TAELLN701A Analyse and apply adult literacy teaching practices
TAE70110
VOCATIONAL GRADUATE CERTIFICATE IN ADULT LANGUAGE ,
LITERACY AND NUMERACY PRACTICE
TAELLN701A Analyse and apply adult literacy practices
Developed from the FACILITATOR’S GUIDE TO THE FOUR CORE UNITS
Advanced Diploma in Language, Literacy and Numeracy in VET Practice
© 2007 Commonwealth of Australia
Funded under the Adult Literacy National Project by the Commonwealth through the
Department of Education, Science and Training
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Table of Contents
Unit Outline .....................................................................................................3
Introduction for course participants .................................................................4
Assessment ....................................................................................................6
Section
1
Introduction ...............................................................................8
Section
2
The learners ............................................................................13
Section
3
Learning as an adult ...............................................................20
Section
4
Adult literacy – theory and teaching methodology ..................26
Section
5
Teaching reading ....................................................................33
Section
6
Teaching writing .....................................................................41
Section
7
Developing oral communication skills .....................................46
Section
8
Program development and design ..........................................48
Section
9
Designing a program ..............................................................51
Section 10
Assessment and evaluation ....................................................53
Appendices
Appendix 1
Student Profiles
Appendix 2
Recognition of Prior Learning Guide
Appendix 3
RPL Self Assessment Checklist
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Unit Outline
This Unit is one of four core Units in the accredited course TAE70110 Vocational Graduate
Certificate in Adult Language, Literacy and Numeracy Practice. It specifies the skills and knowledge
required in organising, teaching and monitoring literacy skills in adult learners.
This unit of competency has five elements.
Element 1:
Element 2:
Element 3:
Element 4:
Element 5:
Analyse frameworks, theories and teaching approaches that underpin the teaching
of adult literacy.
Research literacy requirements of those participating in literacy provision.
Select from a range of teaching approaches to develop participants’ literacy skills
and knowledge.
Select from a range of learning resources to develop participants’ literacy skills
and knowledge.
Apply and evaluate strategies for teaching literacy skills and knowledge.
To demonstrate competency in this unit you will to demonstrate or provide evidence of your
capability to do the following:




analyse frameworks, theories and teaching approaches that underpin the teaching of adult
literacy, demonstrating a significant depth of knowledge, which has been applied to analyse
the literacy needs of those participating in literacy provision,
select appropriate learning resources,
devise, select and apply adult literacy teaching strategies appropriate to learner needs and
delivery context, and demonstrate a the rationales for the selection,
evaluate effectiveness of teaching strategies.
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Introduction for course participants
Language Literacy and Numeracy LLN training in the VET system is offered in a range of delivery
contexts and modes of provision. It is offered in accredited stand alone courses or as integrated
components of training packages. Adult LLN is also provided to support individuals or groups of
learners undertaking vocational training at an RTO or in the workplace, and to support the LLN
development of individuals through informal courses in community settings.
Effective assessment of adult LLN often relies on a one to one interview. The interview process
enables the individual’s LLN needs to be understood in a holistic way and consideration to be given
to the individual’s learning goals and experience and learning preferences because these factors
are important to appropriate placement.
A specialist practitioner in adult LLN requires the knowledge and skills to make diagnostic and
predictive judgements about the language literacy and numeracy skills development of individuals in
order to place them in appropriate language, literacy and numeracy programs. The current
assessment framework used for identifying the LLN performance levels of learners for placement
into accredited literacy and numeracy courses run by RTOs is the Australian Core Skills Framework.
This is covered in the section on the theories underpinning adult literacy practice.
Successful placement in an LLN program draws on a diverse range of skills and knowledge. LLN
Practitioners need to be aware of not only the range of programs and the nature of delivery of a
particular area of provision, but of the wider issues of policy, funding and target groups within the
LLN field.
LLN assessors also need to develop skills in communicating the findings of the assessment to other
parties through activities such as making referrals to suitable programs, and fulfilling reporting
requirements and completing relevant documentation.
This guide contains suggested readings that can be used by those enrolled in the Unit. It has been
designed to address the learning needs of a diverse cohort of participants, acknowledging in its
design that participants may have different backgrounds and experience of LLN delivery and have
achieved a range of professional qualifications in teaching and training.
For this reason it is not appropriate for all learners to use this manual as a step-by-step guide.
