while
PART I: INTRODUCTION
The rapid economic growth in China is phenomenal. China’s comparative cost
advantage is striking, and only a few countries such as Vietnam can compete
effectively with China. According to a comparative survey on labor cost in
Asian countries conducted by the UFJ Bank’s Singapore Branch in 2001,
the relative labor cost index was 3.0 in Shenzhen and 9.5 in Shanghai, while
Global Business Languages (2007)
Global Business Languages (2007)
Hongmei Gao
Hongmei Gao
Kennesaw State University
Kennesaw State University
Deanna F. Womack
Deanna F. Womack
Kennesaw State University
Kennesaw State University
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE:
STRATEGIES AMERICAN EXPATRIATES ADOPT
FOR LEARNING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE:
STRATEGIES AMERICAN EXPATRIATES ADOPT
FOR LEARNING CHINESE CULTURE
ABSTRACT
It is generally believed that cultural sojourners have difficulties adapting to
a wide range of business, academic, and social situations in a host culture.
They need to adopt certain strategies to learn a foreign culture. Building
upon existing literature on intercultural learning, adaptation, and perception,
this research investigates American professional expatriates’ experience of
coping with cultural others in China. In particular, this research investigates
communication strategies that the American expatriates adopt in learning
Chinese culture.
Twenty in-depth interviews were conducted in China to collect data
from multiple perspectives on how American professional expatriates adapt
themselves from home (American) culture to host (Chinese) culture. The
interviewees range from business executives, business owners, to diplomats,
educators, employees at nonprofit organizations and young graduates fresh
out of American schools.
American expatriates utilized three strategies in intercultural learning and
adaptation. The three strategies are independent approach (obtaining information from the Internet, printed publication, TV, radio, and other mass media),
observational approach (obtaining information by active observations in
China), and interactional approach (obtaining information by interacting with
the Chinese people, as well as interacting with fellow expatriates). Details of
these strategies are discussed and future research directions are suggested.
ABSTRACT
It is generally believed that cultural sojourners have difficulties adapting to
a wide range of business, academic, and social situations in a host culture.
They need to adopt certain strategies to learn a foreign culture. Building
upon existing literature on intercultural learning, adaptation, and perception,
this research investigates American professional expatriates’ experience of
coping with cultural others in China. In particular, this research investigates
communication strategies that the American expatriates adopt in learning
Chinese culture.
Twenty in-depth interviews were conducted in China to collect data
from multiple perspectives on how American professional expatriates adapt
themselves from home (American) culture to host (Chinese) culture. The
interviewees range from business executives, business owners, to diplomats,
educators, employees at nonprofit organizations and young graduates fresh
out of American schools.
American expatriates utilized three strategies in intercultural learning and
adaptation. The three strategies are independent approach (obtaining information from the Internet, printed publication, TV, radio, and other mass media),
observational approach (obtaining information by active observations in
China), and interactional approach (obtaining information by interacting with
the Chinese people, as well as interacting with fellow expatriates). Details of
these strategies are discussed and future research directions are suggested.
PART I: INTRODUCTION
The rapid economic growth in China is phenomenal. China’s comparative cost
advantage is striking, and only a few countries such as Vietnam can compete
effectively with China. According to a comparative survey on labor cost in
Asian countries conducted by the UFJ Bank’s Singapore Branch in 2001,
the relative labor cost index was 3.0 in Shenzhen and 9.5 in Shanghai, while
PART I: INTRODUCTION
The rapid economic growth in China is phenomenal. China’s comparative cost
advantage is striking, and only a few countries such as Vietnam can compete
effectively with China. According to a comparative survey on labor cost in
Asian countries conducted by the UFJ Bank’s Singapore Branch in 2001,
the relative labor cost index was 3.0 in Shenzhen and 9.5 in Shanghai, while
Global Business Languages (2007)
Global Business Languages (2007)
48
GAO, WOMACK
48 APP
GAO, WOMACK
it was 100 in Japan. China’s process of industrialization has a significant
feature of simultaneously accommodating both labor-intensive and capitalintensive industries.
Meanwhile, the expanding market is reviving the century-long dream of
capitalizing on the giant Chinese market. The growing middle class in China
equals the size of the Japanese population and almost 50 percent of that of
the US population (Yoshida). Of the 1.3 billion people in China, only about
200 million Chinese are serious consumers, in the eyes of global marketers,
but this number is expected to increase dramatically in the near future as the
economy develops.
The annual GDP growth of China in the past 20 years has maintained a
continuous and phenomenal rate of 10 percent. Researchers at the investment bank Goldman Sachs in an October 2003 report estimated that China’s
economy could overtake that of the US—the world’s largest—by 2039. A
near-term catalyst for increased advertising in China is the 2008 Olympic
Games, which provides a seminal moment for China to be on a highly visible world stage.
An extremely low labor and raw material cost, a growing middle class,
and a vast country are only a few reasons that draw scores of multinational
companies (MNCs) to China for overseas market expansion and production
outsourcing. As a result, hundreds of business professionals are sent to China
for overseas operations by American MNCs (Eisenberg and Goodall). They
are expected to spend more in China and expand their operations in China
(Sanders and Madden). More and more American professional expatriates
will find themselves working and living in China. Consequently, greater
attention needs to be paid to the effectiveness of the American expatriates’
intercultural learning and their adaptation process in China. An increasing
number of business schools worldwide are incorporating intercultural communication into their curricula through individual lectures, research projects,
courses, and study abroad programs (Cheney; McCain).
Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative study is to create an operational
framework of intercultural learning and adaptation for future research. In
particular, we intend to examine the popular intercultural learning strategies
that American professional expatriates use during their life and work in China.
We hope to generate more effective tools of intercultural communication
training for future American professional expatriates in particular, and for
cultural strangers in general.
PART
it was
100 in Japan. China’s process of industrialization has a significant
feature
RESE
of simultaneously accommodating both labor-intensive and capitalintensive
In th industries.
Meanwhile,
the expanding market is reviving the century-long dream of
away
capitalizing
on
the
giant Chinese market. The growing middle class in China
(Chin
equals
the size of the Japanese population and almost 50 percent of that of
stays
the this
US population
(Yoshida). Of the 1.3 billion people in China, only about
s
200expa
million Chinese are serious consumers, in the eyes of global marketers,
but and
this unumber is expected to increase dramatically in the near future as the
economy
by a develops.
The
host annual GDP growth of China in the past 20 years has maintained a
continuous
a cul and phenomenal rate of 10 percent. Researchers at the investment
bank Goldman Sachs in an October 2003 report estimated that China’s
new
economy
new could overtake that of the US—the world’s largest—by 2039. A
near-term
beha catalyst for increased advertising in China is the 2008 Olympic
Games,Inwhich provides a seminal moment for China to be on a highly visibleand
world
I stage.
An
low labor and raw material cost, a growing middle class,
the extremely
h
andstran
a vast country are only a few reasons that draw scores of multinational
companies
radio (MNCs) to China for overseas market expansion and production
outsourcing.
As a result, hundreds of business professionals are sent to China
ing t
for frien
overseas operations by American MNCs (Eisenberg and Goodall). They
are infor
expected to spend more in China and expand their operations in China
(Sanders
beha and Madden). More and more American professional expatriates
will find
M themselves working and living in China. Consequently, greater
attention
cove needs to be paid to the effectiveness of the American expatriates’
intercultural
learning and their adaptation process in China. An increasing
throu
number
incluof business schools worldwide are incorporating intercultural communication
into their curricula through individual lectures, research projects,
ily s
courses,
imm and study abroad programs (Cheney; McCain).
Therefore,
the purpose of this qualitative study is to create an operational
hosts
framework
taugh of intercultural learning and adaptation for future research. In
particular,
the e we intend to examine the popular intercultural learning strategies
thatisAmerican
professional expatriates use during their life and work in China.
tac
We (Gud
hope to generate more effective tools of intercultural communication
trainingInfor future American professional expatriates in particular, and for
cultural
whenstrangers in general.
go th
48
48 APP
GAO, WOMACK
it was 100 in Japan. China’s process of industrialization has a significant
feature of simultaneously accommodating both labor-intensive and capitalintensive industries.
Meanwhile, the expanding market is reviving the century-long dream of
capitalizing on the giant Chinese market. The growing middle class in China
equals the size of the Japanese population and almost 50 percent of that of
the US population (Yoshida). Of the 1.3 billion people in China, only about
200 million Chinese are serious consumers, in the eyes of global marketers,
but this number is expected to increase dramatically in the near future as the
economy develops.
The annual GDP growth of China in the past 20 years has maintained a
continuous and phenomenal rate of 10 percent. Researchers at the investment bank Goldman Sachs in an October 2003 report estimated that China’s
economy could overtake that of the US—the world’s largest—by 2039. A
near-term catalyst for increased advertising in China is the 2008 Olympic
Games, which provides a seminal moment for China to be on a highly visible world stage.
An extremely low labor and raw material cost, a growing middle class,
and a vast country are only a few reasons that draw scores of multinational
companies (MNCs) to China for overseas market expansion and production
outsourcing. As a result, hundreds of business professionals are sent to China
for overseas operations by American MNCs (Eisenberg and Goodall). They
are expected to spend more in China and expand their operations in China
(Sanders and Madden). More and more American professional expatriates
will find themselves working and living in China. Consequently, greater
attention needs to be paid to the effectiveness of the American expatriates’
intercultural learning and their adaptation process in China. An increasing
number of business schools worldwide are incorporating intercultural communication into their curricula through individual lectures, research projects,
courses, and study abroad programs (Cheney; McCain).
Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative study is to create an operational
framework of intercultural learning and adaptation for future research. In
particular, we intend to examine the popular intercultural learning strategies
that American professional expatriates use during their life and work in China.
We hope to generate more effective tools of intercultural communication
training for future American professional expatriates in particular, and for
cultural strangers in general.
GAO, WOMACK
PART
it was
100 in Japan. China’s process of industrialization has a significant
feature
RESE
of simultaneously accommodating both labor-intensive and capitalintensive
In th industries.
Meanwhile,
the expanding market is reviving the century-long dream of
away
capitalizing
on
the
giant Chinese market. The growing middle class in China
(Chin
equals
the size of the Japanese population and almost 50 percent of that of
stays
the this
US population
(Yoshida). Of the 1.3 billion people in China, only about
s
200expa
million Chinese are serious consumers, in the eyes of global marketers,
but and
this unumber is expected to increase dramatically in the near future as the
economy
by a develops.
The
host annual GDP growth of China in the past 20 years has maintained a
continuous
a cul and phenomenal rate of 10 percent. Researchers at the investment
bank Goldman Sachs in an October 2003 report estimated that China’s
new
economy
new could overtake that of the US—the world’s largest—by 2039. A
near-term
beha catalyst for increased advertising in China is the 2008 Olympic
Games,Inwhich provides a seminal moment for China to be on a highly visibleand
world
I stage.
An
low labor and raw material cost, a growing middle class,
the extremely
h
andstran
a vast country are only a few reasons that draw scores of multinational
companies
radio (MNCs) to China for overseas market expansion and production
outsourcing.
As a result, hundreds of business professionals are sent to China
ing t
for frien
overseas operations by American MNCs (Eisenberg and Goodall). They
are infor
expected to spend more in China and expand their operations in China
(Sanders
beha and Madden). More and more American professional expatriates
will find
M themselves working and living in China. Consequently, greater
attention
cove needs to be paid to the effectiveness of the American expatriates’
intercultural
learning and their adaptation process in China. An increasing
throu
number
incluof business schools worldwide are incorporating intercultural communication
into their curricula through individual lectures, research projects,
ily s
courses,
imm and study abroad programs (Cheney; McCain).
Therefore,
the purpose of this qualitative study is to create an operational
hosts
framework
taugh of intercultural learning and adaptation for future research. In
particular,
the e we intend to examine the popular intercultural learning strategies
thatisAmerican
professional expatriates use during their life and work in China.
tac
We (Gud
hope to generate more effective tools of intercultural communication
trainingInfor future American professional expatriates in particular, and for
cultural
whenstrangers in general.
go th
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 49
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
49
PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW,
ficant
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESIS
pitalIn this study, an American expatriate is seen as a cultural stranger, who is
of
away from a home culture (American), and works and lives in a hostmculture
China
(Chinese). A cultural stranger carries a culture of a distant origin and yet
at of of
stays in close proximity with people of a host culture (Kim). The scope
about
this study is the intercultural learning and adaptation processes of American
eters,
expatriates in China. Intercultural learning refers to the process of obtaining
the
and understanding information about the norms and values of a hostsculture
by a cultural stranger, which takes place either in the home culture or the
ned athat
host culture. Intercultural adaptation refers to the process of adjustment
vest-in a
a cultural stranger undergoes cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally
ina’s
new host culture, away from the home culture. To function and thrive
in the
39. Aand
new environment, an expatriate has to adapt cognitively, emotionally,
mpic
behaviorally to the norms of the new host culture (Kim).
Intercultural learning is achieved by intercultural communicationvis(Chen
and Isa), including mass communication and interpersonal communication in
class,that
the host culture (Gudykunst and Kim). Mass communication strategies
ional
strangers adopt for cultural learning include watching TV; listening
to the
radio; reading newspapers, books, magazines, and newsletters; andction
browsChina to
ing the Internet. Interpersonal communication strategies include talking
friends, colleagues, and acquaintances in the host society for localThey
cultural
Chinaand
information, including specific knowledge, emotional connotations,
iates
behavioral patterns.
eater
Mass communication strategies provide easy-to-access information that
ates’gain
covers the foundation of a host culture. The knowledge that expatriates
through these strategies is mainly cognitive principles of a hostasing
culture,
comincluding philosophy, economics, history, politics, demographics, food,
famects,
ily structure, and art. Also, interpersonal communication strategies assure
immediate feedback for the strangers. Through direct interaction with their
hosts in an authentic host cultural environment, cultural strangers are ional
not only
h. In on
taught knowledge of a host culture, but they also gain immediate feedback
egies
the emotional attitudes and behavioral rules of the host people. Much
of this
hina.
is tacit knowledge that is not taught through mass communication channels
ation
(Gudykunst and Kim).
d for
Intercultural learning is the foundation for intercultural adaptation.
Only
when one is prepared cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally can one
go through a transformation in mindset and identity while in a new culture.
PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW,
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESIS
In this study, an American expatriate is seen as a cultural stranger, who is
away from a home culture (American), and works and lives in a host culture
(Chinese). A cultural stranger carries a culture of a distant origin and yet
stays in close proximity with people of a host culture (Kim). The scope of
this study is the intercultural learning and adaptation processes of American
expatriates in China. Intercultural learning refers to the process of obtaining
and understanding information about the norms and values of a host culture
by a cultural stranger, which takes place either in the home culture or the
host culture. Intercultural adaptation refers to the process of adjustment that
a cultural stranger undergoes cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally in a
new host culture, away from the home culture. To function and thrive in the
new environment, an expatriate has to adapt cognitively, emotionally, and
behaviorally to the norms of the new host culture (Kim).
Intercultural learning is achieved by intercultural communication (Chen
and Isa), including mass communication and interpersonal communication in
the host culture (Gudykunst and Kim). Mass communication strategies that
strangers adopt for cultural learning include watching TV; listening to the
radio; reading newspapers, books, magazines, and newsletters; and browsing the Internet. Interpersonal communication strategies include talking to
friends, colleagues, and acquaintances in the host society for local cultural
information, including specific knowledge, emotional connotations, and
behavioral patterns.
Mass communication strategies provide easy-to-access information that
covers the foundation of a host culture. The knowledge that expatriates gain
through these strategies is mainly cognitive principles of a host culture,
including philosophy, economics, history, politics, demographics, food, family structure, and art. Also, interpersonal communication strategies assure
immediate feedback for the strangers. Through direct interaction with their
hosts in an authentic host cultural environment, cultural strangers are not only
taught knowledge of a host culture, but they also gain immediate feedback on
the emotional attitudes and behavioral rules of the host people. Much of this
is tacit knowledge that is not taught through mass communication channels
(Gudykunst and Kim).
Intercultural learning is the foundation for intercultural adaptation. Only
when one is prepared cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally can one
go through a transformation in mindset and identity while in a new culture.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 49
PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW,
ficant
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESIS
pitalIn this study, an American expatriate is seen as a cultural stranger, who is
of
away from a home culture (American), and works and lives in a hostmculture
China
(Chinese). A cultural stranger carries a culture of a distant origin and yet
at of of
stays in close proximity with people of a host culture (Kim). The scope
about
this study is the intercultural learning and adaptation processes of American
eters,
expatriates in China. Intercultural learning refers to the process of obtaining
the
and understanding information about the norms and values of a hostsculture
by a cultural stranger, which takes place either in the home culture or the
ned athat
host culture. Intercultural adaptation refers to the process of adjustment
vest-in a
a cultural stranger undergoes cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally
ina’s
new host culture, away from the home culture. To function and thrive
in the
39. Aand
new environment, an expatriate has to adapt cognitively, emotionally,
mpic
behaviorally to the norms of the new host culture (Kim).
Intercultural learning is achieved by intercultural communicationvis(Chen
and Isa), including mass communication and interpersonal communication in
class,that
the host culture (Gudykunst and Kim). Mass communication strategies
ional
strangers adopt for cultural learning include watching TV; listening
to the
radio; reading newspapers, books, magazines, and newsletters; andction
browsChina to
ing the Internet. Interpersonal communication strategies include talking
friends, colleagues, and acquaintances in the host society for localThey
cultural
Chinaand
information, including specific knowledge, emotional connotations,
iates
behavioral patterns.
eater
Mass communication strategies provide easy-to-access information that
ates’gain
covers the foundation of a host culture. The knowledge that expatriates
through these strategies is mainly cognitive principles of a hostasing
culture,
comincluding philosophy, economics, history, politics, demographics, food,
famects,
ily structure, and art. Also, interpersonal communication strategies assure
immediate feedback for the strangers. Through direct interaction with their
hosts in an authentic host cultural environment, cultural strangers are ional
not only
h. In on
taught knowledge of a host culture, but they also gain immediate feedback
egies
the emotional attitudes and behavioral rules of the host people. Much
of this
hina.
is tacit knowledge that is not taught through mass communication channels
ation
(Gudykunst and Kim).
d for
Intercultural learning is the foundation for intercultural adaptation.