Experienced practitioners may choose to read only some of the references given, but it is
recommended for those who are new to the field, that they use this guide in conjunction with close
support from their facilitator.
This Unit Guide contains suggested:




content that covers the Unit elements and performance criteria
a reference list
learner profiles that can be used with the assessment task
the assessment task.
References
The references are relevant to the unit. However, where the course participants may only need to
read some of the references given, it is assumed that their facilitator will have a broad
understanding of the content to be covered and will be familiar with the majority of the references (or
similar).
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The selection of references is based on a number of factors: contemporary views; summary of main
views and theories. However, facilitators are encouraged to ensure the currency of the course by
keeping the references up-to-date.
Key references are listed at throughout each Topic. Participants are encouraged to read a range of
these references.
Assessment
To demonstrate competency in this unit, participants must be able to provide evidence that they
have:
 the underpinning knowledge of adult learning principles and current adult literacy teaching
theories,
 the knowledge of the Australian Core Skills Framework and the skill to determine the learning
goals of learners and literacy skills required of adult learners in different contexts,
 the skill to develop teaching strategies and approaches for diverse skill levels to meet the
specific needs of learners,
 designed and provided instruction to meet the established outcomes of an adult literacy
program for a group of learners,
 evaluated an adult literacy program delivered to a group of adult learners.
Recognition of Prior Learning
Practitioners who can demonstrate competence can apply for recognition of prior learning. An RPL
Guide is attached as Appendix 2.
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Assessment
The following assessment task is a suggestion only. Your facilitators/assessors may provide you
with an alternative task.
Where relevant, facilitators may consider using assessment tasks that assess across Units.
Assessment Task: Planning, delivering and evaluating a program
In this task you will plan, deliver and evaluate two short learning programs based on the learner
profiles for a group of learners provided in Appendix 1.
Group 1 are learners from the community who will attend a program run by an RTO of which you
are a teacher, such as a TAFE or a Community College in a “traditional” small LLN class
environment. These learners will meet for two hours, twice a week for four weeks.
Group 2 are workers who have been assessed as not having the language, literacy or numeracy
skills to be able to complete a Certificate III Traineeship that they are enrolled in. The organisation
has successfully applied for WELL funding and you have been employed as an LLN trainer. You
have been asked to work with the workers at their workplace. You will be able to work with the
workers in groups of 2-3 for up to an hour at a time for the four weeks.
Your two groups of learners have completed an initial assessment against the Australian Corse
Skills Framework. The results are supplied with the learner profiles.
1. Plan a program that goes for a minimum of four weeks and where possible integrate it
across a number of areas – such as literacy and numeracy, or literacy and learning skills etc.
2. For Group 1, decide upon a theme or topic that you would like to work on with this group of
learners. Choose something that you feel would be relevant and important to the group of
learners. Explain why you have chosen this theme.
For Group 2 choose a program that revolves around their traineeship or their workplace
needs.
3. Decide on the skills that you want to develop using this theme/topic/investigation.
4. Identify the competencies/elements/Learning Outcomes — units, elements,
assessment criteria etc. — against which you will be teaching this Unit.
5. Plan a number of teaching activities and lessons that could achieve the desired outcomes as
well as meeting the needs and interests of your learners.
6. Write up at least four activities and associated materials, worksheets etc.( two for each
group). These should be trialled with learners and revised accordingly.
7. Include the necessary materials and resources you would use and any references, books or
materials you may refer to. Describe how your choice of traditional or new resources has
been determined by the learners’ profile.
8. Describe how you are catering for different learning styles. Explain how emerging
technologies impact on the reaching and learning.
9. What learning theories and pedagogical approaches underpin and support your program?
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10. Decide on how you would assess the activity or investigation and how you would collect and
record the evidence?
11. What processes did you use to review and monitor your adult literacy teaching strategies?
Assessment task mapped to the elements of TEALLN701A
Assessment task
Element
1. Plan a program that goes for a minimum of four weeks and where possible
integrate it across a number of areas – such as literacy and numeracy, or
literacy and learning skills etc.
2.
For Group 1, decide upon a theme or topic that you would like to work on with
this group of learners. Choose something that you feel would be relevant and
important to the group of learners. Explain why you have chosen this theme.
1,2,3
1,2,3,4
For Group 2 choose a program that revolves around their traineeship or their
workplace needs.
3.
Decide on the skills that you want to develop using this
theme/topic/investigation.
4.
Identify the competencies/elements/Learning Outcomes — units, elements,
assessment criteria etc. — against which you will be teaching this Unit.
5.
Plan a number of teaching activities and lessons that could achieve the
desired outcomes as well as meeting the needs and interests of your learners.
1,2,3
6.
Write up at least four activities and associated materials, worksheets etc.( two
for each group). These should be trialled with learners and revised
accordingly.
1,2,3
7.
Include the necessary materials and resources you would use and any
references, books or materials you may refer to. Describe how your choice of
traditional or new resources has been determined by the learners’ profile.
1,2,4
8.
Describe how you are catering for different learning styles. Explain how
emerging technologies impact on the reaching and learning.
1,2,3
9.
What learning theories and pedagogical approaches underpin and support
your program?
1,3
10. Decide on how you would assess the activity or investigation and how you
would collect and record the evidence?
5
11. What processes did you use to review and monitor your adult literacy teaching
strategies?
5
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Section 1 Introduction
Adult literacy programs are designed for learners who may need to develop their repertoire of
reading, writing and oral communication skills to successfully participate in further education, in the
workplace, and/or to meet their own personal goals.
Learners may include:


learners for whom English is their first language,
learners whose first language is not English but who have spent many years in an English
speaking environment and have oral English skills that allow them to effectively participate in
learning and training programs.
Adult literacy courses are offered as accredited stand alone courses in the VET system, or
integrated into programs with a general education focus. Adult literacy teaching is also provided as
specialist support to individuals or groups of learners undertaking vocational training at a Registered
Training Organisation or in the workplace. In addition, informal adult literacy courses or support for
skill development may be provided by community organisations as part of health and welfare
initiatives.
A specialist adult literacy teacher/trainer requires the knowledge and skills to teach at any level of
an adult literacy program, and in a range of program areas. This unit covers the following skill areas:
developing theoretical frameworks for teaching practice; exploring different teaching methodologies;
developing learners’ independent learning skills; reflecting on the relationship between theory and
practice.
To understand the context of adult literacy, a practitioner needs a theoretical framework that
underpins the development of appropriate teaching and assessment plans. The National Centre for
Vocational Education Research (NCVER) states the term 'literacy' can have many connotations
depending upon the context in which it is being applied. “There appear to be three main conceptions
of literacy with currency in Australia today, with implications for policy-making and teaching/learning:



a cognitive, individual-based model associated with a psychometric tradition, quantifiable
levels of ability, and a deficit approach to 'illiteracy', which is assumed to be both an outcome
of individual inadequacy, and a causal factor in unemployment
an economics-driven model generally associated with workforce training, multi-skilling,
productivity, 'functional' literacy and notions of human capital
a socio-cultural model which is most commonly associated with contextualised and multiple
literacy practices, a valuing of the 'other', and a strong critical element.
In general, literacy today is perceived to be social by nature rather than merely an individual's set of
skills, and there is consensus among literacy researchers that the meaning of literacy depends on
the context in which it is being used." (Lonsdale and McCurry, 2004 p14)
How you define literacy will then influence what you believe needs to be done about it and how.
The OECD provides this definition of literacy:
Many previous studies have treated literacy as a condition that adults either have or do not
have. The IALS no longer defines literacy in terms of an arbitrary standard of reading
performance, distinguishing the few who completely fail the test (the "illiterates") from nearly
all those growing up in OECD countries who reach a minimum threshold (those who are
"literate"). Rather, proficiency levels along a continuum denote how well adults use
information to function in society and the economy. Thus, literacy is defined as a particular
capacity and mode of behaviour: the ability to understand and employ printed information in
daily activities, at home, at work and in the community - to achieve one's goals, and to
develop one's knowledge and potential. Differences in levels of literacy matter both
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economically and socially; literacy affects labour quality and flexibility, employment, training
opportunities, income from work and wider participation in society. (NCVER)
The Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is designed to
assess the current state of the skills of individuals and nations in the new information age. It builds
upon earlier conceptions of literacy and broadens the definition to make it relevant to the information
age, including reading in digital environments.