Only
when one is prepared cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally can one
go through a transformation in mindset and identity while in a new culture.
49
PART II: LITERATURE REVIEW,
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESIS
In this study, an American expatriate is seen as a cultural stranger, who is
away from a home culture (American), and works and lives in a host culture
(Chinese). A cultural stranger carries a culture of a distant origin and yet
stays in close proximity with people of a host culture (Kim). The scope of
this study is the intercultural learning and adaptation processes of American
expatriates in China. Intercultural learning refers to the process of obtaining
and understanding information about the norms and values of a host culture
by a cultural stranger, which takes place either in the home culture or the
host culture. Intercultural adaptation refers to the process of adjustment that
a cultural stranger undergoes cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally in a
new host culture, away from the home culture. To function and thrive in the
new environment, an expatriate has to adapt cognitively, emotionally, and
behaviorally to the norms of the new host culture (Kim).
Intercultural learning is achieved by intercultural communication (Chen
and Isa), including mass communication and interpersonal communication in
the host culture (Gudykunst and Kim). Mass communication strategies that
strangers adopt for cultural learning include watching TV; listening to the
radio; reading newspapers, books, magazines, and newsletters; and browsing the Internet. Interpersonal communication strategies include talking to
friends, colleagues, and acquaintances in the host society for local cultural
information, including specific knowledge, emotional connotations, and
behavioral patterns.
Mass communication strategies provide easy-to-access information that
covers the foundation of a host culture. The knowledge that expatriates gain
through these strategies is mainly cognitive principles of a host culture,
including philosophy, economics, history, politics, demographics, food, family structure, and art. Also, interpersonal communication strategies assure
immediate feedback for the strangers. Through direct interaction with their
hosts in an authentic host cultural environment, cultural strangers are not only
taught knowledge of a host culture, but they also gain immediate feedback on
the emotional attitudes and behavioral rules of the host people. Much of this
is tacit knowledge that is not taught through mass communication channels
(Gudykunst and Kim).
Intercultural learning is the foundation for intercultural adaptation. Only
when one is prepared cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally can one
go through a transformation in mindset and identity while in a new culture.
50
GAO, WOMACK
50 APP
GAO, WOMACK
All of these foci are incorporated into the interview guide for this research.
Intercultural communication strategies include comments and observations about what strangers do in intercultural communication to be culturally
fluent in a host culture. Such strategies are functional in order to overcome
the problems and difficulties in the process of intercultural learning. Kim
summarized the two major categories of intercultural learning: mass communication and interpersonal communication. Mass communication provides
the foundation and background of a culture, but interpersonal communication
gives immediate feedback on cultural norms, especially concerning emotional
connotations and behavioral patterns of a group of people. Allen T. Church
stressed the importance of social interaction with the host people in a stranger’s
acculturation process. Thus, we will examine the communication strategies
that A indicates that problems in intercultural learning and adaptation
Research
were
appr
often due to poor organizational interventions (Brewster and Pickard;
Pfaendler), inappropriate acculturation choices (Stierle et al.), and the lack
PART
of spouse/partner/family
assistance (Adler; Black and Gregersen; Stephens
andABlack).
tot
Jeffrey Arnett argues that a lack of willingness to adapt and
the on
psychological
a
consequences of globalization should be considered. We
need
Ame
to see to what extent these problems exist for American professionals
in China.
posit
Young
satel Y. Kim contends that the goal of intercultural integration is psychological
were health and the creation of an intercultural identity. Hongmei Gao
argues
empl
that the ideal typology of intercultural adaptation is the cultivation of
a state
whic
of multiple cultural identities for a cultural stranger. This means that a
stranger
nonp is completely integrated with the local culture through developing a
hybrid Thost-home cultural identity, while maintaining home culture capacity
in knowledge,
to in
emotional connotations, and behavior.
A
main
cultural stranger comes from an “ethnic” community, which influences
the behin
mindset and behavior of a stranger either through the peer group residing in
the study
host culture or through the generalized background from which the stranger
inter Kim considers five critical foci in intercultural learning:
originates.
with
(1)Tinterpersonal communication activities
(2) mass communication activities
curre
cons
(3) inter-ethnic social interaction
in(4)
thintra-ethnic social interaction
locat
(5) host communication competence.
serve
All pants
of these foci are incorporated into the interview guide for this research.
Cham
Intercultural
communication strategies include comments and observations
65about
ye what strangers do in intercultural communication to be culturally
fluent
man
in a host culture. Such strategies are functional in order to overcome
the prop
problems and difficulties in the process of intercultural learning. Kim
summarized
to-fa
the two major categories of intercultural learning: mass communication
each and interpersonal communication. Mass communication provides
the foundation and background of a culture, but interpersonal communication
PART
gives
immediate feedback on cultural norms, especially concerning emotional
connotations
and behavioral patterns of a group of people. Allen T. Church
The
stressed
printthe importance of social interaction with the host people in a stranger’s
acculturation
process. Thus, we will examine the communication strategies
journ
50
50 APP
Research indicates that problems in intercultural learning and adaptation
were often due to poor organizational interventions (Brewster and Pickard;
Pfaendler), inappropriate acculturation choices (Stierle et al.), and the lack
of spouse/partner/family assistance (Adler; Black and Gregersen; Stephens
and Black). Jeffrey Arnett argues that a lack of willingness to adapt and
the psychological consequences of globalization should be considered. We
need to see to what extent these problems exist for American professionals
in China.
Young Y. Kim contends that the goal of intercultural integration is psychological health and the creation of an intercultural identity. Hongmei Gao
argues that the ideal typology of intercultural adaptation is the cultivation of
a state of multiple cultural identities for a cultural stranger. This means that a
stranger is completely integrated with the local culture through developing a
hybrid host-home cultural identity, while maintaining home culture capacity
in knowledge, emotional connotations, and behavior.
A cultural stranger comes from an “ethnic” community, which influences
the mindset and behavior of a stranger either through the peer group residing in
the host culture or through the generalized background from which the stranger
originates. Kim considers five critical foci in intercultural learning:
(1) interpersonal communication activities
(2) mass communication activities
(3) inter-ethnic social interaction
(4) intra-ethnic social interaction
(5) host communication competence.
GAO, WOMACK
Research indicates that problems in intercultural learning and adaptation
were often due to poor organizational interventions (Brewster and Pickard;
Pfaendler), inappropriate acculturation choices (Stierle et al.), and the lack
of spouse/partner/family assistance (Adler; Black and Gregersen; Stephens
and Black). Jeffrey Arnett argues that a lack of willingness to adapt and
the psychological consequences of globalization should be considered. We
need to see to what extent these problems exist for American professionals
in China.
Young Y. Kim contends that the goal of intercultural integration is psychological health and the creation of an intercultural identity. Hongmei Gao
argues that the ideal typology of intercultural adaptation is the cultivation of
a state of multiple cultural identities for a cultural stranger. This means that a
stranger is completely integrated with the local culture through developing a
hybrid host-home cultural identity, while maintaining home culture capacity
in knowledge, emotional connotations, and behavior.
A cultural stranger comes from an “ethnic” community, which influences
the mindset and behavior of a stranger either through the peer group residing in
the host culture or through the generalized background from which the stranger
originates. Kim considers five critical foci in intercultural learning:
(1) interpersonal communication activities
(2) mass communication activities
(3) inter-ethnic social interaction
(4) intra-ethnic social interaction
(5) host communication competence.
All of these foci are incorporated into the interview guide for this research.
Intercultural communication strategies include comments and observations about what strangers do in intercultural communication to be culturally
fluent in a host culture. Such strategies are functional in order to overcome
the problems and difficulties in the process of intercultural learning. Kim
summarized the two major categories of intercultural learning: mass communication and interpersonal communication. Mass communication provides
the foundation and background of a culture, but interpersonal communication
gives immediate feedback on cultural norms, especially concerning emotional
connotations and behavioral patterns of a group of people. Allen T. Church
stressed the importance of social interaction with the host people in a stranger’s
acculturation process. Thus, we will examine the communication strategies
GAO, WOMACK
that A indicates that problems in intercultural learning and adaptation
Research
were
appr
often due to poor organizational interventions (Brewster and Pickard;
Pfaendler), inappropriate acculturation choices (Stierle et al.), and the lack
PART
of spouse/partner/family
assistance (Adler; Black and Gregersen; Stephens
andABlack).
tot
Jeffrey Arnett argues that a lack of willingness to adapt and
the on
psychological
a
consequences of globalization should be considered. We
need
Ame
to see to what extent these problems exist for American professionals
in China.
posit
Young
satel Y. Kim contends that the goal of intercultural integration is psychological
were health and the creation of an intercultural identity. Hongmei Gao
argues
empl
that the ideal typology of intercultural adaptation is the cultivation of
a state
whic
of multiple cultural identities for a cultural stranger. This means that a
stranger
nonp is completely integrated with the local culture through developing a
hybrid Thost-home cultural identity, while maintaining home culture capacity
in knowledge,
to in
emotional connotations, and behavior.
A
main
cultural stranger comes from an “ethnic” community, which influences
the behin
mindset and behavior of a stranger either through the peer group residing in
the study
host culture or through the generalized background from which the stranger
originates.
inter Kim considers five critical foci in intercultural learning:
with
(1)Tinterpersonal communication activities
(2) mass communication activities
curre
cons
(3) inter-ethnic social interaction
in(4)
thintra-ethnic social interaction
locat
(5) host communication competence.
serve
All pants
of these foci are incorporated into the interview guide for this research.
Intercultural
Cham
communication strategies include comments and observations
65about
ye what strangers do in intercultural communication to be culturally
fluent
man
in a host culture. Such strategies are functional in order to overcome
the prop
problems and difficulties in the process of intercultural learning. Kim
summarized
to-fa
the two major categories of intercultural learning: mass communication
each and interpersonal communication. Mass communication provides
the foundation and background of a culture, but interpersonal communication
PART
gives
immediate feedback on cultural norms, especially concerning emotional
connotations
The
and behavioral patterns of a group of people. Allen T. Church
stressed
printthe importance of social interaction with the host people in a stranger’s
acculturation
process. Thus, we will examine the communication strategies
journ
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 51
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
51
that American sojourners adopt for intercultural learning in Chinaation
and the
approach that is most effective.
kard;
lack
PART III: RESEARCH METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION
hens
A total of twenty semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conductedand
based
on an in-depth interview guide. The participants were English-speaking
. We
American professionals working at professional, technical, and managerial
onals
positions in the Greater Shanghai Area, including the city of Shanghai and its
satellite cities, such as Minghang, Suzhou, and Songjiang. The interviewees
psywere identified based on a quota sampling technique derived from Gao
general
employment categories of American expatriates in the Greater Shanghai
on of
area,
which include communication, diplomacy, education, wholesale, consulting,
hat a
nonprofit, import, and export as well as part-time workers.
ing a
The in-depth interviews were designed to elicit narratives withacity
respect
to intercultural learning strategies in the participants’ communication with
mainstream Chinese society. These interviews helped reveal the meanings
ences
behind actions, to test emerging ideas, and to gather data essentialngtointhis
study. Within the broad scope of the interview guide, semi-structuredanger
dialogic
interviews were conducted, from an “I-Thou” (Buber) standpoint, interacting
with each participant with mutuality and confirmation.
There is no exact census data to show how many American expatriates are
currently in China. This is in part due to the mobility of this group of people. A
conservative estimate is that there are about 8,000 American citizens working
in the Greater Shanghai area, an industrially advanced coastal area and the
location of this research. Such conglomerations of American professionals
serve as a resource population for this study. The in-depth interview particiarch.
pants were identified through a list of organizations provided by the American
ervaChamber of Commerce in China. The respondents’ age range is from
25 to
65 years of age. The contact process involved getting in touch withrally
the human resource departments through phone calls and e-mails, with thecome
research
Kim
proposal and Institutional Review Board approval letter attached. Then
faceto-face interview time was set up and the interviews were conducted,
com-with
each interview lasting between one and one and one-half hours. vides
ation
PART IV: INTERCULTURAL LEARNING STRATEGIES
ional
The interviewees were asked whether they learn Chinese culturehurch
through
printed media such as books, newspapers, newsletters, magazines,
ger’sand
journals, online sources, or by attending classes, or by interacting egies
with the
that American sojourners adopt for intercultural learning in China and the
approach that is most effective.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 51
that American sojourners adopt for intercultural learning in Chinaation
and the
approach that is most effective.
kard;
lack
PART III: RESEARCH METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION
hens
A total of twenty semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conductedand
based
on an in-depth interview guide. The participants were English-speaking
. We
American professionals working at professional, technical, and managerial
onals
positions in the Greater Shanghai Area, including the city of Shanghai and its
satellite cities, such as Minghang, Suzhou, and Songjiang. The interviewees
psywere identified based on a quota sampling technique derived from Gao
general
employment categories of American expatriates in the Greater Shanghai
on of
area,
which include communication, diplomacy, education, wholesale, consulting,
hat a
nonprofit, import, and export as well as part-time workers.
ing a
The in-depth interviews were designed to elicit narratives withacity
respect
to intercultural learning strategies in the participants’ communication with
mainstream Chinese society. These interviews helped reveal the meanings
ences
behind actions, to test emerging ideas, and to gather data essentialngtointhis
study. Within the broad scope of the interview guide, semi-structuredanger
dialogic
interviews were conducted, from an “I-Thou” (Buber) standpoint, interacting
with each participant with mutuality and confirmation.
There is no exact census data to show how many American expatriates are
currently in China. This is in part due to the mobility of this group of people. A
conservative estimate is that there are about 8,000 American citizens working
in the Greater Shanghai area, an industrially advanced coastal area and the
location of this research. Such conglomerations of American professionals
serve as a resource population for this study. The in-depth interview participants were identified through a list of organizations provided by the American
arch.
Chamber of Commerce in China. The respondents’ age range is from
erva25 to
65 years of age. The contact process involved getting in touch withrally
the human resource departments through phone calls and e-mails, with thecome
research
proposal and Institutional Review Board approval letter attached. Then
Kim
faceto-face interview time was set up and the interviews were conducted,
com-with
each interview lasting between one and one and one-half hours. vides
ation
PART IV: INTERCULTURAL LEARNING STRATEGIES
ional
The interviewees were asked whether they learn Chinese culturehurch
through
printed media such as books, newspapers, newsletters, magazines,
ger’sand
journals, online sources, or by attending classes, or by interacting egies
with the
PART III: RESEARCH METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION
A total of twenty semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted based
on an in-depth interview guide. The participants were English-speaking
American professionals working at professional, technical, and managerial
positions in the Greater Shanghai Area, including the city of Shanghai and its
satellite cities, such as Minghang, Suzhou, and Songjiang. The interviewees
were identified based on a quota sampling technique derived from general
employment categories of American expatriates in the Greater Shanghai area,
which include communication, diplomacy, education, wholesale, consulting,
nonprofit, import, and export as well as part-time workers.
The in-depth interviews were designed to elicit narratives with respect
to intercultural learning strategies in the participants’ communication with
mainstream Chinese society. These interviews helped reveal the meanings
behind actions, to test emerging ideas, and to gather data essential to this
study. Within the broad scope of the interview guide, semi-structured dialogic
interviews were conducted, from an “I-Thou” (Buber) standpoint, interacting
with each participant with mutuality and confirmation.
There is no exact census data to show how many American expatriates are
currently in China. This is in part due to the mobility of this group of people. A
conservative estimate is that there are about 8,000 American citizens working
in the Greater Shanghai area, an industrially advanced coastal area and the
location of this research. Such conglomerations of American professionals
serve as a resource population for this study. The in-depth interview participants were identified through a list of organizations provided by the American
Chamber of Commerce in China. The respondents’ age range is from 25 to
65 years of age. The contact process involved getting in touch with the human resource departments through phone calls and e-mails, with the research
proposal and Institutional Review Board approval letter attached. Then faceto-face interview time was set up and the interviews were conducted, with
each interview lasting between one and one and one-half hours.
PART IV: INTERCULTURAL LEARNING STRATEGIES
The interviewees were asked whether they learn Chinese culture through
printed media such as books, newspapers, newsletters, magazines, and
journals, online sources, or by attending classes, or by interacting with the
51
that American sojourners adopt for intercultural learning in China and the
approach that is most effective.
PART III: RESEARCH METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION
A total of twenty semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted based
on an in-depth interview guide. The participants were English-speaking
American professionals working at professional, technical, and managerial
positions in the Greater Shanghai Area, including the city of Shanghai and its
satellite cities, such as Minghang, Suzhou, and Songjiang. The interviewees
were identified based on a quota sampling technique derived from general
employment categories of American expatriates in the Greater Shanghai area,
which include communication, diplomacy, education, wholesale, consulting,
nonprofit, import, and export as well as part-time workers.
The in-depth interviews were designed to elicit narratives with respect
to intercultural learning strategies in the participants’ communication with
mainstream Chinese society. These interviews helped reveal the meanings
behind actions, to test emerging ideas, and to gather data essential to this
study. Within the broad scope of the interview guide, semi-structured dialogic
interviews were conducted, from an “I-Thou” (Buber) standpoint, interacting
with each participant with mutuality and confirmation.
There is no exact census data to show how many American expatriates are
currently in China. This is in part due to the mobility of this group of people. A
conservative estimate is that there are about 8,000 American citizens working
in the Greater Shanghai area, an industrially advanced coastal area and the
location of this research. Such conglomerations of American professionals
serve as a resource population for this study. The in-depth interview participants were identified through a list of organizations provided by the American
Chamber of Commerce in China. The respondents’ age range is from 25 to
65 years of age. The contact process involved getting in touch with the human resource departments through phone calls and e-mails, with the research
proposal and Institutional Review Board approval letter attached. Then faceto-face interview time was set up and the interviews were conducted, with
each interview lasting between one and one and one-half hours.
PART IV: INTERCULTURAL LEARNING STRATEGIES
The interviewees were asked whether they learn Chinese culture through
printed media such as books, newspapers, newsletters, magazines, and
journals, online sources, or by attending classes, or by interacting with the
52
GAO, WOMACK
Chinese people and fellow expatriates. An overwhelming majority of the
interviewees responded that their major strategy of intercultural learning for
Chinese culture is through individual interactions with their Chinese colleagues, Chinese in-laws, Chinese friends and acquaintances.
In-depth interviews reveal that most expatriates have used three major
approaches to learn Chinese culture: independent, observational, and interactional approaches. The independent approach embodies strategies such
as reading books, magazines, newspapers, attending classes, and browsing online. The observational approach entails prolonged observation and
interpretation of the Chinese culture while living in Chinese society. The
interactional approach embodies interpersonal communication with both
the Chinese people and peer expatriates.
Each approach has its advantages and drawbacks, and most expatriates
utilized a combination of all three approaches. The independent approach
provides background for expatriates’ knowledge of Chinese culture, the observational approach gives the context, while the interactional approach provides
meaning and immediate feedback to expatriates concerning the knowledge,
emotional connotations, and behavioral patterns of Chinese culture.
The expatriates interviewed primarily benefited from the interactional
approach, especially interpersonal communication with their Chinese colleagues, friends, in-laws, nannies, and other acquaintances. Intercultural
learning through interactions with Chinese people is crucial to the expatriates’
adaptation process, and one cannot learn enough prior to coming to China.
Pat said: “I don’t think any preparation back in the States could prepare you
for living in China. I just think that it is impossible.” The benefits and challenges of the three approaches are presented in detail below.
52 APP
GAO, WOMACK
open door policy to reform its economy from a planned format to the market format.
The country has been achieving double-digit economic growth ever since.
Chinese
Wpeople and fellow expatriates. An overwhelming majority of the
interviewees
recen
responded that their major strategy of intercultural learning for
Chinese
behinculture is through individual interactions with their Chinese colleagues,
Chin Chinese in-laws, Chinese friends and acquaintances.
In-depth
for A
interviews reveal that most expatriates have used three major
approaches
long
to learn Chinese culture: independent, observational, and interactional approaches. The independent approach embodies strategies such
as reading books, magazines, newspapers, attending classes, and browsing online. The observational approach entails prolonged observation and
interpretation of the Chinese culture while living in Chinese society. The
interactional approach embodies interpersonal communication with both
the Chinese people and peer expatriates.
Each approach has its advantages and drawbacks, and most expatriates
utilized a combination of all three approaches. The independent approach
provides background for expatriates’ knowledge of Chinese culture, the observational approach gives the context, while the interactional approach provides
meaning
W and immediate feedback to expatriates concerning the knowledge,
emotional connotations, and behavioral patterns of Chinese culture.
The expatriates interviewed primarily benefited from the interactional
approach, especially interpersonal communication with their Chinese colleagues,j friends, in-laws, nannies, and other acquaintances. Intercultural
learning through interactions with Chinese people is crucial to the expatriates’
adaptation process, and one cannot learn enough prior to coming to China.
Pat said: “I don’t think any preparation back in the States could prepare you
S
for living in China. I just think that it is impossible.” The benefits and chaltion.
lenges of the three approaches are presented in detail below.
cultu
peop
Independent
Approach
depe
Most of the expatriates used various mass media outlets to study Chinese
practbefore their arrival. These included attending courses, reading books
culture
th
andas
newspapers,
browsing online, and watching Chinese movies or movies on
Chin
China.
Attending courses and reading books were the predominant strategies.
be go there is a lack of effective and up-to-date books on Chinese culture
However,
A
and Sino-American
communication geared toward the expatriates. Often they
findlearn
themselves reading books about China published in the 1990s, 1980s or
myse
even
prior to the application of the 1978 “open door policy.”1
work
1 The 1978 Open Door Policy: Under the leader Deng Xiaoping, China adopted an
what
every
open
door policy to reform its economy from a planned format to the market format.
Thecould
country has been achieving double-digit economic growth ever since.
52
52 APP
Independent Approach
Most of the expatriates used various mass media outlets to study Chinese
culture before their arrival. These included attending courses, reading books
and newspapers, browsing online, and watching Chinese movies or movies on
China. Attending courses and reading books were the predominant strategies.
However, there is a lack of effective and up-to-date books on Chinese culture
and Sino-American communication geared toward the expatriates. Often they
find themselves reading books about China published in the 1990s, 1980s or
even prior to the application of the 1978 “open door policy.”1
1 The 1978 Open Door Policy: Under the leader Deng Xiaoping, China adopted an
GAO, WOMACK
Chinese people and fellow expatriates. An overwhelming majority of the
interviewees responded that their major strategy of intercultural learning for
Chinese culture is through individual interactions with their Chinese colleagues, Chinese in-laws, Chinese friends and acquaintances.
In-depth interviews reveal that most expatriates have used three major
approaches to learn Chinese culture: independent, observational, and interactional approaches. The independent approach embodies strategies such
as reading books, magazines, newspapers, attending classes, and browsing online. The observational approach entails prolonged observation and
interpretation of the Chinese culture while living in Chinese society. The
interactional approach embodies interpersonal communication with both
the Chinese people and peer expatriates.
Each approach has its advantages and drawbacks, and most expatriates
utilized a combination of all three approaches. The independent approach
provides background for expatriates’ knowledge of Chinese culture, the observational approach gives the context, while the interactional approach provides
meaning and immediate feedback to expatriates concerning the knowledge,
emotional connotations, and behavioral patterns of Chinese culture.
The expatriates interviewed primarily benefited from the interactional
approach, especially interpersonal communication with their Chinese colleagues, friends, in-laws, nannies, and other acquaintances. Intercultural
learning through interactions with Chinese people is crucial to the expatriates’
adaptation process, and one cannot learn enough prior to coming to China.
Pat said: “I don’t think any preparation back in the States could prepare you
for living in China. I just think that it is impossible.” The benefits and challenges of the three approaches are presented in detail below.
Independent Approach
Most of the expatriates used various mass media outlets to study Chinese
culture before their arrival. These included attending courses, reading books
and newspapers, browsing online, and watching Chinese movies or movies on
China. Attending courses and reading books were the predominant strategies.
However, there is a lack of effective and up-to-date books on Chinese culture
and Sino-American communication geared toward the expatriates. Often they
find themselves reading books about China published in the 1990s, 1980s or
even prior to the application of the 1978 “open door policy.”1
1 The 1978 Open Door Policy: Under the leader Deng Xiaoping, China adopted an
open door policy to reform its economy from a planned format to the market format.
The country has been achieving double-digit economic growth ever since.
GAO, WOMACK
Chinese
Wpeople and fellow expatriates. An overwhelming majority of the
interviewees
recen
responded that their major strategy of intercultural learning for
Chinese
behinculture is through individual interactions with their Chinese colleagues,
Chin Chinese in-laws, Chinese friends and acquaintances.
In-depth
for A
interviews reveal that most expatriates have used three major
approaches
long
to learn Chinese culture: independent, observational, and interactional approaches. The independent approach embodies strategies such
as reading books, magazines, newspapers, attending classes, and browsing online. The observational approach entails prolonged observation and
interpretation of the Chinese culture while living in Chinese society. The
interactional approach embodies interpersonal communication with both
the Chinese people and peer expatriates.
Each approach has its advantages and drawbacks, and most expatriates
utilized a combination of all three approaches. The independent approach
provides background for expatriates’ knowledge of Chinese culture, the observational approach gives the context, while the interactional approach provides
meaning
W and immediate feedback to expatriates concerning the knowledge,
emotional connotations, and behavioral patterns of Chinese culture.
The expatriates interviewed primarily benefited from the interactional
approach, especially interpersonal communication with their Chinese colleagues,j friends, in-laws, nannies, and other acquaintances. Intercultural
learning through interactions with Chinese people is crucial to the expatriates’
adaptation process, and one cannot learn enough prior to coming to China.
Pat said: “I don’t think any preparation back in the States could prepare you
S
for living in China. I just think that it is impossible.” The benefits and chaltion.
lenges of the three approaches are presented in detail below.
cultu
Independent
peop
Approach
depe
Most of the expatriates used various mass media outlets to study Chinese
practbefore their arrival. These included attending courses, reading books
culture
th
andas
newspapers,
browsing online, and watching Chinese movies or movies on
Chin
China.
Attending courses and reading books were the predominant strategies.
be go there is a lack of effective and up-to-date books on Chinese culture
However,
A
and Sino-American
communication geared toward the expatriates. Often they
findlearn
themselves reading books about China published in the 1990s, 1980s or
myse
even
prior to the application of the 1978 “open door policy.”1
work
1 The 1978 Open Door Policy: Under the leader Deng Xiaoping, China adopted an
what
every
open
door policy to reform its economy from a planned format to the market format.
Thecould
country has been achieving double-digit economic growth ever since.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 53
With the phenomenal growth of the Chinese economy and relatively
f the
recent opening of China to the outside world, most printed publications
g for lag
behind the constant growth and change of the Chinese culture in mainland
colChina. Additionally, there is a lack of intercultural communication books
for Americans coming to China that are not geared for tourists, butmajor
more for
long-term expatriates. Ben’s comments are pertinent on this point: ntersuch
The books that are available are geared towards short-term foreign tourists,
owsnot for expatriates. I haven’t read anything that goes in depth into Chinese
n and
culture. Recently my friend showed me a book about British culture and
The
why British people are the way they are. It goes into every single detail
both
of the culture and language, why they express things the way they do, and
why they always talk about the weather, rituals, customs and everything.
iates
It is very insightful but also humorous. That is something I’d like to read
for Chinese culture, but I think it would be several years away beforeoach
we
bsersee such a book.
Whitney shares a similar view:
vides
edge,
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
53
With the phenomenal growth of the Chinese economy and relatively
recent opening of China to the outside world, most printed publications lag
behind the constant growth and change of the Chinese culture in mainland
China. Additionally, there is a lack of intercultural communication books
for Americans coming to China that are not geared for tourists, but more for
long-term expatriates. Ben’s comments are pertinent on this point:
The books that are available are geared towards short-term foreign tourists,
not for expatriates. I haven’t read anything that goes in depth into Chinese
culture. Recently my friend showed me a book about British culture and
why British people are the way they are. It goes into every single detail
of the culture and language, why they express things the way they do, and
why they always talk about the weather, rituals, customs and everything.
It is very insightful but also humorous. That is something I’d like to read
for Chinese culture, but I think it would be several years away before we
see such a book.
Whitney shares a similar view:
When I first came here, I bought a book called China Street Smart. It covers
ional
what you must know in order to be effective and profitable in China. Andcolit
just kind of explained all of this Guanxi stuff. I later found myself hanging
tural
out with all kinds of Chinese people and tried to practice what I learned from
ates’
this book, but I went nowhere in finding a job in Shanghai. . . .
hina.
When I first came here, I bought a book called China Street Smart. It covers
what you must know in order to be effective and profitable in China. And it
just kind of explained all of this Guanxi stuff. I later found myself hanging
out with all kinds of Chinese people and tried to practice what I learned from
this book, but I went nowhere in finding a job in Shanghai. . . .
e you
Some interviewees find that browsing online generates biased informachaltion. They question the credibility of various Web sites introducing Chinese
culture. Most official Web sites on Chinese culture, the economy, and the
people are established by the Chinese government and therefore are not independent sources. Some interviewees are aware of this situation and
try to
inese
practice media literacy when browsing Chinese government Web sites
ookssuch
as those set up by China Daily, People’s Daily, the Chinese embassy
es onand
Chinese ministries. Ben said: “Most anything that is in English is going
gies. to
be government published so it’s not going to be accurate.”
lture
Aaron, an employee for a wholesale company in China, was trying
they to
learn from a book: “Before I came, and indeed in San Francisco, I0sbought
or
myself a book entitled West Seas, High Thoughts, and it talks about living and
working with the Chinese. I was trying to see if my ideas were the same as
what everyone was writing about.” Although Aaron gained some ideas
ed about
an
everyday living and working with the Chinese, he confirmed that no
book
rmat.
could describe the dynamic and complex situation of being in China.
Some interviewees find that browsing online generates biased information. They question the credibility of various Web sites introducing Chinese
culture. Most official Web sites on Chinese culture, the economy, and the
people are established by the Chinese government and therefore are not independent sources. Some interviewees are aware of this situation and try to
practice media literacy when browsing Chinese government Web sites such
as those set up by China Daily, People’s Daily, the Chinese embassy and
Chinese ministries. Ben said: “Most anything that is in English is going to
be government published so it’s not going to be accurate.”
Aaron, an employee for a wholesale company in China, was trying to
learn from a book: “Before I came, and indeed in San Francisco, I bought
myself a book entitled West Seas, High Thoughts, and it talks about living and
working with the Chinese. I was trying to see if my ideas were the same as
what everyone was writing about.” Although Aaron gained some ideas about
everyday living and working with the Chinese, he confirmed that no book
could describe the dynamic and complex situation of being in China.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 53
With the phenomenal growth of the Chinese economy and relatively
f the
recent opening of China to the outside world, most printed publications
g for lag
behind the constant growth and change of the Chinese culture in mainland
colChina. Additionally, there is a lack of intercultural communication books
for Americans coming to China that are not geared for tourists, butmajor
more for
long-term expatriates. Ben’s comments are pertinent on this point: ntersuch
The books that are available are geared towards short-term foreign tourists,
owsnot for expatriates. I haven’t read anything that goes in depth into Chinese
n and
culture. Recently my friend showed me a book about British culture and
The
why British people are the way they are. It goes into every single detail
both
of the culture and language, why they express things the way they do, and
why they always talk about the weather, rituals, customs and everything.
iates
It is very insightful but also humorous. That is something I’d like to read
for Chinese culture, but I think it would be several years away beforeoach
we
bsersee such a book.
Whitney shares a similar view:
vides
edge,
53
With the phenomenal growth of the Chinese economy and relatively
recent opening of China to the outside world, most printed publications lag
behind the constant growth and change of the Chinese culture in mainland
China. Additionally, there is a lack of intercultural communication books
for Americans coming to China that are not geared for tourists, but more for
long-term expatriates. Ben’s comments are pertinent on this point:
The books that are available are geared towards short-term foreign tourists,
not for expatriates. I haven’t read anything that goes in depth into Chinese
culture. Recently my friend showed me a book about British culture and
why British people are the way they are. It goes into every single detail
of the culture and language, why they express things the way they do, and
why they always talk about the weather, rituals, customs and everything.
It is very insightful but also humorous. That is something I’d like to read
for Chinese culture, but I think it would be several years away before we
see such a book.
Whitney shares a similar view:
When I first came here, I bought a book called China Street Smart. It covers
ional
what you must know in order to be effective and profitable in China. Andcolit
just kind of explained all of this Guanxi stuff. I later found myself hanging
tural
out with all kinds of Chinese people and tried to practice what I learned from
ates’
this book, but I went nowhere in finding a job in Shanghai. . . .
hina.
When I first came here, I bought a book called China Street Smart. It covers
what you must know in order to be effective and profitable in China. And it
just kind of explained all of this Guanxi stuff. I later found myself hanging
out with all kinds of Chinese people and tried to practice what I learned from
this book, but I went nowhere in finding a job in Shanghai. . . .
e you
Some interviewees find that browsing online generates biased informachaltion. They question the credibility of various Web sites introducing Chinese
culture. Most official Web sites on Chinese culture, the economy, and the
people are established by the Chinese government and therefore are not independent sources. Some interviewees are aware of this situation and
try to
inese
practice media literacy when browsing Chinese government Web sites
ookssuch
as those set up by China Daily, People’s Daily, the Chinese embassy
es onand
Chinese ministries. Ben said: “Most anything that is in English is going
gies. to
be government published so it’s not going to be accurate.”
lture
Aaron, an employee for a wholesale company in China, was trying
they to
learn from a book: “Before I came, and indeed in San Francisco, I0sbought
or
myself a book entitled West Seas, High Thoughts, and it talks about living and
working with the Chinese. I was trying to see if my ideas were the same as
what everyone was writing about.” Although Aaron gained some ideas
ed about
an
everyday living and working with the Chinese, he confirmed that no
book
rmat.
could describe the dynamic and complex situation of being in China.
Some interviewees find that browsing online generates biased information. They question the credibility of various Web sites introducing Chinese
culture. Most official Web sites on Chinese culture, the economy, and the
people are established by the Chinese government and therefore are not independent sources. Some interviewees are aware of this situation and try to
practice media literacy when browsing Chinese government Web sites such
as those set up by China Daily, People’s Daily, the Chinese embassy and
Chinese ministries. Ben said: “Most anything that is in English is going to
be government published so it’s not going to be accurate.”
Aaron, an employee for a wholesale company in China, was trying to
learn from a book: “Before I came, and indeed in San Francisco, I bought
myself a book entitled West Seas, High Thoughts, and it talks about living and
working with the Chinese. I was trying to see if my ideas were the same as
what everyone was writing about.” Although Aaron gained some ideas about
everyday living and working with the Chinese, he confirmed that no book
could describe the dynamic and complex situation of being in China.
54
GAO, WOMACK
54 APP
GAO, WOMACK
The independent approach includes strategies of reading books, newspapers, and other printed publications on Chinese culture, as well as browsing
the Internet, and attending classes. This is a fundamental approach and it
provides expatriates with basic background information about Chinese culture, politics, language, art, history, and the people. This approach is readily
accessible and can be adopted by expatriates prior to their visit. Those we
interviewed who went to China with absolutely no preparation through the
independent approach found themselves in an absolutely helpless situation.
Pat mentioned that his first six months in China were “absolutely hell” because he did not understand the language and knew nothing about Chinese
history, politics, and culture.
Pat said an expatriate could not get very far with the independent approach
because of the language barrier. It is almost impossible to obtain information
from newspapers unless they are daily English newspapers. Instead, what
helped him was the Karaoke experience with the Chinese people at night.
He said: “Sometimes we’ll just go out and sing karaoke, or something like
that. So it’s not like there is any sort of major discussion taking place. Other
times we’ll talk about their lives, what they want to do with their lives. We
talk about very sensitive issues, such as the freedom of expression in China,
[or] Tiananmen, so it varies. We cover a whole range of things.” Ben echoed
this opinion, saying he had a slow reading speed, even when browsing English Web sites.
However, this approach poses serious challenges to the expatriates’ learning
process. First, the credibility of the information sources requires heightened
media literacy. Editors and writers of books, newspapers, and Web sites can be
biased. Second, many of the publications are outdated as a result of the rapid
changes in China. Third, to learn Chinese culture through mass media alone is
inherently a one-way communication and generates misunderstanding. Fourth,
if a cultural stranger reads a publication and over-generalizes what he/she reads
as applying to the whole Chinese population, it provides an unrealistic image
of China. For example, Amy thought all Chinese people were poetic from the
Tang dynasty poems she read. As a Chinese person living in the US, I have
constantly been asked whether I am good at Kungfu. This apparently results
from American audiences watching Chinese movies on Kungfu, which causes
people to assume every Chinese person is good at Kungfu.