In PIAAC, “Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and
compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a
continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and
potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society”. (www.oecd.org)
The following list of definitions has come from a range of experts in the study of adult literacy and
organisations responsible for the delivery of adult literacy programs and government and nongovernment organisations responsible for the funding of programs that meet set national goals:
... the ability to understand and employ printed information in daily activities, at
home, at work and in the community, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s
knowledge and potential (IALS)
... to read and use written information and to write appropriately, in a
range of contexts. Literacy also includes numeracy, such as the
recognition and use of numbers and basic mathematical signs and
symbols within a text. Literacy involves the integration of speaking,
listening, critical thinking, with reading and writing (WELL Guidelines) .
... the goal is an active literacy that allows people to use language to enhance their
capacity to think, create and question in order to participate effectively in a society (ACAL).
To be literate in a workplace means being master of a complex set of rules and strategies
which govern who uses texts, and how, and for what purpose. (To be literate is to
know)...when to speak, when to be quiet, when to write, when to reveal what was written
and when and how to respond to texts already written. (Hull 1995)
Adult language and literacy can no longer be considered as a simple set
of skills based in r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g p r i n t e d t e x t s . R a t h e r , i t m a y b e
viewed as a `tool for mak ing meaning' (Synder et al 2005), the use
o f w h i c h i s d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n t e x t ( F o s t e r I t Beddie 2005).
If decoding and encoding are the only skills that are seen to be fundamental to all literacies,
then it needs to be recognised that, in keeping with the whole notion of social
practices, decoding/ encoding are not disembodied technical skills but critical tools.
Decoding here is simultaneously an ‘uncovering’ and an act of interpretation. It is a
means of making sense of a range of different signifiers, such as images, punctuation
marks, gestures, a legal document and an electronic funds transfer at point of sale
transaction. (Lonsdale and McCurry 2004)
Multiliteracies refers to the two related aspects of the increasing
complexity of texts: (a) the proliferation of multimodal ways of making
meaning where the written word is increasingly part and parcel of visual,
audio, and spatial patterns; ( b) the increasing salience of cultural and
linguistic diversity characterized by local diversity and global connectedness
(Multiliteracies project - http://www.multiliteracies.ca/) .
During the 1990s, government and industry recognised that language, literacy and numeracy skills
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underlie all areas of work to some extent. There was also a growing realisation of the importance of
communication skills in team-based workplaces. This bundle of skills was often referred to as
‘workplace communication skills’. Towards the end of the 1990s industry and training organisations
were therefore encouraged and supported to incorporate information about language, literacy and
numeracy skills into Training Packages.
Much of this work was referenced to the National Reporting System (NRS), now replaced by the Australian
Core Skills Framework (ACSF), a nationally recognised resource, which provided a tool for identifying
language, literacy and numeracy competencies in workplace tasks.
While adult literacy is built on a theoretical framework based on many years of observations and
peer reviewed literature, practitioners must have a thorough understanding of the Australian Core
Skills Framework.
The ACSF is based on the National Reporting System (NRS), a mechanism for reporting outcomes
of adult English language, literacy and numeracy provision. The NRS was first used by Australian
English language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) specialists in 1995. While the NRS was primarily
designed as a reporting tool, the ACSF has been designed as a framework with applications for a
range of contexts. For example, it provides benchmarks against which performance can be
described in detail in each of the core skills and can also be used to describe the core skills needed
in a particular context, such as the workplace, or to map curricula.
As with the original NRS, it was required that the ACSF:




Satisfy a variety of purposes, and the requirements of a range of users
Reflect and promote good educational practice
Be fair, valid and reliable, and
Be functional in practice.
The development of the ACSF was informed by input and advice from key stakeholders and
experienced adult English LLN practitioners from across Australia, together with the knowledge and
experience of the project team, an analysis of current accredited curriculum documents and a broad
range of theoretical understandings including:



Theories of adult learning, language, literacy and mathematical development
Theories of task and text complexity
Theories and philosophies about human, psychological and social capital.
The ACSF can be used wherever performance in the 5 core skills is described or discussed. It has a
broad range of applications, including:
Assessing core skills performance
Specialist LLN practitioners can use the ACSF to describe an individual’s performance in the 5 core
skills at any point in time, and then monitor progress over time. The specificity of the ACSF allows
practitioners to identify a person’s areas of strength and need with some precision, and target
training to areas of need.