The independent approach provides everyone an easily accessible tool
for learning Chinese culture, especially in the Information Age, since the
Internet functions as a free library. Expatriates can adopt this strategy long
beforindependent approach includes strategies of reading books, newspaThe
pers,
throu
and other printed publications on Chinese culture, as well as browsing
the book
Internet, and attending classes. This is a fundamental approach and it
provides
net. T expatriates with basic background information about Chinese culture,Chin
politics, language, art, history, and the people. This approach is readily
accessible
popu and can be adopted by expatriates prior to their visit. Those we
interviewed
patte
who went to China with absolutely no preparation through the
independent
cultu
approach found themselves in an absolutely helpless situation.
Pat mentioned
T
that his first six months in China were “absolutely hell” because
phen
he did not understand the language and knew nothing about Chinese
history,
mighpolitics, and culture.
Pat
regio
said an expatriate could not get very far with the independent approach
because
can pof the language barrier. It is almost impossible to obtain information
from
tion
newspapers unless they are daily English newspapers. Instead, what
helped
streshim was the Karaoke experience with the Chinese people at night.
He Chin
said: “Sometimes we’ll just go out and sing karaoke, or something like
that.dent
So it’s not like there is any sort of major discussion taking place. Other
Chin
times
we’ll talk about their lives, what they want to do with their lives. We
talkbeca
about very sensitive issues, such as the freedom of expression in China,
[or] Tiananmen, so it varies. We cover a whole range of things.” Ben echoed
thisObse
opinion, saying he had a slow reading speed, even when browsing EngThe
lish Webfi sites.
throu
However,
this approach poses serious challenges to the expatriates’ learning
profeFirst, the credibility of the information sources requires heightened
process.
surpr
media
literacy. Editors and writers of books, newspapers, and Web sites can be
regio
biased. Second, many of the publications are outdated as a result of the rapid
time in China. Third, to learn Chinese culture through mass media alone is
changes
tions a one-way communication and generates misunderstanding. Fourth,
inherently
O stranger reads a publication and over-generalizes what he/she reads
if a cultural
in
Ch
as applying to the whole Chinese population, it provides an unrealistic image
Glen For example, Amy thought all Chinese people were poetic from the
of China.
come
Tang
dynasty poems she read. As a Chinese person living in the US, I have
first- been asked whether I am good at Kungfu. This apparently results
constantly
the
c
from
American
audiences watching Chinese movies on Kungfu, which causes
that
I assume every Chinese person is good at Kungfu.
people to
TheRindependent approach provides everyone an easily accessible tool
for Chin
learning Chinese culture, especially in the Information Age, since the
and
InternetSfunctions as a free library. Expatriates can adopt this strategy long
54
54 APP
GAO, WOMACK
The independent approach includes strategies of reading books, newspapers, and other printed publications on Chinese culture, as well as browsing
the Internet, and attending classes. This is a fundamental approach and it
provides expatriates with basic background information about Chinese culture, politics, language, art, history, and the people. This approach is readily
accessible and can be adopted by expatriates prior to their visit. Those we
interviewed who went to China with absolutely no preparation through the
independent approach found themselves in an absolutely helpless situation.
Pat mentioned that his first six months in China were “absolutely hell” because he did not understand the language and knew nothing about Chinese
history, politics, and culture.
Pat said an expatriate could not get very far with the independent approach
because of the language barrier. It is almost impossible to obtain information
from newspapers unless they are daily English newspapers. Instead, what
helped him was the Karaoke experience with the Chinese people at night.
He said: “Sometimes we’ll just go out and sing karaoke, or something like
that. So it’s not like there is any sort of major discussion taking place. Other
times we’ll talk about their lives, what they want to do with their lives. We
talk about very sensitive issues, such as the freedom of expression in China,
[or] Tiananmen, so it varies. We cover a whole range of things.” Ben echoed
this opinion, saying he had a slow reading speed, even when browsing English Web sites.
However, this approach poses serious challenges to the expatriates’ learning
process. First, the credibility of the information sources requires heightened
media literacy. Editors and writers of books, newspapers, and Web sites can be
biased. Second, many of the publications are outdated as a result of the rapid
changes in China. Third, to learn Chinese culture through mass media alone is
inherently a one-way communication and generates misunderstanding. Fourth,
if a cultural stranger reads a publication and over-generalizes what he/she reads
as applying to the whole Chinese population, it provides an unrealistic image
of China. For example, Amy thought all Chinese people were poetic from the
Tang dynasty poems she read. As a Chinese person living in the US, I have
constantly been asked whether I am good at Kungfu. This apparently results
from American audiences watching Chinese movies on Kungfu, which causes
people to assume every Chinese person is good at Kungfu.
The independent approach provides everyone an easily accessible tool
for learning Chinese culture, especially in the Information Age, since the
Internet functions as a free library. Expatriates can adopt this strategy long
GAO, WOMACK
beforindependent approach includes strategies of reading books, newspaThe
pers,
throu
and other printed publications on Chinese culture, as well as browsing
the book
Internet, and attending classes. This is a fundamental approach and it
provides
net. T expatriates with basic background information about Chinese culture,Chin
politics, language, art, history, and the people. This approach is readily
accessible
popu and can be adopted by expatriates prior to their visit. Those we
interviewed
patte
who went to China with absolutely no preparation through the
independent
cultu
approach found themselves in an absolutely helpless situation.
Pat mentioned
T
that his first six months in China were “absolutely hell” because
phen
he did not understand the language and knew nothing about Chinese
history,
mighpolitics, and culture.
Pat
regio
said an expatriate could not get very far with the independent approach
because
can pof the language barrier. It is almost impossible to obtain information
from
tion
newspapers unless they are daily English newspapers. Instead, what
helped
streshim was the Karaoke experience with the Chinese people at night.
He Chin
said: “Sometimes we’ll just go out and sing karaoke, or something like
that.dent
So it’s not like there is any sort of major discussion taking place. Other
times
Chin
we’ll talk about their lives, what they want to do with their lives. We
talkbeca
about very sensitive issues, such as the freedom of expression in China,
[or] Tiananmen, so it varies. We cover a whole range of things.” Ben echoed
thisObse
opinion, saying he had a slow reading speed, even when browsing EngThe
lish Webfi sites.
throu
However,
this approach poses serious challenges to the expatriates’ learning
profeFirst, the credibility of the information sources requires heightened
process.
surpr
media
literacy. Editors and writers of books, newspapers, and Web sites can be
regio
biased. Second, many of the publications are outdated as a result of the rapid
time in China. Third, to learn Chinese culture through mass media alone is
changes
tions a one-way communication and generates misunderstanding. Fourth,
inherently
O stranger reads a publication and over-generalizes what he/she reads
if a cultural
in
Ch
as applying to the whole Chinese population, it provides an unrealistic image
Glen For example, Amy thought all Chinese people were poetic from the
of China.
come
Tang
dynasty poems she read. As a Chinese person living in the US, I have
first- been asked whether I am good at Kungfu. This apparently results
constantly
the
c
from
American
audiences watching Chinese movies on Kungfu, which causes
that
I assume every Chinese person is good at Kungfu.
people to
TheRindependent approach provides everyone an easily accessible tool
for Chin
learning Chinese culture, especially in the Information Age, since the
and
InternetSfunctions as a free library. Expatriates can adopt this strategy long
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 55
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
55
before they relocate to China and learn as much about its culture aswspapossible
wsing
through printed, digital, audio, and video media. Such media encompasses
nd Interit
books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, movies, TV, radio, and the
net. This approach is especially constructive for obtaining knowledgeculabout
China and Chinese culture on a macro-scale, including the country’sadily
history,
we
population, industry, political structure, tradition, religion, and basicecultural
h the the
patterns. Such macro-scale knowledge provides mental frames to interpret
cultural norms and rules when communicating with the Chinese. tion.
” be-at a
This approach has its inherent drawbacks. First, China is changing
phenomenal speed; almost no printed publication is up-to-date. Onlineinese
sources
might be more current, but most of the current sites are in Chinese. Second,
oach
regional differences in China are immense; no printed or digital publication
ation
can provide a dynamic picture of the whole country. Third, some information on China accessible here in America is politically biased aboutwhat
China,
ight.
stressing China as a communist country, which blocks the view of a realistic
like
China. Fourth, the language barrier hinders the effectiveness of the indepenOther
dent approach. Many expatriates stated that they could not fully understand
. We
Chinese newspapers, Chinese Web sites, and Chinese radio and TV programs
hina,
because they do not read and speak Chinese fluently.
hoed
Observational Approach
EngThe first step to take in intercultural communication involves points of surprise
through observation when a cultural stranger enters a new culture. American
rning
professionals who are expatriates usually experience the following points
ened of
surprise: differences between the “real China” and their preconceivedan
notions,
be
regional dynamics of China, the new “global young,” Chinese polychromic
rapid
time concept, a condensed space concept, and even the daily livingnecondiis
tions of the Chinese.
urth,
Observation is a major approach expatriates take when living and reads
working
in China. Paul stressed: “You walk out the door, you learn something
new.”
mage
Glenn said: “I don’t think that anybody can get it or understand it until
m thethey
come to a place.” Direct observation of the Chinese culture gives expatriates
have
first-hand contextual knowledge of Chinese culture. Sharon liked to sults
observe
the city: “I have a bike, and that gives me time to explore and peruse
places
auses
that I would not normally go.”
Renee, a 55-year-old woman, has been a k-12 mathematics teacher
tool in
China for foreign-born students at various international schools ineBeijing
the
and Shanghai since 1987, not long after China opened up to the outsidelong
world.
before they relocate to China and learn as much about its culture as possible
through printed, digital, audio, and video media. Such media encompasses
books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, movies, TV, radio, and the Internet. This approach is especially constructive for obtaining knowledge about
China and Chinese culture on a macro-scale, including the country’s history,
population, industry, political structure, tradition, religion, and basic cultural
patterns. Such macro-scale knowledge provides mental frames to interpret the
cultural norms and rules when communicating with the Chinese.
This approach has its inherent drawbacks. First, China is changing at a
phenomenal speed; almost no printed publication is up-to-date. Online sources
might be more current, but most of the current sites are in Chinese. Second,
regional differences in China are immense; no printed or digital publication
can provide a dynamic picture of the whole country. Third, some information on China accessible here in America is politically biased about China,
stressing China as a communist country, which blocks the view of a realistic
China. Fourth, the language barrier hinders the effectiveness of the independent approach. Many expatriates stated that they could not fully understand
Chinese newspapers, Chinese Web sites, and Chinese radio and TV programs
because they do not read and speak Chinese fluently.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 55
before they relocate to China and learn as much about its culture aswspapossible
wsing
through printed, digital, audio, and video media. Such media encompasses
nd Interit
books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, movies, TV, radio, and the
net. This approach is especially constructive for obtaining knowledgeculabout
China and Chinese culture on a macro-scale, including the country’sadily
history,
we
population, industry, political structure, tradition, religion, and basicecultural
h the the
patterns. Such macro-scale knowledge provides mental frames to interpret
cultural norms and rules when communicating with the Chinese. tion.
” be-at a
This approach has its inherent drawbacks. First, China is changing
phenomenal speed; almost no printed publication is up-to-date. Onlineinese
sources
might be more current, but most of the current sites are in Chinese. Second,
oach
regional differences in China are immense; no printed or digital publication
ation
can provide a dynamic picture of the whole country. Third, some information on China accessible here in America is politically biased aboutwhat
China,
ight.
stressing China as a communist country, which blocks the view of a realistic
like
China. Fourth, the language barrier hinders the effectiveness of the indepenOther
dent approach. Many expatriates stated that they could not fully understand
. We
Chinese newspapers, Chinese Web sites, and Chinese radio and TV programs
hina,
because they do not read and speak Chinese fluently.
hoed
Observational Approach
EngThe first step to take in intercultural communication involves points of surprise
through observation when a cultural stranger enters a new culture. American
rning
professionals who are expatriates usually experience the following points
ened of
surprise: differences between the “real China” and their preconceivedan
notions,
be
regional dynamics of China, the new “global young,” Chinese polychromic
rapid
time concept, a condensed space concept, and even the daily livingnecondiis
tions of the Chinese.
urth,
Observation is a major approach expatriates take when living and reads
working
in China. Paul stressed: “You walk out the door, you learn something
new.”
mage
Glenn said: “I don’t think that anybody can get it or understand it until
m thethey
come to a place.” Direct observation of the Chinese culture gives expatriates
have
first-hand contextual knowledge of Chinese culture. Sharon liked to sults
observe
the city: “I have a bike, and that gives me time to explore and peruse
places
auses
that I would not normally go.”
Renee, a 55-year-old woman, has been a k-12 mathematics teacher
tool in
China for foreign-born students at various international schools ineBeijing
the
and Shanghai since 1987, not long after China opened up to the outsidelong
world.
Observational Approach
The first step to take in intercultural communication involves points of surprise
through observation when a cultural stranger enters a new culture. American
professionals who are expatriates usually experience the following points of
surprise: differences between the “real China” and their preconceived notions,
regional dynamics of China, the new “global young,” Chinese polychromic
time concept, a condensed space concept, and even the daily living conditions of the Chinese.
Observation is a major approach expatriates take when living and working
in China. Paul stressed: “You walk out the door, you learn something new.”
Glenn said: “I don’t think that anybody can get it or understand it until they
come to a place.” Direct observation of the Chinese culture gives expatriates
first-hand contextual knowledge of Chinese culture. Sharon liked to observe
the city: “I have a bike, and that gives me time to explore and peruse places
that I would not normally go.”
Renee, a 55-year-old woman, has been a k-12 mathematics teacher in
China for foreign-born students at various international schools in Beijing
and Shanghai since 1987, not long after China opened up to the outside world.
55
before they relocate to China and learn as much about its culture as possible
through printed, digital, audio, and video media. Such media encompasses
books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, movies, TV, radio, and the Internet. This approach is especially constructive for obtaining knowledge about
China and Chinese culture on a macro-scale, including the country’s history,
population, industry, political structure, tradition, religion, and basic cultural
patterns. Such macro-scale knowledge provides mental frames to interpret the
cultural norms and rules when communicating with the Chinese.
This approach has its inherent drawbacks. First, China is changing at a
phenomenal speed; almost no printed publication is up-to-date. Online sources
might be more current, but most of the current sites are in Chinese. Second,
regional differences in China are immense; no printed or digital publication
can provide a dynamic picture of the whole country. Third, some information on China accessible here in America is politically biased about China,
stressing China as a communist country, which blocks the view of a realistic
China. Fourth, the language barrier hinders the effectiveness of the independent approach. Many expatriates stated that they could not fully understand
Chinese newspapers, Chinese Web sites, and Chinese radio and TV programs
because they do not read and speak Chinese fluently.
Observational Approach
The first step to take in intercultural communication involves points of surprise
through observation when a cultural stranger enters a new culture. American
professionals who are expatriates usually experience the following points of
surprise: differences between the “real China” and their preconceived notions,
regional dynamics of China, the new “global young,” Chinese polychromic
time concept, a condensed space concept, and even the daily living conditions of the Chinese.
Observation is a major approach expatriates take when living and working
in China. Paul stressed: “You walk out the door, you learn something new.”
Glenn said: “I don’t think that anybody can get it or understand it until they
come to a place.” Direct observation of the Chinese culture gives expatriates
first-hand contextual knowledge of Chinese culture. Sharon liked to observe
the city: “I have a bike, and that gives me time to explore and peruse places
that I would not normally go.”
Renee, a 55-year-old woman, has been a k-12 mathematics teacher in
China for foreign-born students at various international schools in Beijing
and Shanghai since 1987, not long after China opened up to the outside world.
56
GAO, WOMACK
Renee said that a lot of observation composes a major strategy for her and
her husband, a pioneer banker from the US:
56 APP
GAO, WOMACK
Little Red Book: A book with a red cover that lists Chairman Mao Zedong’s
sayings during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976. This book was a tool to brainwash people’s minds in the classical communist era of China during the Cold War.
Renee
said that a lot of observation composes a major strategy for her and
in Ch
her know
husband, a pioneer banker from the US:
inACh
lot is observation, sometimes it’s making mistakes, you read, but, no I
inter
don’t really go on line to learn Chinese culture. So much of it is observation,
and
andewhen I have a question usually there is someone you can ask. I know
are
form
my students the one thing that just bothers them the most, and these are
H
11-year-old
kids who have been raised here since they were 4 or 5 years
oldrin China, they can’t handle the spitting. They just hate it. . . . The events
the
are the same but how you celebrate may be slightly different and learning
migh
becertain
no things that may be offensive and making sure you don’t do those.
Like
trans the number 4 and things like that you learn really early you may be
in an elevator and it doesn’t have a 4 and you wonder why there’s no 4th
gene
floor, then you learn that 4 is bad and 8 is good, but you learn by observing
preco
and then asking why.
find e
In
often
the uncertainty reduction theory, Charles R. Berger and Richard J.
Calabrese
of a f summarized that observation serves as an indispensable tool in
human
this acommunication, especially at the beginning of any given relationship. However, in an intercultural communication context, there are benefits
andInter
challenges that the observational approach embodies. On the one hand,
Edw
observation
is a natural human discovery tool and it is practical for expatriatestures
to use this approach. They can combine the independent approach and
andthe
7 knowledge they gain from the independent approach to interpret
utilize
critic
cultural phenomena observed. On the other hand, the interpretation of the
only cultural phenomena is very probably wrong based solely on the
observed
of thknowledge gained from the independent approach by reading books,
limited
of th movies, browsing the Internet, or attending lectures. For example, at
watching
T
the beginning
of some of the expatriates’ careers in China, they immediately
out
w China as a classical communist country based on their observation
interpreted
hang
of the
behavior of Chinese policemen and the sales of the Little Red Book2 in
I
thin
tourist areas. Such observation denies the existence of a thriving free market
Chin in China.
economy
withobservational approach provides expatriates with a pair of interpretThe
ing talkin
glasses with which to view China. Expatriates will automatically adopt
frien
this strategy as soon as they arrive in China. Depending on their professional
andThey
social activities, they experience and observe different social episodes
G
2that
The Little Red Book: A book with a red cover that lists Chairman Mao Zedong’s
Chin
sayings
during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976. This book was a tool to brainwash
people’s minds in the classical communist era of China during the Cold War.
Chin
56
56 APP
A lot is observation, sometimes it’s making mistakes, you read, but, no I
don’t really go on line to learn Chinese culture. So much of it is observation,
and when I have a question usually there is someone you can ask. I know
for my students the one thing that just bothers them the most, and these are
11-year-old kids who have been raised here since they were 4 or 5 years
old in China, they can’t handle the spitting. They just hate it. . . . The events
are the same but how you celebrate may be slightly different and learning
certain things that may be offensive and making sure you don’t do those.
Like the number 4 and things like that you learn really early you may be
in an elevator and it doesn’t have a 4 and you wonder why there’s no 4th
floor, then you learn that 4 is bad and 8 is good, but you learn by observing
and then asking why.
In the uncertainty reduction theory, Charles R. Berger and Richard J.
Calabrese summarized that observation serves as an indispensable tool in
human communication, especially at the beginning of any given relationship. However, in an intercultural communication context, there are benefits
and challenges that the observational approach embodies. On the one hand,
observation is a natural human discovery tool and it is practical for expatriates to use this approach. They can combine the independent approach and
utilize the knowledge they gain from the independent approach to interpret
cultural phenomena observed. On the other hand, the interpretation of the
observed cultural phenomena is very probably wrong based solely on the
limited knowledge gained from the independent approach by reading books,
watching movies, browsing the Internet, or attending lectures. For example, at
the beginning of some of the expatriates’ careers in China, they immediately
interpreted China as a classical communist country based on their observation
of the behavior of Chinese policemen and the sales of the Little Red Book2 in
tourist areas. Such observation denies the existence of a thriving free market
economy in China.
The observational approach provides expatriates with a pair of interpreting glasses with which to view China. Expatriates will automatically adopt
this strategy as soon as they arrive in China. Depending on their professional
and social activities, they experience and observe different social episodes
2 The
GAO, WOMACK
Renee said that a lot of observation composes a major strategy for her and
her husband, a pioneer banker from the US:
A lot is observation, sometimes it’s making mistakes, you read, but, no I
don’t really go on line to learn Chinese culture. So much of it is observation,
and when I have a question usually there is someone you can ask. I know
for my students the one thing that just bothers them the most, and these are
11-year-old kids who have been raised here since they were 4 or 5 years
old in China, they can’t handle the spitting. They just hate it. . . . The events
are the same but how you celebrate may be slightly different and learning
certain things that may be offensive and making sure you don’t do those.
Like the number 4 and things like that you learn really early you may be
in an elevator and it doesn’t have a 4 and you wonder why there’s no 4th
floor, then you learn that 4 is bad and 8 is good, but you learn by observing
and then asking why.
In the uncertainty reduction theory, Charles R. Berger and Richard J.
Calabrese summarized that observation serves as an indispensable tool in
human communication, especially at the beginning of any given relationship. However, in an intercultural communication context, there are benefits
and challenges that the observational approach embodies. On the one hand,
observation is a natural human discovery tool and it is practical for expatriates to use this approach. They can combine the independent approach and
utilize the knowledge they gain from the independent approach to interpret
cultural phenomena observed. On the other hand, the interpretation of the
observed cultural phenomena is very probably wrong based solely on the
limited knowledge gained from the independent approach by reading books,
watching movies, browsing the Internet, or attending lectures. For example, at
the beginning of some of the expatriates’ careers in China, they immediately
interpreted China as a classical communist country based on their observation
of the behavior of Chinese policemen and the sales of the Little Red Book2 in
tourist areas. Such observation denies the existence of a thriving free market
economy in China.
The observational approach provides expatriates with a pair of interpreting glasses with which to view China. Expatriates will automatically adopt
this strategy as soon as they arrive in China. Depending on their professional
and social activities, they experience and observe different social episodes
2 The
Little Red Book: A book with a red cover that lists Chairman Mao Zedong’s
sayings during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976. This book was a tool to brainwash people’s minds in the classical communist era of China during the Cold War.
GAO, WOMACK
Renee
said that a lot of observation composes a major strategy for her and
in Ch
her know
husband, a pioneer banker from the US:
inACh
lot is observation, sometimes it’s making mistakes, you read, but, no I
inter
don’t really go on line to learn Chinese culture. So much of it is observation,
and
andewhen I have a question usually there is someone you can ask. I know
are
form
my students the one thing that just bothers them the most, and these are
H
11-year-old
kids who have been raised here since they were 4 or 5 years
oldrin China, they can’t handle the spitting. They just hate it. . . . The events
the
are the same but how you celebrate may be slightly different and learning
migh
becertain
no things that may be offensive and making sure you don’t do those.
Like
trans the number 4 and things like that you learn really early you may be
in an elevator and it doesn’t have a 4 and you wonder why there’s no 4th
gene
floor, then you learn that 4 is bad and 8 is good, but you learn by observing
preco
and then asking why.
find e
In
often
the uncertainty reduction theory, Charles R. Berger and Richard J.
Calabrese
of a f summarized that observation serves as an indispensable tool in
human
this acommunication, especially at the beginning of any given relationship. However, in an intercultural communication context, there are benefits
andInter
challenges that the observational approach embodies. On the one hand,
Edw
observation
is a natural human discovery tool and it is practical for expatriatestures
to use this approach. They can combine the independent approach and
andthe
7 knowledge they gain from the independent approach to interpret
utilize
critic
cultural phenomena observed. On the other hand, the interpretation of the
only cultural phenomena is very probably wrong based solely on the
observed
of thknowledge gained from the independent approach by reading books,
limited
of th movies, browsing the Internet, or attending lectures. For example, at
watching
T
the beginning
of some of the expatriates’ careers in China, they immediately
out
w China as a classical communist country based on their observation
interpreted
hang
of the
behavior of Chinese policemen and the sales of the Little Red Book2 in
I
thin
tourist areas. Such observation denies the existence of a thriving free market
Chin in China.
economy
withobservational approach provides expatriates with a pair of interpretThe
ing talkin
glasses with which to view China. Expatriates will automatically adopt
frien
this strategy as soon as they arrive in China. Depending on their professional
andThey
social activities, they experience and observe different social episodes
G
2that
The Little Red Book: A book with a red cover that lists Chairman Mao Zedong’s
Chin
sayings
during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976. This book was a tool to brainwash
people’s minds in the classical communist era of China during the Cold War.
Chin
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 57
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
57
in Chinese society. Such observation requires critical thinking and connects
r and
knowledge obtained from the independent approach to real-life situations
in China. Through such application, expatriates either understand and thus
internalize the knowledge they have learned about China, or become confused
and even reject their preconceived knowledge. Observation and interpretation
are more advanced than the independent approach.
However, the observational approach has its inherent disadvantages. First,
the regional differences of China are immense; one’s observation of China
might be true for one region, but not true for another. Therefore it should
be noted that conclusions generated from such observation are usually not
transferable elsewhere in China. Second, observation and interpretation
generates self-fulfilling prophecies. If one comes to China with inaccurate
preconceptions of China, such as China being a communist country, one will
find evidence in life to match this preconception. As Einstein once stated: “We
often find what we look for.” Third, the reliance on one’s own interpretation
rd J.
of a foreign culture results in frustration for the cultural stranger. Therefore,
ol in
this approach cannot be practiced alone.
tionnefits
Interactional Approach
hand,
Edward Hall proposed the distinction of high-context versus low-context
patri-cultures. The Chinese culture is widely considered to be a high contexth culture,
and
and 70 percent of a message is embedded in the context of interactions.
rpretIt is
critical for expatriates to experience genuine Chinese communication,
by not
f the
only receiving 30 percent of the message in verbal form, but also 70npercent
the
of the message in the form of nonverbal behavior, silence, and theooks,
strength
of the relationship between communicators.
le, at
Tom made the following point: “I have several Chinese friends that
I hang
ately
out with from time to time and I really enjoy that because it is so different
ationthan
hanging out with my friends here at the Consulate, my American friends.
k2 in So
I think that spending time with my Chinese friends is the main wayarket
to learn
Chinese culture here.” Jennifer agreed: “I think talking to people; meeting
with university students, talking with government officials, journalists;
pret-just
talking to a wide variety of people.” Aaron said: “I learn most fromadopt
Chinese
friends and colleagues about how one is supposed to behave or notional
behave.
They usually try to give me pointers so that I don’t get myself in trouble.”
odes
Glenn, an educational counselor at an international school in China, said
that other than reading books on Chinese culture, he usually talks
to his
ong’s
Chinese colleagues. He said his school secretaries (who are almostbrainalways
Chinese) usually help him practice his Chinese language and learn ar.
Chinese
in Chinese society. Such observation requires critical thinking and connects
knowledge obtained from the independent approach to real-life situations
in China. Through such application, expatriates either understand and thus
internalize the knowledge they have learned about China, or become confused
and even reject their preconceived knowledge. Observation and interpretation
are more advanced than the independent approach.
However, the observational approach has its inherent disadvantages. First,
the regional differences of China are immense; one’s observation of China
might be true for one region, but not true for another. Therefore it should
be noted that conclusions generated from such observation are usually not
transferable elsewhere in China. Second, observation and interpretation
generates self-fulfilling prophecies. If one comes to China with inaccurate
preconceptions of China, such as China being a communist country, one will
find evidence in life to match this preconception. As Einstein once stated: “We
often find what we look for.” Third, the reliance on one’s own interpretation
of a foreign culture results in frustration for the cultural stranger. Therefore,
this approach cannot be practiced alone.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 57
in Chinese society. Such observation requires critical thinking and connects
r and
knowledge obtained from the independent approach to real-life situations
in China. Through such application, expatriates either understand and thus
internalize the knowledge they have learned about China, or become confused
and even reject their preconceived knowledge. Observation and interpretation
are more advanced than the independent approach.
However, the observational approach has its inherent disadvantages. First,
the regional differences of China are immense; one’s observation of China
might be true for one region, but not true for another. Therefore it should
be noted that conclusions generated from such observation are usually not
transferable elsewhere in China. Second, observation and interpretation
generates self-fulfilling prophecies. If one comes to China with inaccurate
preconceptions of China, such as China being a communist country, one will
find evidence in life to match this preconception. As Einstein once stated: “We
often find what we look for.” Third, the reliance on one’s own interpretation
rd J.
of a foreign culture results in frustration for the cultural stranger. Therefore,
ol in
this approach cannot be practiced alone.
tionnefits
Interactional Approach
hand,
Edward Hall proposed the distinction of high-context versus low-context
patri-cultures. The Chinese culture is widely considered to be a high contexth culture,
and
and 70 percent of a message is embedded in the context of interactions.
rpretIt is
critical for expatriates to experience genuine Chinese communication,
by not
f the
only receiving 30 percent of the message in verbal form, but also 70npercent
the
of the message in the form of nonverbal behavior, silence, and theooks,
strength
of the relationship between communicators.
le, at
Tom made the following point: “I have several Chinese friends that
I hang
ately
out with from time to time and I really enjoy that because it is so different
ationthan
hanging out with my friends here at the Consulate, my American friends.
k2 in So
I think that spending time with my Chinese friends is the main wayarket
to learn
Chinese culture here.” Jennifer agreed: “I think talking to people; meeting
with university students, talking with government officials, journalists;
pret-just
talking to a wide variety of people.” Aaron said: “I learn most fromadopt
Chinese
friends and colleagues about how one is supposed to behave or notional
behave.
They usually try to give me pointers so that I don’t get myself in trouble.”
odes
Glenn, an educational counselor at an international school in China, said
that other than reading books on Chinese culture, he usually talks
to his
ong’s
Chinese colleagues. He said his school secretaries (who are almostbrainalways
Chinese) usually help him practice his Chinese language and learn ar.
Chinese
Interactional Approach
Edward Hall proposed the distinction of high-context versus low-context cultures. The Chinese culture is widely considered to be a high context culture,
and 70 percent of a message is embedded in the context of interactions. It is
critical for expatriates to experience genuine Chinese communication, by not
only receiving 30 percent of the message in verbal form, but also 70 percent
of the message in the form of nonverbal behavior, silence, and the strength
of the relationship between communicators.
Tom made the following point: “I have several Chinese friends that I hang
out with from time to time and I really enjoy that because it is so different than
hanging out with my friends here at the Consulate, my American friends. So
I think that spending time with my Chinese friends is the main way to learn
Chinese culture here.” Jennifer agreed: “I think talking to people; meeting
with university students, talking with government officials, journalists; just
talking to a wide variety of people.” Aaron said: “I learn most from Chinese
friends and colleagues about how one is supposed to behave or not behave.
They usually try to give me pointers so that I don’t get myself in trouble.”
Glenn, an educational counselor at an international school in China, said
that other than reading books on Chinese culture, he usually talks to his
Chinese colleagues. He said his school secretaries (who are almost always
Chinese) usually help him practice his Chinese language and learn Chinese
57
in Chinese society. Such observation requires critical thinking and connects
knowledge obtained from the independent approach to real-life situations
in China. Through such application, expatriates either understand and thus
internalize the knowledge they have learned about China, or become confused
and even reject their preconceived knowledge. Observation and interpretation
are more advanced than the independent approach.
However, the observational approach has its inherent disadvantages. First,
the regional differences of China are immense; one’s observation of China
might be true for one region, but not true for another. Therefore it should
be noted that conclusions generated from such observation are usually not
transferable elsewhere in China. Second, observation and interpretation
generates self-fulfilling prophecies. If one comes to China with inaccurate
preconceptions of China, such as China being a communist country, one will
find evidence in life to match this preconception. As Einstein once stated: “We
often find what we look for.” Third, the reliance on one’s own interpretation
of a foreign culture results in frustration for the cultural stranger. Therefore,
this approach cannot be practiced alone.
Interactional Approach
Edward Hall proposed the distinction of high-context versus low-context cultures. The Chinese culture is widely considered to be a high context culture,
and 70 percent of a message is embedded in the context of interactions. It is
critical for expatriates to experience genuine Chinese communication, by not
only receiving 30 percent of the message in verbal form, but also 70 percent
of the message in the form of nonverbal behavior, silence, and the strength
of the relationship between communicators.
Tom made the following point: “I have several Chinese friends that I hang
out with from time to time and I really enjoy that because it is so different than
hanging out with my friends here at the Consulate, my American friends. So
I think that spending time with my Chinese friends is the main way to learn
Chinese culture here.” Jennifer agreed: “I think talking to people; meeting
with university students, talking with government officials, journalists; just
talking to a wide variety of people.” Aaron said: “I learn most from Chinese
friends and colleagues about how one is supposed to behave or not behave.
They usually try to give me pointers so that I don’t get myself in trouble.”
Glenn, an educational counselor at an international school in China, said
that other than reading books on Chinese culture, he usually talks to his
Chinese colleagues. He said his school secretaries (who are almost always
Chinese) usually help him practice his Chinese language and learn Chinese
58
GAO, WOMACK
58 APP
GAO, WOMACK
Common Topics and Icebreakers
“Genuine communication” implies that the participating communicators
“make” something in common. David Bohm analyzes the term communication, which is based on the Latin root commun and the suffix -ie, which is
similar to -fie, meaning “to make or to do.” One meaning of to communicate is
“to make something in common.” Therefore, a global citizen who has achieved
multiple cultural identities is able to communicate with employers from any
type of culture, native or foreign. Cultural familiarity and relational closeness
with an employer support a common ground for communication between
cosmopolitan job seekers and employers of different cultural heritages.
Genuine communication starts with establishing a common ground, especially for cultural strangers. When American expatriates are asked how they
make Chinese friends, especially in the collective Chinese culture when a
stranger is instantly labeled as an outgroup member, the interviewees shared
their common “icebreaker” topics for conversation. When communicators are
culturally distant from each other, they need to search for common topics.
Most participants talk with their Chinese friends about their job, family,
children, Chinese culture, or American culture. To keep a conversation going,
it is vital to start with topics for which the Chinese partner has a reference
point. By identifying the common topics of interest and experience, the
American expatriates and their Chinese conversation partners build a two-way
communication experience based on a common frame of reference.
Between American expatriates and their Chinese partners, topics related
to family and children are often easy since the Chinese are so family-oriented
and they like children very much. For example, Amy, on her business trips
to Nanjing, would visit her long-time Chinese girl friend who taught English
in Nanjing and was pregnant. They would talk about her pregnancy, houses,
and some politics.
culture:S “My Chinese colleagues talk about things in Chinese concerning
theircally
culture. In addition, I live in downtown Shanghai, my neighbors are
all Chinese.”
repre
Some
the r expatriates have gone so far as dating Chinese people. Pat acknowledged that
W he had dated several Chinese women and said that if “[y]ou want a
crash
is spe
course on China, that’s the easiest way . . . And to be quite frank Chinese
women
with are some of the most beautiful and understanding and gifted women
in the world. Even though they may not be extremely independent-minded
theyInter
are truly gifted. So that would be what I suggest.”
Othe
Common
Chin Topics and Icebreakers
“Genuine
Aaro communication” implies that the participating communicators
“make”
you something in common. David Bohm analyzes the term communication,you
which
a is based on the Latin root commun and the suffix -ie, which is
similar
peers
to -fie, meaning “to make or to do.” One meaning of to communicate is
“to Chin
make something in common.” Therefore, a global citizen who has achieved
multiple
S cultural identities is able to communicate with employers from any
typeinter
of culture, native or foreign. Cultural familiarity and relational closeness
withprofe
an employer support a common ground for communication between
cosmopolitan job seekers and employers of different cultural heritages.
Genuine communication starts with establishing a common ground, especially for cultural strangers. When American expatriates are asked how they
make Chinese friends, especially in the collective Chinese culture when a
stranger is instantly labeled as an outgroup member, the interviewees shared
their common “icebreaker” topics for conversation. When communicators are
culturally distant from each other, they need to search for common topics.