Describing core skills in the workplace
The ACSF will enable LLN practitioners to identify and discuss core skills issues with others in the
workplace. This information should help Human Resources managers and workplace trainers, for
example, when designing communication strategies and developing training for employees at all
levels of an organisation.
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The ACSF provides a standard approach for describing the 5 core skills as part of workplace
competence within training programs. Training Package developers can use the ACSF to ensure
that the core skills are adequately addressed as part of competency standards within Training
Packages.
Mapping curricula to the ACSF
The ACSF can be used to map state LLN curricula, providing a common reference to describe adult
English language, literacy and numeracy performance across Australia.
Informing decisions regarding funding and referrals
Where government funding is provided for core skills training, LLN practitioners can use the ACSF
levels of performance to support applications to government agencies. This will facilitate national
equity and accountability, and provide valid statistical feedback on the impact of government funded
programs focusing on core skills development.
The concepts in the ACSF, which are reflected in a separate ACSF Summary Document, may also
be useful for guiding government agencies when referring a client for an English language, literacy
or numeracy assessment. This document is available on the DEEWR website as a pdf download.
Core Skill
Learning
Indicator
Number
.01
.02
Reading
.03
.04
Writing
.05
.06
Oral
Communication
Numeracy
.07
.08
.09
.10
.11
Description
The first indicator addresses the active awareness of self as
a learner, learning orientations and approaches to the
management of learning
The second indicator addresses the acquisition and
application of practical strategies that facilitate learning
The first indicator addresses audience, purpose and
meaning-making strategies
The second indicator addresses text structure and features,
grammatical expression of ideas, word-identification
strategies and vocabulary
The first indicator addresses audience, purpose and
meaning-making strategies
The second indicator addresses vocabulary, grammatical
structure and the conventions of writing
The first indicator primarily addresses speaking
The second indicator primarily addresses listening
The first indicator addresses the identification of
mathematical meaning in activities and texts
The second indicator addresses the problem-solving and
mathematical processes used
The third indicator addresses the way informal and formal
language, symbolic and diagrammatic representations, and
conventions of mathematics are used to communicate
Full details and explanations are available at the DEEWR ASCF website.
http://www.deewr.gov.au/Skills/Programs/LitandNum/ACSF/Pages/default.aspx
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References
Foster, S., & Beddie, F. 2004, At a glance: Adult literacy and numeracy, National Centre for
Vocational Education Research, Adelaide. Available at: www.ncver.edu.au/publications/1584.html
Accessed: March 2007.
Lonsdale, M. & McCurry, D. 2004, Literacy in the new millennium, National Centre for Vocational
Education Research, Adelaide. Available at: www.ncver.edu.au/publications/1490.html Accessed:
March 2007.
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Section 2 The learners
It is important to have an understanding of the factors in an adult learner’s back-ground that may
affect learning. These include:




The literacy levels and the adult literacy learner
The factors in an adult learner’s background that may affect learning
The learning styles of the adult literacy learners
Accommodating difference
Literacy levels and the adult literacy learner
This section looks at the data relating to the literacy levels of adults in Australia, to the broad range
of skill levels of Australians and to who attends programs designed to increase the literacy skill
levels of adults.
In 2006 the Adult Literacy and Lifeskills (ALL) survey was administered in Australia by the Australian
Bureau of Statistics. The ALL survey is a comparative international survey that includes numeracy
and problem solving. The findings from the survey are as follows: There are fewer Australians with
literacy assessed as being in the lowest category in 2006 compared to the first survey carried out in
Australia into literacy levels in Australia in 1996, the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS),
referred to in Australia as the Survey of Aspects of Literacy (SAL).
The 2006 Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey of Australians aged 15 to 74 years assessed prose
literacy (e.g. ability to read newspapers), document literacy (e.g. ability to use bus schedules) as
well as numeracy and problem solving skills, and the ability to understand health related information
(e.g. first aid advice).
Approximately 17% (2.5 million) of people were assessed at the lowest prose literacy level (down
from 20% in 1996), while 18% (2.7 million) were assessed at the lowest document literacy level
(down from 20% in 2006).
Other findings from the survey include:







Just over half (54%) of Australians aged 15 to 74 years were assessed as having the prose
literacy skills needed to meet the complex demands of everyday life and work. Results were
similar for document literacy with 53% and numeracy with 47% achieving this level.