Most participants talk with their Chinese friends about their job, family,
children, Chinese culture, or American culture. To keep a conversation going,
it is vital to start with topics for which the Chinese partner has a reference
point. T
By identifying the common topics of interest and experience, the
American
Chin expatriates and their Chinese conversation partners build a two-way
communication
experience based on a common frame of reference.
than
Between
American expatriates and their Chinese partners, topics related
inter
to family
throu and children are often easy since the Chinese are so family-oriented
andSuch
they like children very much. For example, Amy, on her business trips
to Nanjing,
voice would visit her long-time Chinese girl friend who taught English
in Nanjing
of th and was pregnant. They would talk about her pregnancy, houses,
andinsome
in politics.
58
58 APP
culture: “My Chinese colleagues talk about things in Chinese concerning
their culture. In addition, I live in downtown Shanghai, my neighbors are
all Chinese.”
Some expatriates have gone so far as dating Chinese people. Pat acknowledged that he had dated several Chinese women and said that if “[y]ou want a
crash course on China, that’s the easiest way . . . And to be quite frank Chinese
women are some of the most beautiful and understanding and gifted women
in the world. Even though they may not be extremely independent-minded
they are truly gifted. So that would be what I suggest.”
GAO, WOMACK
culture: “My Chinese colleagues talk about things in Chinese concerning
their culture. In addition, I live in downtown Shanghai, my neighbors are
all Chinese.”
Some expatriates have gone so far as dating Chinese people. Pat acknowledged that he had dated several Chinese women and said that if “[y]ou want a
crash course on China, that’s the easiest way . . . And to be quite frank Chinese
women are some of the most beautiful and understanding and gifted women
in the world. Even though they may not be extremely independent-minded
they are truly gifted. So that would be what I suggest.”
Common Topics and Icebreakers
“Genuine communication” implies that the participating communicators
“make” something in common. David Bohm analyzes the term communication, which is based on the Latin root commun and the suffix -ie, which is
similar to -fie, meaning “to make or to do.” One meaning of to communicate is
“to make something in common.” Therefore, a global citizen who has achieved
multiple cultural identities is able to communicate with employers from any
type of culture, native or foreign. Cultural familiarity and relational closeness
with an employer support a common ground for communication between
cosmopolitan job seekers and employers of different cultural heritages.
Genuine communication starts with establishing a common ground, especially for cultural strangers. When American expatriates are asked how they
make Chinese friends, especially in the collective Chinese culture when a
stranger is instantly labeled as an outgroup member, the interviewees shared
their common “icebreaker” topics for conversation. When communicators are
culturally distant from each other, they need to search for common topics.
Most participants talk with their Chinese friends about their job, family,
children, Chinese culture, or American culture. To keep a conversation going,
it is vital to start with topics for which the Chinese partner has a reference
point. By identifying the common topics of interest and experience, the
American expatriates and their Chinese conversation partners build a two-way
communication experience based on a common frame of reference.
Between American expatriates and their Chinese partners, topics related
to family and children are often easy since the Chinese are so family-oriented
and they like children very much. For example, Amy, on her business trips
to Nanjing, would visit her long-time Chinese girl friend who taught English
in Nanjing and was pregnant. They would talk about her pregnancy, houses,
and some politics.
GAO, WOMACK
culture:S “My Chinese colleagues talk about things in Chinese concerning
theircally
culture. In addition, I live in downtown Shanghai, my neighbors are
all Chinese.”
repre
Some
the r expatriates have gone so far as dating Chinese people. Pat acknowledged that
W he had dated several Chinese women and said that if “[y]ou want a
crash
is spe
course on China, that’s the easiest way . . . And to be quite frank Chinese
women
with are some of the most beautiful and understanding and gifted women
in the world. Even though they may not be extremely independent-minded
theyInter
are truly gifted. So that would be what I suggest.”
Othe
Common
Chin Topics and Icebreakers
“Genuine
Aaro communication” implies that the participating communicators
“make”
you something in common. David Bohm analyzes the term communication,you
which
a is based on the Latin root commun and the suffix -ie, which is
similar
peers
to -fie, meaning “to make or to do.” One meaning of to communicate is
“to Chin
make something in common.” Therefore, a global citizen who has achieved
multiple
S cultural identities is able to communicate with employers from any
typeinter
of culture, native or foreign. Cultural familiarity and relational closeness
withprofe
an employer support a common ground for communication between
cosmopolitan job seekers and employers of different cultural heritages.
Genuine communication starts with establishing a common ground, especially for cultural strangers. When American expatriates are asked how they
make Chinese friends, especially in the collective Chinese culture when a
stranger is instantly labeled as an outgroup member, the interviewees shared
their common “icebreaker” topics for conversation. When communicators are
culturally distant from each other, they need to search for common topics.
Most participants talk with their Chinese friends about their job, family,
children, Chinese culture, or American culture. To keep a conversation going,
it is vital to start with topics for which the Chinese partner has a reference
point. T
By identifying the common topics of interest and experience, the
American
Chin expatriates and their Chinese conversation partners build a two-way
communication
experience based on a common frame of reference.
than
Between
American expatriates and their Chinese partners, topics related
inter
to family
throu and children are often easy since the Chinese are so family-oriented
andSuch
they like children very much. For example, Amy, on her business trips
to Nanjing,
voice would visit her long-time Chinese girl friend who taught English
in Nanjing
of th and was pregnant. They would talk about her pregnancy, houses,
andinsome
in politics.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 59
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
59
rning
Some expatriates would talk about their job and life-related issues,
basis are
cally explaining their jobs and their life habits. Ben, an American government
representative in China, said a lot of the common topics were about his job and
owlthe regional differences of China, since he had traveled throughout China.
ant a she
Whitney expressed that she picks topics based on the person with whom
inese
is speaking. For example, she had one Chinese girl friend who was obsessed
with shopping and that was really the only topic they talked about.omen
nded
Interaction with Fellow Expatriates
Other than learning Chinese culture through interacting directly with the
Chinese people, it is helpful to learn Chinese culture from peer expatriates.
ators
Aaron summarized with the following: “The training skills that people
offer
nica-with
you are great, but your fellow expatriate workers can share a lot more
ch istheir
you and tell you a lot more.” Most expatriates naturally hang out with
ate is to
peers and benefit from their peers’ experience of learning and adapting
eved
Chinese culture.
m any for
Some expatriates suggest a combined tactic of all three approaches
eness
intercultural learning, even before going to China. Rachel, an Indian American
ween
professional, suggested:
.
I would say that you really have to learn as much as you can before youespego,
and it’s not just reading about it in books because that’s what I tried to they
do.
If you can, try to do some cultural activities in the States. There are lots
henofa
Chinese American associations, maybe they’re putting on a play or they’ve
hared
invited a local artist to come. There are lots of movies that have subtitles.
rs are
And some cities have Chinatowns, it’s really like China, but you can explore
ics.
a little bit and find what they like to do, how people interact, or get to know
mily,
some local dishes. I feel like the more you get to do, the more comfortable
oing,
you’ll feel because you’ve seen it. Language is the key.
ence
, the
The interactional approach is the quintessential instrument for learning
-way
Chinese culture for American expatriates. It is the ultimate strategy and
better
than either the independent approach or the observational approach. First, the
lated
interactional approach is the most personal of all approaches. Communication
ented
through this approach provides a meta-message above the textual information.
Such a meta-message contains vocal and visual information, such astrips
tone of
voice, body movement, eye contact, and facial expression, which is 70glish
percent
uses,
of the total message. The meta-message contains critical emotional feedback
in interpersonal communication. The meta-message, which is expressed by
The interactional approach is the quintessential instrument for learning
Chinese culture for American expatriates. It is the ultimate strategy and better
than either the independent approach or the observational approach. First, the
interactional approach is the most personal of all approaches. Communication
through this approach provides a meta-message above the textual information.
Such a meta-message contains vocal and visual information, such as tone of
voice, body movement, eye contact, and facial expression, which is 70 percent
of the total message. The meta-message contains critical emotional feedback
in interpersonal communication. The meta-message, which is expressed by
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 59
rning
Some expatriates would talk about their job and life-related issues,
basis are
cally explaining their jobs and their life habits. Ben, an American government
representative in China, said a lot of the common topics were about his job and
owlthe regional differences of China, since he had traveled throughout China.
ant a she
Whitney expressed that she picks topics based on the person with whom
inese
is speaking. For example, she had one Chinese girl friend who was obsessed
with shopping and that was really the only topic they talked about.omen
nded
Interaction with Fellow Expatriates
Other than learning Chinese culture through interacting directly with the
Chinese people, it is helpful to learn Chinese culture from peer expatriates.
ators
Aaron summarized with the following: “The training skills that people
offer
nica-with
you are great, but your fellow expatriate workers can share a lot more
ch istheir
you and tell you a lot more.” Most expatriates naturally hang out with
ate is to
peers and benefit from their peers’ experience of learning and adapting
eved
Chinese culture.
m any for
Some expatriates suggest a combined tactic of all three approaches
eness
intercultural learning, even before going to China. Rachel, an Indian American
ween
professional, suggested:
.
I would say that you really have to learn as much as you can before youespego,
and it’s not just reading about it in books because that’s what I tried to they
do.
If you can, try to do some cultural activities in the States. There are lots
henofa
Chinese American associations, maybe they’re putting on a play or they’ve
hared
invited a local artist to come. There are lots of movies that have subtitles.
rs are
And some cities have Chinatowns, it’s really like China, but you can explore
ics.
a little bit and find what they like to do, how people interact, or get to know
mily,
some local dishes. I feel like the more you get to do, the more comfortable
oing,
you’ll feel because you’ve seen it. Language is the key.
ence
, the
The interactional approach is the quintessential instrument for learning
-way
Chinese culture for American expatriates. It is the ultimate strategy and
better
than either the independent approach or the observational approach. First, the
lated
interactional approach is the most personal of all approaches. Communication
ented
through this approach provides a meta-message above the textual information.
Such a meta-message contains vocal and visual information, such astrips
tone of
voice, body movement, eye contact, and facial expression, which is 70glish
percent
uses,
of the total message. The meta-message contains critical emotional feedback
in interpersonal communication. The meta-message, which is expressed by
Some expatriates would talk about their job and life-related issues, basically explaining their jobs and their life habits. Ben, an American government
representative in China, said a lot of the common topics were about his job and
the regional differences of China, since he had traveled throughout China.
Whitney expressed that she picks topics based on the person with whom she
is speaking. For example, she had one Chinese girl friend who was obsessed
with shopping and that was really the only topic they talked about.
Interaction with Fellow Expatriates
Other than learning Chinese culture through interacting directly with the
Chinese people, it is helpful to learn Chinese culture from peer expatriates.
Aaron summarized with the following: “The training skills that people offer
you are great, but your fellow expatriate workers can share a lot more with
you and tell you a lot more.” Most expatriates naturally hang out with their
peers and benefit from their peers’ experience of learning and adapting to
Chinese culture.
Some expatriates suggest a combined tactic of all three approaches for
intercultural learning, even before going to China. Rachel, an Indian American
professional, suggested:
I would say that you really have to learn as much as you can before you go,
and it’s not just reading about it in books because that’s what I tried to do.
If you can, try to do some cultural activities in the States. There are lots of
Chinese American associations, maybe they’re putting on a play or they’ve
invited a local artist to come. There are lots of movies that have subtitles.
And some cities have Chinatowns, it’s really like China, but you can explore
a little bit and find what they like to do, how people interact, or get to know
some local dishes. I feel like the more you get to do, the more comfortable
you’ll feel because you’ve seen it. Language is the key.
59
Some expatriates would talk about their job and life-related issues, basically explaining their jobs and their life habits. Ben, an American government
representative in China, said a lot of the common topics were about his job and
the regional differences of China, since he had traveled throughout China.
Whitney expressed that she picks topics based on the person with whom she
is speaking. For example, she had one Chinese girl friend who was obsessed
with shopping and that was really the only topic they talked about.
Interaction with Fellow Expatriates
Other than learning Chinese culture through interacting directly with the
Chinese people, it is helpful to learn Chinese culture from peer expatriates.
Aaron summarized with the following: “The training skills that people offer
you are great, but your fellow expatriate workers can share a lot more with
you and tell you a lot more.” Most expatriates naturally hang out with their
peers and benefit from their peers’ experience of learning and adapting to
Chinese culture.
Some expatriates suggest a combined tactic of all three approaches for
intercultural learning, even before going to China. Rachel, an Indian American
professional, suggested:
I would say that you really have to learn as much as you can before you go,
and it’s not just reading about it in books because that’s what I tried to do.
If you can, try to do some cultural activities in the States. There are lots of
Chinese American associations, maybe they’re putting on a play or they’ve
invited a local artist to come. There are lots of movies that have subtitles.
And some cities have Chinatowns, it’s really like China, but you can explore
a little bit and find what they like to do, how people interact, or get to know
some local dishes. I feel like the more you get to do, the more comfortable
you’ll feel because you’ve seen it. Language is the key.
The interactional approach is the quintessential instrument for learning
Chinese culture for American expatriates. It is the ultimate strategy and better
than either the independent approach or the observational approach. First, the
interactional approach is the most personal of all approaches. Communication
through this approach provides a meta-message above the textual information.
Such a meta-message contains vocal and visual information, such as tone of
voice, body movement, eye contact, and facial expression, which is 70 percent
of the total message. The meta-message contains critical emotional feedback
in interpersonal communication. The meta-message, which is expressed by
60
GAO, WOMACK
communicative behavior, shows the expatriates first hand how a person should
behave according to Chinese cultural norms. Second, given the fact that it is
an act of interpersonal communication with the Chinese or other expatriates,
the interactional approach provides immediate feedback about the accuracy
of one’s intercultural learning.
Using this approach alone has its drawbacks as well. First, to be able to
interact directly with the Chinese requires expatriates to leave their comfort
zone. Some might have difficulty overcoming such a “comfort zone syndrome.” Second, the strict role definition of the expatriates and the hierarchical
structure of Chinese society might discourage close interpersonal interaction
between expatriates and Chinese citizens. Third, learning results gained from
interacting with a certain group of Chinese or expatriates might be skewed
given their background. Not all Chinese are alike, and not all regions in
China are the same. One needs to bear in mind the diversity of the Chinese
population and regions.
60 APP
GAO, WOMACK
PART V: DISCUSSIONS AND LIMITATIONS
Development of intercultural understanding and host communication competence has become an essential part of human life and national competitiveness,
especially in light of current economic, political, and cultural globalization.
Being able to function effectively across cultures and subcultures has become
an inherent part of people’s lives (Chen and Starosta). Meanwhile, the trends
of decentralization and a de-emphasis on the nation-state, heightened ethnic
awareness, and increasing national pride have led many people to consciously
affirm their ethnic and national identities, and hence reduce the desire for
intercultural learning. This creates an obstacle for intercultural adaptation.
For cultural strangers such as American expatriates in China, most of the
familiar American cultural phenomena are left behind when they enter the new
Chinese cultural environment. American expatriates are physically separated
from the familiar American culture in space and time, while still connected
to the American culture, family, and friends emotionally and psychologically. To survive and function in the new Chinese culture, the expatriates
need to learn Chinese culture effectively. American expatriates utilized three
strategies in intercultural learning and adaptation: the independent approach
(obtaining information from the Internet, printed publications, TV, radio, and
other mass media), the observational approach (obtaining information by
personal observations in China), and the interactional approach (obtaining
information by interacting with the Chinese people, as well as interacting
with fellow expatriates).
communicative
In
behavior, shows the expatriates first hand how a person should
behave
are aaccording to Chinese cultural norms. Second, given the fact that it is
an act
tiona
of interpersonal communication with the Chinese or other expatriates,
the appr
interactional approach provides immediate feedback about the accuracy
of one’s
and bintercultural learning.
Using
norm this approach alone has its drawbacks as well. First, to be able to
interact
to exdirectly with the Chinese requires expatriates to leave their comfort
zone.
long
Some might have difficulty overcoming such a “comfort zone syndrome.”
appr Second, the strict role definition of the expatriates and the hierarchical
structure
but mof Chinese society might discourage close interpersonal interaction
between
expa expatriates and Chinese citizens. Third, learning results gained from
interacting
and r with a certain group of Chinese or expatriates might be skewed
given
three
their background. Not all Chinese are alike, and not all regions in
China
indee
are the same. One needs to bear in mind the diversity of the Chinese
population
In and regions.
techn
PART
V: DISCUSSIONS AND LIMITATIONS
to ap
Development
Futu
of intercultural understanding and host communication competence
proce
has become an essential part of human life and national competitiveness,
especially
envir in light of current economic, political, and cultural globalization.
Being
learn
able to function effectively across cultures and subcultures has become
an inherent
vatio part of people’s lives (Chen and Starosta). Meanwhile, the trends
of decentralization and a de-emphasis on the nation-state, heightened ethnic
Futu and increasing national pride have led many people to consciously
awareness,
affirm (1
their ethnic and national identities, and hence reduce the desire for
intercultural learning. This creates an obstacle for intercultural adaptation.
For(2
cultural strangers such as American expatriates in China, most of the
familiar American cultural phenomena are left behind when they enter the new
(3cultural environment. American expatriates are physically separated
Chinese
from the familiar American culture in space and time, while still connected
to the American culture, family, and friends emotionally and psychologi(4 survive and function in the new Chinese culture, the expatriates
cally. To
need to learn Chinese culture effectively. American expatriates utilized three
strategies in intercultural learning and adaptation: the independent approach
(obtaining information from the Internet, printed publications, TV, radio, and
other mass media), the observational approach (obtaining information by
personal observations in China), and the interactional approach (obtaining
Adle
information by interacting with the Chinese people, as well as interacting
M
with fellow expatriates).
60
60 APP
GAO, WOMACK
communicative behavior, shows the expatriates first hand how a person should
behave according to Chinese cultural norms. Second, given the fact that it is
an act of interpersonal communication with the Chinese or other expatriates,
the interactional approach provides immediate feedback about the accuracy
of one’s intercultural learning.
Using this approach alone has its drawbacks as well. First, to be able to
interact directly with the Chinese requires expatriates to leave their comfort
zone. Some might have difficulty overcoming such a “comfort zone syndrome.” Second, the strict role definition of the expatriates and the hierarchical
structure of Chinese society might discourage close interpersonal interaction
between expatriates and Chinese citizens. Third, learning results gained from
interacting with a certain group of Chinese or expatriates might be skewed
given their background. Not all Chinese are alike, and not all regions in
China are the same. One needs to bear in mind the diversity of the Chinese
population and regions.
PART V: DISCUSSIONS AND LIMITATIONS
Development of intercultural understanding and host communication competence has become an essential part of human life and national competitiveness,
especially in light of current economic, political, and cultural globalization.
Being able to function effectively across cultures and subcultures has become
an inherent part of people’s lives (Chen and Starosta). Meanwhile, the trends
of decentralization and a de-emphasis on the nation-state, heightened ethnic
awareness, and increasing national pride have led many people to consciously
affirm their ethnic and national identities, and hence reduce the desire for
intercultural learning. This creates an obstacle for intercultural adaptation.
For cultural strangers such as American expatriates in China, most of the
familiar American cultural phenomena are left behind when they enter the new
Chinese cultural environment. American expatriates are physically separated
from the familiar American culture in space and time, while still connected
to the American culture, family, and friends emotionally and psychologically. To survive and function in the new Chinese culture, the expatriates
need to learn Chinese culture effectively. American expatriates utilized three
strategies in intercultural learning and adaptation: the independent approach
(obtaining information from the Internet, printed publications, TV, radio, and
other mass media), the observational approach (obtaining information by
personal observations in China), and the interactional approach (obtaining
information by interacting with the Chinese people, as well as interacting
with fellow expatriates).
GAO, WOMACK
communicative
In
behavior, shows the expatriates first hand how a person should
behave
are aaccording to Chinese cultural norms. Second, given the fact that it is
an act
tiona
of interpersonal communication with the Chinese or other expatriates,
the appr
interactional approach provides immediate feedback about the accuracy
of one’s
and bintercultural learning.
Using
norm this approach alone has its drawbacks as well. First, to be able to
interact
to exdirectly with the Chinese requires expatriates to leave their comfort
zone.
long
Some might have difficulty overcoming such a “comfort zone syndrome.”
appr Second, the strict role definition of the expatriates and the hierarchical
structure
but mof Chinese society might discourage close interpersonal interaction
between
expa expatriates and Chinese citizens. Third, learning results gained from
interacting
and r with a certain group of Chinese or expatriates might be skewed
given
three
their background. Not all Chinese are alike, and not all regions in
China
indee
are the same. One needs to bear in mind the diversity of the Chinese
population
In and regions.
techn
PART
V: DISCUSSIONS AND LIMITATIONS
to ap
Development
Futu
of intercultural understanding and host communication competence
proce
has become an essential part of human life and national competitiveness,
especially
envir in light of current economic, political, and cultural globalization.
Being
learn
able to function effectively across cultures and subcultures has become
an inherent
vatio part of people’s lives (Chen and Starosta). Meanwhile, the trends
of decentralization and a de-emphasis on the nation-state, heightened ethnic
Futu and increasing national pride have led many people to consciously
awareness,
affirm (1
their ethnic and national identities, and hence reduce the desire for
intercultural learning. This creates an obstacle for intercultural adaptation.
For(2
cultural strangers such as American expatriates in China, most of the
familiar American cultural phenomena are left behind when they enter the new
(3cultural environment. American expatriates are physically separated
Chinese
from the familiar American culture in space and time, while still connected
to the American culture, family, and friends emotionally and psychologi(4 survive and function in the new Chinese culture, the expatriates
cally. To
need to learn Chinese culture effectively. American expatriates utilized three
strategies in intercultural learning and adaptation: the independent approach
(obtaining information from the Internet, printed publications, TV, radio, and
other mass media), the observational approach (obtaining information by
personal observations in China), and the interactional approach (obtaining
Adle
information by interacting with the Chinese people, as well as interacting
M
with fellow expatriates).
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 61
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
61
In summary, the independent, observational, and interactional approaches
hould
are all very effective strategies for intercultural learning, with the tinteracit is
tional approach embodying a two-way communication. The interactional
ates,
approach is best because it provides expatriates with cognitive, affective,
uracy
and behavioral feedback on their learning with regard to Chinese cultural
norms, rules, and traditions. However, the independent approach is available
le to
to expatriates before, during, and after their stay in China. It provides
mfort
a lifelong learning tool about Chinese culture on a macro scale. The observational
synapproach internalizes what is learned through the independent approach,
hical
but might reflect a “self-fulfilling prophecy” phenomenon. Well-motivated
ction
expatriates with open minds should take advantage of all three approaches
from
and really surround themselves with Chinese people. A combination
ewed
of all
three approaches provides a dynamic tool for learning Chinese culture
ns in or
indeed any foreign culture.
inese
In response to intensified global mobility, advancement in communication
technology, and rising cultural and sub-cultural identities, researchers need
to approach intercultural learning and adaptation from a broader perspective.
mpeFuture studies and theoretical developments with a more holistic view
of this
process can help us communicate more effectively in a culturallyness,
diverse
tion.
environment. Expatriates need to have a dynamic strategy for intercultural
come
learning and adaptation that employs a combination of independent,
observational, and interactional approaches.
ends
thnic
Future Extension of This Research
ously
(1) A quantitative survey based on this research and an investigation
e for
into which approach is most effective for intercultural learning.
ion.
(2) A study of which intercultural training is sufficient for students
f the in
preparing them for global citizenship.
new
(3) An analysis of how one’s personality translates to a new language.
rated
This relates to the translation of personality and Chinese language
ected
proficiency.
logi(4) An examination of how popular culture provides a critical bridge
iates for
the readaptation of American expatriates back to the US culture.
three
oach
, and
WORKS CITED
n by
ining
Adler, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Boston,
cting
MA: PWS-Kent, 1991.
In summary, the independent, observational, and interactional approaches
are all very effective strategies for intercultural learning, with the interactional approach embodying a two-way communication. The interactional
approach is best because it provides expatriates with cognitive, affective,
and behavioral feedback on their learning with regard to Chinese cultural
norms, rules, and traditions. However, the independent approach is available
to expatriates before, during, and after their stay in China. It provides a lifelong learning tool about Chinese culture on a macro scale. The observational
approach internalizes what is learned through the independent approach,
but might reflect a “self-fulfilling prophecy” phenomenon. Well-motivated
expatriates with open minds should take advantage of all three approaches
and really surround themselves with Chinese people. A combination of all
three approaches provides a dynamic tool for learning Chinese culture or
indeed any foreign culture.
In response to intensified global mobility, advancement in communication
technology, and rising cultural and sub-cultural identities, researchers need
to approach intercultural learning and adaptation from a broader perspective.
Future studies and theoretical developments with a more holistic view of this
process can help us communicate more effectively in a culturally diverse
environment. Expatriates need to have a dynamic strategy for intercultural
learning and adaptation that employs a combination of independent, observational, and interactional approaches.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 61
In summary, the independent, observational, and interactional approaches
hould
are all very effective strategies for intercultural learning, with the tinteracit is
tional approach embodying a two-way communication. The interactional
ates,
approach is best because it provides expatriates with cognitive, affective,
uracy
and behavioral feedback on their learning with regard to Chinese cultural
norms, rules, and traditions. However, the independent approach is available
le to
to expatriates before, during, and after their stay in China. It provides
mfort
a lifelong learning tool about Chinese culture on a macro scale. The observational
synapproach internalizes what is learned through the independent approach,
hical
but might reflect a “self-fulfilling prophecy” phenomenon. Well-motivated
ction
expatriates with open minds should take advantage of all three approaches
from
and really surround themselves with Chinese people. A combination
ewed
of all
three approaches provides a dynamic tool for learning Chinese culture
ns in or
indeed any foreign culture.
inese
In response to intensified global mobility, advancement in communication
technology, and rising cultural and sub-cultural identities, researchers need
to approach intercultural learning and adaptation from a broader perspective.
Future studies and theoretical developments with a more holistic view
mpeof this
process can help us communicate more effectively in a culturallyness,
diverse
environment. Expatriates need to have a dynamic strategy for intercultural
tion.
learning and adaptation that employs a combination of independent,
come
observational, and interactional approaches.
ends
thnic
Future Extension of This Research
ously
(1) A quantitative survey based on this research and an investigation
e for
into which approach is most effective for intercultural learning.
ion.
(2) A study of which intercultural training is sufficient for students
f the in
preparing them for global citizenship.
new
(3) An analysis of how one’s personality translates to a new language.
rated
This relates to the translation of personality and Chinese language
ected
proficiency.
logi(4) An examination of how popular culture provides a critical bridge
iates for
the readaptation of American expatriates back to the US culture.
three
oach
, and
WORKS CITED
n by
ining
Adler, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Boston,
cting
MA: PWS-Kent, 1991.
Future Extension of This Research
(1) A quantitative survey based on this research and an investigation
into which approach is most effective for intercultural learning.
(2) A study of which intercultural training is sufficient for students in
preparing them for global citizenship.
(3) An analysis of how one’s personality translates to a new language.
This relates to the translation of personality and Chinese language
proficiency.
(4) An examination of how popular culture provides a critical bridge for
the readaptation of American expatriates back to the US culture.
WORKS CITED
Adler, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Boston,
MA: PWS-Kent, 1991.
61
In summary, the independent, observational, and interactional approaches
are all very effective strategies for intercultural learning, with the interactional approach embodying a two-way communication. The interactional
approach is best because it provides expatriates with cognitive, affective,
and behavioral feedback on their learning with regard to Chinese cultural
norms, rules, and traditions. However, the independent approach is available
to expatriates before, during, and after their stay in China. It provides a lifelong learning tool about Chinese culture on a macro scale. The observational
approach internalizes what is learned through the independent approach,
but might reflect a “self-fulfilling prophecy” phenomenon. Well-motivated
expatriates with open minds should take advantage of all three approaches
and really surround themselves with Chinese people. A combination of all
three approaches provides a dynamic tool for learning Chinese culture or
indeed any foreign culture.
In response to intensified global mobility, advancement in communication
technology, and rising cultural and sub-cultural identities, researchers need
to approach intercultural learning and adaptation from a broader perspective.
Future studies and theoretical developments with a more holistic view of this
process can help us communicate more effectively in a culturally diverse
environment. Expatriates need to have a dynamic strategy for intercultural
learning and adaptation that employs a combination of independent, observational, and interactional approaches.
Future Extension of This Research
(1) A quantitative survey based on this research and an investigation
into which approach is most effective for intercultural learning.
(2) A study of which intercultural training is sufficient for students in
preparing them for global citizenship.
(3) An analysis of how one’s personality translates to a new language.
This relates to the translation of personality and Chinese language
proficiency.
(4) An examination of how popular culture provides a critical bridge for
the readaptation of American expatriates back to the US culture.
WORKS CITED
Adler, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Boston,
MA: PWS-Kent, 1991.
62
GAO, WOMACK
62 APP
GAO, WOMACK
Altman, Irwin, and Dalmas Taylor. Social Penetration: The Development of
Interpersonal Relationships. New York: Holt, 1973
American Chamber of Commerce Web site. About American Chamber of
Commerce. Retrieved on 30 Aug. 2005 at <http://www.amcham-shanghai.
org/AmChamPortal/MCMS/Presentation/AboutAmCham/Default.
aspx?HLLink=Par_link_Amchamandtb_Name=AboutAmcham>.
Arnett, Jeffrey. “The Psychology of Globalization.” American Psychologist
57.10 (2002): 774–83.
Azuma, Shoji. “Business Japanese through Internet-based Videoconferencing.”
Global Business Languages 8 (2003): 108–19.
Bailey, Tom. Personal interview. 21 Aug. 2005.
Berger, Charles R., and Richard J. Calabrese. “Some Exploration in
Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of
Communication.” Human Communication Research 1 (1975): 99–112.
Berger, Suzanne. How We Compete: What Companies around the World Are
Doing to Make It in Today’s Global Economy. New York: A currency book
published by Doubleday, 2005.
Black, J. Stewart, and Hal Gregersen. “The Other Half of the Picture:
Antecedents of Spouse Cross-Cultural Adjustment.” Journal of
International Business Studies 22.3 (1991): 461–97.
Bodnar, Susan. “Remember Where You Come From: Dissociative Process
in Multicultural Individuals.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 14.5 (2004):
581–603.
Bohm, David. On Dialogue. London: Routledge, 1996.
Bradley, Katherine. Personal interview. 11 Aug. 2005.
Brass, Daniel J. “A Social Network Perspective on Human Resources
Management.” Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management
13 (1995): 39–79.
Brewster, Chris, and Juana Pickard. “Evaluating Expatriate Training.”
International Studies of Management and Organization 24.3 (1994):
18–26.
Buber, Martin. I and Thou. Trans. Ronald Gregor Smith. New York: Scribner,
1958.
Bunting, John. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Chapmen, Frank. Personal interview. 17 Aug. 2005.
Chen, Guomin M., and William J. Starosta. “Intercultural Communication
Competence: A Synthesis.” Communication Yearbook 19 (1995):
353–83.
ChenIrwin, and Dalmas Taylor. Social Penetration: The Development of
Altman,
Interpersonal
L
Relationships. New York: Holt, 1973
American
H Chamber of Commerce Web site. About American Chamber of
Commerce.
Chen
Retrieved on 30 Aug. 2005 at <http://www.amcham-shanghai.
org/AmChamPortal/MCMS/Presentation/AboutAmCham/Default.
S
aspx?HLLink=Par_link_Amchamandtb_Name=AboutAmcham>.
6
Arnett,
ChurJeffrey. “The Psychology of Globalization.” American Psychologist
57.10
5 (2002): 774–83.
Azuma,
CosbShoji. “Business Japanese through Internet-based Videoconferencing.”
Global
Eisen Business Languages 8 (2003): 108–19.
Bailey,BTom. Personal interview. 21 Aug. 2005.
Berger,1 Charles R., and Richard J. Calabrese. “Some Exploration in
Initial
Gao, Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of
Communication.”
In
Human Communication Research 1 (1975): 99–112.
Berger,
Gao,Suzanne. How We Compete: What Companies around the World Are
Doing
S to Make It in Today’s Global Economy. New York: A currency book
U
published
by Doubleday, 2005.
GaryJ. Stewart, and Hal Gregersen. “The Other Half of the Picture:
Black,
Glas
Antecedents
of Spouse Cross-Cultural Adjustment.” Journal of
Goch
International
Business Studies 22.3 (1991): 461–97.
GudySusan. “Remember Where You Come From: Dissociative Process
Bodnar,
A
in Multicultural
Individuals.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 14.5 (2004):
Hahn
581–603.
HallDavid. On Dialogue. London: Routledge, 1996.
Bohm,
1 Katherine. Personal interview. 11 Aug. 2005.
Bradley,
HarrDaniel J. “A Social Network Perspective on Human Resources
Brass,
Haw
Management.”
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management
13
Hofs
(1995): 39–79.
Brewster,
In Chris, and Juana Pickard. “Evaluating Expatriate Training.”
International
Studies of Management and Organization 24.3 (1994):
S
18–26.
Kim
Buber,CMartin. I and Thou. Trans. Ronald Gregor Smith. New York: Scribner,
1958.
S
Bunting,
Kim John. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Chapmen,
C Frank. Personal interview. 17 Aug. 2005.
Chen, S
Guomin M., and William J. Starosta. “Intercultural Communication
Competence:
A Synthesis.” Communication Yearbook 19 (1995):
C
353–83.
Kosl
62
62 APP
GAO, WOMACK
Altman, Irwin, and Dalmas Taylor. Social Penetration: The Development of
Interpersonal Relationships. New York: Holt, 1973
American Chamber of Commerce Web site. About American Chamber of
Commerce. Retrieved on 30 Aug. 2005 at <http://www.amcham-shanghai.
org/AmChamPortal/MCMS/Presentation/AboutAmCham/Default.
aspx?HLLink=Par_link_Amchamandtb_Name=AboutAmcham>.
Arnett, Jeffrey. “The Psychology of Globalization.” American Psychologist
57.10 (2002): 774–83.
Azuma, Shoji. “Business Japanese through Internet-based Videoconferencing.”
Global Business Languages 8 (2003): 108–19.
Bailey, Tom. Personal interview. 21 Aug. 2005.
Berger, Charles R., and Richard J. Calabrese. “Some Exploration in
Initial Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of
Communication.” Human Communication Research 1 (1975): 99–112.
Berger, Suzanne. How We Compete: What Companies around the World Are
Doing to Make It in Today’s Global Economy. New York: A currency book
published by Doubleday, 2005.
Black, J. Stewart, and Hal Gregersen. “The Other Half of the Picture:
Antecedents of Spouse Cross-Cultural Adjustment.” Journal of
International Business Studies 22.3 (1991): 461–97.
Bodnar, Susan. “Remember Where You Come From: Dissociative Process
in Multicultural Individuals.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 14.5 (2004):
581–603.
Bohm, David. On Dialogue. London: Routledge, 1996.
Bradley, Katherine. Personal interview. 11 Aug. 2005.
Brass, Daniel J. “A Social Network Perspective on Human Resources
Management.” Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management
13 (1995): 39–79.
Brewster, Chris, and Juana Pickard. “Evaluating Expatriate Training.”
International Studies of Management and Organization 24.3 (1994):
18–26.
Buber, Martin. I and Thou. Trans. Ronald Gregor Smith. New York: Scribner,
1958.
Bunting, John. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Chapmen, Frank. Personal interview. 17 Aug. 2005.
Chen, Guomin M., and William J. Starosta. “Intercultural Communication
Competence: A Synthesis.” Communication Yearbook 19 (1995):
353–83.
GAO, WOMACK
ChenIrwin, and Dalmas Taylor. Social Penetration: The Development of
Altman,
Interpersonal
L
Relationships. New York: Holt, 1973
American
H Chamber of Commerce Web site. About American Chamber of
Commerce.
Chen
Retrieved on 30 Aug. 2005 at <http://www.amcham-shanghai.
org/AmChamPortal/MCMS/Presentation/AboutAmCham/Default.
S
aspx?HLLink=Par_link_Amchamandtb_Name=AboutAmcham>.
6
Arnett,
ChurJeffrey. “The Psychology of Globalization.” American Psychologist
57.10
5 (2002): 774–83.
Azuma,
CosbShoji. “Business Japanese through Internet-based Videoconferencing.”
Global
Eisen Business Languages 8 (2003): 108–19.
Bailey,BTom. Personal interview. 21 Aug. 2005.
Berger,1 Charles R., and Richard J. Calabrese. “Some Exploration in
Initial
Gao, Interaction and Beyond: Toward a Developmental Theory of
Communication.”
In
Human Communication Research 1 (1975): 99–112.
Berger,
Gao,Suzanne. How We Compete: What Companies around the World Are
Doing
S to Make It in Today’s Global Economy. New York: A currency book
published
U
by Doubleday, 2005.
Black,
GaryJ. Stewart, and Hal Gregersen. “The Other Half of the Picture:
Antecedents
Glas
of Spouse Cross-Cultural Adjustment.” Journal of
International
Goch
Business Studies 22.3 (1991): 461–97.
Bodnar,
GudySusan. “Remember Where You Come From: Dissociative Process
in Multicultural
A
Individuals.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 14.5 (2004):
Hahn
581–603.
HallDavid. On Dialogue. London: Routledge, 1996.
Bohm,
1 Katherine. Personal interview. 11 Aug. 2005.
Bradley,
Brass,
HarrDaniel J. “A Social Network Perspective on Human Resources
Management.”
Haw
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management
13
Hofs
(1995): 39–79.
Brewster,
In Chris, and Juana Pickard. “Evaluating Expatriate Training.”
International
S
Studies of Management and Organization 24.3 (1994):
18–26.
Kim
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Chen, Ling, and Masako Isa. “Intercultural Communication and Cultural
Learning: The Experience of Japanese Visiting Students in the U.S.” The
Howard Journal of Communication 14 (2003): 75–96.
Cheney, Rebecca S. “Intercultural Business Communication, International
Students, and Experiential Learning.” Business Communication Quarterly
64.4 (2001): 90–105.
Church, Allen T. “Sojourner Adjustment.” Psychological Bulletin 91 (1982):
540–72.
Cosby, Ben. Personal interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
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Balancing Creativity and Constraint. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin’s,
1997.
Gao, Ge, and William B. Gudykunst. “Uncertainty, Anxiety, and Adaptation.”
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 4 (1990): 301–07.
Gao, Hongmei. “The Invisible Handshake: Interpreting the Communication
Strategies and Obstacles of Foreign-Born Chinese in the U.S.” Ph.D. Diss.,
U of South Florida. Tampa, FL, 2005.
Gary, Lea. Personal interview. 17 Aug. 2005.
Glass, Mike. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Gochanour, George. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Gudykunst, W. B., and Y. Y. Kim. Communicating with Strangers: An
Approach to Intercultural Communication. New York: McGraw, 2003.
Hahn, Jennifer. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Hall, Edward The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1969.
Harris, Allison. Personal Interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
Hawkins, Scott. Personal Interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
Hofstede, Geert. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors,
Institutions and Organizations across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2001.
Kim, Young Y. Becoming Intercultural: An Integration Theory of
Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2000.
Kim, Young Y., and Young S. Kim. “The Role of Host Environment in
Cross-Cultural Adaptation: A Comparison of American Expatriates in
South Korea and their Korean Counterparts in the United States.” Asian
Communication Research 3 (2004): 5–25
Koslowski, Allen. Personal interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 63
nt of
Chen, Ling, and Masako Isa. “Intercultural Communication and Cultural
Learning: The Experience of Japanese Visiting Students in the U.S.” The
er of
Howard Journal of Communication 14 (2003): 75–96.
ghai.
Cheney, Rebecca S. “Intercultural Business Communication, International
Students, and Experiential Learning.” Business Communication Quarterly
64.4 (2001): 90–105.
Church, Allen T. “Sojourner Adjustment.” Psychological Bulletin 91ogist
(1982):
540–72.
ing.”
Cosby, Ben. Personal interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
Eisenberg, Eric. M., and Herold L. Goodall. Organizational Communication:
Balancing Creativity and Constraint. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin’s,
n in
1997.
ry of
Gao, Ge, and William B. Gudykunst. “Uncertainty, Anxiety, and Adaptation.”
12.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 4 (1990): 301–07.
d Are
Gao, Hongmei. “The Invisible Handshake: Interpreting the Communication
book
Strategies and Obstacles of Foreign-Born Chinese in the U.S.” Ph.D.
Diss.,
U of South Florida. Tampa, FL, 2005.
ture:
Gary, Lea. Personal interview. 17 Aug. 2005.
al of
Glass, Mike. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Gochanour, George. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
ocess An
Gudykunst, W. B., and Y. Y. Kim. Communicating with Strangers:
Approach to Intercultural Communication. New York: McGraw,004):
2003.
Hahn, Jennifer. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Hall, Edward The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1969.
urces
Harris, Allison. Personal Interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
ment
Hawkins, Scott. Personal Interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
Hofstede, Geert. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors,
Institutions and Organizations across Nations. Thousand Oaks,
ing.”CA:
994):
Sage, 2001.
Kim, Young Y. Becoming Intercultural: An Integration Theory of
bner,CA:
Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Thousand Oaks,
Sage, 2000.
Kim, Young Y., and Young S. Kim. “The Role of Host Environment in
Cross-Cultural Adaptation: A Comparison of American Expatriates in
ation
South Korea and their Korean Counterparts in the United States.”
Asian
Communication Research 3 (2004): 5–25
995):
Koslowski, Allen. Personal interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
63
Chen, Ling, and Masako Isa. “Intercultural Communication and Cultural
Learning: The Experience of Japanese Visiting Students in the U.S.” The
Howard Journal of Communication 14 (2003): 75–96.
Cheney, Rebecca S. “Intercultural Business Communication, International
Students, and Experiential Learning.” Business Communication Quarterly
64.4 (2001): 90–105.
Church, Allen T. “Sojourner Adjustment.” Psychological Bulletin 91 (1982):
540–72.
Cosby, Ben. Personal interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
Eisenberg, Eric. M., and Herold L. Goodall. Organizational Communication:
Balancing Creativity and Constraint. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin’s,
1997.
Gao, Ge, and William B. Gudykunst. “Uncertainty, Anxiety, and Adaptation.”
International Journal of Intercultural Relations 4 (1990): 301–07.
Gao, Hongmei. “The Invisible Handshake: Interpreting the Communication
Strategies and Obstacles of Foreign-Born Chinese in the U.S.” Ph.D. Diss.,
U of South Florida. Tampa, FL, 2005.
Gary, Lea. Personal interview. 17 Aug. 2005.
Glass, Mike. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Gochanour, George. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Gudykunst, W. B., and Y. Y. Kim. Communicating with Strangers: An
Approach to Intercultural Communication. New York: McGraw, 2003.
Hahn, Jennifer. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Hall, Edward The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1969.
Harris, Allison. Personal Interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
Hawkins, Scott. Personal Interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
Hofstede, Geert. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors,
Institutions and Organizations across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2001.
Kim, Young Y. Becoming Intercultural: An Integration Theory of
Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2000.
Kim, Young Y., and Young S. Kim. “The Role of Host Environment in
Cross-Cultural Adaptation: A Comparison of American Expatriates in
South Korea and their Korean Counterparts in the United States.” Asian
Communication Research 3 (2004): 5–25
Koslowski, Allen. Personal interview. 18 Aug. 2005.
64
GAO, WOMACK
64
GAO, WOMACK
Krieger, Diane. “The Chinese’s Century.” USC Trojan Family Magazine 38.4
(Winter 2006): 35–43.
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65–70.
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Meeks, Helen. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Monti, Melanie. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Myles, Johanne, and Liying Cheng. “The Social and Cultural Life of Nonnative English Speaking International Graduate Students at a Canadian
University.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 2.3 (2003):
247–64.
Neuman, W. Lawrence. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2003.
Ohmae, Kenichi. The Next Global Stage: Challenges and Opportunities in
Our Borderless World. Philadelphia: Wharton School Publishing, 2005.
Onwumechili, Chuka, et al. “In the Deep Valley with Mountains to Climb:
Exploring Identity and Multiple Reaculturation.” International Journal
of Intercultural Relations 27.1 (2003): 41–62.
Pfaendler, Martin. “Maximizing the Chances of Success in Foreign
Assignments.” Benefits and Compensation International 32.2 (2002):
7–8.
Rudmin, Floyd W. “Critical History of the Acculturation Psychology of
Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization.” Review of
General Psychology 7.1 (2003): 3–37.
Salyer, Monte. “Educators and Cultural Diversity: A Six-Stage Model of
Cultural Versatility.” Education 112.4 (1992): 567–89.
Sanders, Lisa, and Normandy Madden. “Agency Holding Companies Rush
to Stake Claims in China and India.” Advertising Age 76.38 (2005):
16–18.
Sang, Dee, and Rosanna Rooney. “Psycho-Social Adaptation of Vietnamese
Youth: A Comparison across Seven Countries.” Australian Journal of
Psychology 55 (2003): 210–35.
Stephens, G. K., and J. Steward Black. “The Impact of Spouses’ CareerOrientation on Managers during International Transfers.” Journal of
Management Studies 28.4 (1991): 417–28.
Stierle, Christian, Rolf van Dick, and Ulrich Wagner. “Success or Failure?
Personality, Family, and Intercultural Orientation as Determinants of
Krieger, Diane. “The Chinese’s Century.” USC Trojan Family Magazine 38.4
(Winter 2006): 35–43.
McCain, Barbara. “Multicultural Team Learning: An Approach towards
Communication Competency.” Management Decision 34.6 (1996):
65–70.
McGraw, Paul. Personal interview. 14 Aug. 2005.
Meeks, Helen. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Monti, Melanie. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Myles, Johanne, and Liying Cheng. “The Social and Cultural Life of Nonnative English Speaking International Graduate Students at a Canadian
University.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 2.3 (2003):
247–64.
Neuman, W. Lawrence. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2003.
Ohmae, Kenichi. The Next Global Stage: Challenges and Opportunities in
Our Borderless World. Philadelphia: Wharton School Publishing, 2005.
Onwumechili, Chuka, et al. “In the Deep Valley with Mountains to Climb:
Exploring Identity and Multiple Reaculturation.” International Journal
of Intercultural Relations 27.1 (2003): 41–62.
Pfaendler, Martin. “Maximizing the Chances of Success in Foreign
Assignments.” Benefits and Compensation International 32.2 (2002):
7–8.
Rudmin, Floyd W. “Critical History of the Acculturation Psychology of
Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization.” Review of
General Psychology 7.1 (2003): 3–37.
Salyer, Monte. “Educators and Cultural Diversity: A Six-Stage Model of
Cultural Versatility.” Education 112.4 (1992): 567–89.
Sanders, Lisa, and Normandy Madden. “Agency Holding Companies Rush
to Stake Claims in China and India.” Advertising Age 76.38 (2005):
16–18.
Sang, Dee, and Rosanna Rooney. “Psycho-Social Adaptation of Vietnamese
Youth: A Comparison across Seven Countries.” Australian Journal of
Psychology 55 (2003): 210–35.
Stephens, G. K., and J. Steward Black. “The Impact of Spouses’ CareerOrientation on Managers during International Transfers.” Journal of
Management Studies 28.4 (1991): 417–28.
Stierle, Christian, Rolf van Dick, and Ulrich Wagner. “Success or Failure?
Personality, Family, and Intercultural Orientation as Determinants of
64
64
GAO, WOMACK
Krieger, Diane. “The Chinese’s Century.” USC Trojan Family Magazine 38.4
(Winter 2006): 35–43.
McCain, Barbara. “Multicultural Team Learning: An Approach towards
Communication Competency.” Management Decision 34.6 (1996):
65–70.
McGraw, Paul. Personal interview. 14 Aug. 2005.
Meeks, Helen. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Monti, Melanie. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Myles, Johanne, and Liying Cheng. “The Social and Cultural Life of Nonnative English Speaking International Graduate Students at a Canadian
University.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 2.3 (2003):
247–64.
Neuman, W. Lawrence. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2003.
Ohmae, Kenichi. The Next Global Stage: Challenges and Opportunities in
Our Borderless World. Philadelphia: Wharton School Publishing, 2005.
Onwumechili, Chuka, et al. “In the Deep Valley with Mountains to Climb:
Exploring Identity and Multiple Reaculturation.” International Journal
of Intercultural Relations 27.1 (2003): 41–62.
Pfaendler, Martin. “Maximizing the Chances of Success in Foreign
Assignments.” Benefits and Compensation International 32.2 (2002):
7–8.
Rudmin, Floyd W. “Critical History of the Acculturation Psychology of
Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization.” Review of
General Psychology 7.1 (2003): 3–37.
Salyer, Monte. “Educators and Cultural Diversity: A Six-Stage Model of
Cultural Versatility.” Education 112.4 (1992): 567–89.
Sanders, Lisa, and Normandy Madden. “Agency Holding Companies Rush
to Stake Claims in China and India.” Advertising Age 76.38 (2005):
16–18.
Sang, Dee, and Rosanna Rooney. “Psycho-Social Adaptation of Vietnamese
Youth: A Comparison across Seven Countries.” Australian Journal of
Psychology 55 (2003): 210–35.
Stephens, G. K., and J. Steward Black. “The Impact of Spouses’ CareerOrientation on Managers during International Transfers.” Journal of
Management Studies 28.4 (1991): 417–28.
Stierle, Christian, Rolf van Dick, and Ulrich Wagner. “Success or Failure?
Personality, Family, and Intercultural Orientation as Determinants of
GAO, WOMACK
Krieger, Diane. “The Chinese’s Century.” USC Trojan Family Magazine 38.4
(Winter 2006): 35–43.
McCain, Barbara. “Multicultural Team Learning: An Approach towards
Communication Competency.” Management Decision 34.6 (1996):
65–70.
McGraw, Paul. Personal interview. 14 Aug. 2005.
Meeks, Helen. Personal interview. 20 Aug. 2005.
Monti, Melanie. Personal interview. 16 Aug. 2005.
Myles, Johanne, and Liying Cheng. “The Social and Cultural Life of Nonnative English Speaking International Graduate Students at a Canadian
University.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 2.3 (2003):
247–64.
Neuman, W. Lawrence. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2003.
Ohmae, Kenichi. The Next Global Stage: Challenges and Opportunities in
Our Borderless World. Philadelphia: Wharton School Publishing, 2005.
Onwumechili, Chuka, et al. “In the Deep Valley with Mountains to Climb:
Exploring Identity and Multiple Reaculturation.” International Journal
of Intercultural Relations 27.1 (2003): 41–62.
Pfaendler, Martin. “Maximizing the Chances of Success in Foreign
Assignments.” Benefits and Compensation International 32.2 (2002):
7–8.
Rudmin, Floyd W. “Critical History of the Acculturation Psychology of
Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization.” Review of
General Psychology 7.1 (2003): 3–37.
Salyer, Monte. “Educators and Cultural Diversity: A Six-Stage Model of
Cultural Versatility.” Education 112.4 (1992): 567–89.
Sanders, Lisa, and Normandy Madden. “Agency Holding Companies Rush
to Stake Claims in China and India.” Advertising Age 76.38 (2005):
16–18.
Sang, Dee, and Rosanna Rooney. “Psycho-Social Adaptation of Vietnamese
Youth: A Comparison across Seven Countries.” Australian Journal of
Psychology 55 (2003): 210–35.
Stephens, G. K., and J. Steward Black. “The Impact of Spouses’ CareerOrientation on Managers during International Transfers.” Journal of
Management Studies 28.4 (1991): 417–28.
Stierle, Christian, Rolf van Dick, and Ulrich Wagner. “Success or Failure?
Personality, Family, and Intercultural Orientation as Determinants of
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 65
Expatriates Managers’ Success.” Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie
38.433.4
(2002): 209–18.
Vanderbleek, Jim. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
wards
Wagner, Renee. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
996):
Wikipedia Web site. Lingua Franca. Retrieved on 30 Oct. 2005 from <http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca>.
Williams, Janet. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
Yoshida, Susumu. “Globalization and Issues of Intercultural Communications:
Doing Successful Business in Asia.” Vital Speeches of the Day
68.22
Non(2002): 708–12.
adian
Zhang, Naijian, and Audrey Rentz. “Intercultural Adaptation among Graduate
003):
Students from the People’s Republic of China.” College Student Journal
30 (1996): 321–28.
and
Zimmerman, Marcus. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
003.
es in
005.
imb:
urnal
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
65
Expatriates Managers’ Success.” Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie 33.4
(2002): 209–18.
Vanderbleek, Jim. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Wagner, Renee. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Wikipedia Web site. Lingua Franca. Retrieved on 30 Oct. 2005 from <http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca>.
Williams, Janet. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
Yoshida, Susumu. “Globalization and Issues of Intercultural Communications:
Doing Successful Business in Asia.” Vital Speeches of the Day 68.22
(2002): 708–12.
Zhang, Naijian, and Audrey Rentz. “Intercultural Adaptation among Graduate
Students from the People’s Republic of China.” College Student Journal
30 (1996): 321–28.
Zimmerman, Marcus. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
eign
002):
gy of
w of
el of
Rush
005):
mese
al of
reeral of
lure?
ts of
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
ACK 65
Expatriates Managers’ Success.” Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie
38.433.4
(2002): 209–18.
Vanderbleek, Jim. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
wards
Wagner, Renee. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
996):
Wikipedia Web site. Lingua Franca. Retrieved on 30 Oct. 2005 from <http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca>.
Williams, Janet. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
Yoshida, Susumu. “Globalization and Issues of Intercultural Communications:
Doing Successful Business in Asia.” Vital Speeches of the Day
68.22
Non(2002): 708–12.
adian
Zhang, Naijian, and Audrey Rentz. “Intercultural Adaptation among Graduate
003):
Students from the People’s Republic of China.” College Student Journal
30 (1996): 321–28.
and
Zimmerman, Marcus. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
003.
es in
005.
imb:
urnal
eign
002):
gy of
w of
el of
Rush
005):
mese
al of
reeral of
lure?
ts of
APPROACHING CHINESE CULTURE
65
Expatriates Managers’ Success.” Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie 33.4
(2002): 209–18.
Vanderbleek, Jim. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Wagner, Renee. Personal interview. 15 Aug. 2005.
Wikipedia Web site. Lingua Franca. Retrieved on 30 Oct. 2005 from <http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca>.
Williams, Janet. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.
Yoshida, Susumu. “Globalization and Issues of Intercultural Communications:
Doing Successful Business in Asia.” Vital Speeches of the Day 68.22
(2002): 708–12.
Zhang, Naijian, and Audrey Rentz. “Intercultural Adaptation among Graduate
Students from the People’s Republic of China.” College Student Journal
30 (1996): 321–28.
Zimmerman, Marcus. Personal interview. 19 Aug. 2005.