Women had higher scores for prose and health literacy, while men had higher scores for
document literacy and numeracy.
Across all the different types of literacy, people with jobs were more likely to be assessed as
having the skill levels needed to meet the complex demands of everyday life and work than
were the unemployed or those not in the labour force.
The median weekly income for people assessed with the highest level of prose literacy was
$890 compared to $298 for those assessed at the lowest level.
People who had completed a qualification generally had higher scores.
Half (50%) of recent migrants whose first language was not English had the document
literacy skills to meet the complex demands of everyday life and work compared to 32% a
decade ago.
Internationally, Australia was ranked in the middle across the different types of literacy with
results closely aligned with those from Canada.
More information can be found in Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, Summary Results,
Australia 2006 (cat. no. 4228.0).
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The factors in an adult learner’s background that may affect learning
Literacy programs that attract and retain learners are sensitive to the
individual and cultural/community differences in learners' lives and
address them in the planning and implementation stages of program
development.
(Imel, /997)
Education Background
Literacy, numeracy and ESL classes include learners with no formal school through to those with tertiary
education.
Literacy learners traditionally have had negative experiences in secondary schools; they may have had
interrupted schooling or were early school leavers. Many of them were alienated by the school system, so
it is important to make their adult learning a positive experience. Some learners may be well
educated but have specific needs to enable them to move on in their career, or have problems due to
an accident or stroke.
Numeracy learners may come from a wide range of educational backgrounds. They may have had negative
school experiences, they may be ESL learners whose main problem is the language of maths or they
may also be tertiary educated with qualifications in the arts area, but with poor numeracy skills.
Obviously putting learners from this variety of backgrounds into one class puts extra demands on a
teacher/trainer.
ESL learners also come with a wide variety of education backgrounds. They may have had no formal
schooling, but they may also be tertiary educated, or anywhere in between. This variety has implications in
the classroom. Learners with more education in their first language often progress rapidly, this has
implications for administration and classroom management.
Personal/Family Circumstances
This group of issues is very broad, it covers everyday issues such as childcare and other family
responsibilities, financial issues and other life events. If any of these are causing the learner a problem
then they are likely to interfere with their learning.
More traumatic events such as a death in the family, drug/alcohol/sexual abuse, time in a refugee camp or
migrating from a country at war would all have profound affects on a learner. These learners need to
be treated with understanding. Often the most important thing that a teacher/trainer can do is to
provide a stable positive learning environment for the learner to come to terms with the events in their
past.
Age
Literacy and ESL learners include people from their teens through to aged pensioners. The teenagers
are often those who have had negative experiences in traditional secondary schools, this may be
because of their poor English skills, social or family issues or learning difficulties.
Mature age learners are likely to have more time to devote to their study and have often made a
determined effort to return to study. They are often dedicated learners but they may struggle with learning
new concepts or an unstructured classroom, which may be very different from their school experiences.
Gender
Male and female learners face different challenges in society and in literacy education this can
manifest itself in a range of ways. For example, women with children are more likely to have to take
time off if the children are sick and some non-English speaking background women may come from
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cultures where education for women is not valued.
The data from the International literacy survey tells us that men and women are likely to be better at
reading different text types.
Culture, Ethnicity and Religion
An understanding of other cultures and a sensitivity to these issues may enhance the learning process
by fostering a positive attitude in the learner (Willing, 1988). Issues such as dress code, religious events,
female or male teachers/trainers, responsibility for family and previous classroom experience, may all
impact on a learner’s ability to attend class, to concentrate, to complete homework and to participate
in activities. Craig (2001) suggests that language and culture as intermeshed so where learners are
from a language other than English background it is important for the teacher/trainer to address the
issue of culture in the practices of the classroom. This may be as simple as acknowledging that
different cultural or ethnic groups may value different text types and writing styles.
Ability and Intelligence
Everyone learns at different rates and in different ways and it is very difficult to separate innate ability
from environmental factors. McCormack and Pancini (1990) suggest that teachers “need to debunk the
idea that intelligence is a fixed attribute of a person”. They argue that “intelligence is an attribute of
actions, not of people; therefore its primary use is as an adverb – “intelligently”” and that you can do
things stupidly or intelligently. They do recognise, however, that ability may be influenced by biological
factors such as a learning disorder, memory loss, short term memory problem and suggest ways to
work around these problems.
In relation to second language learning Lightbown & Spada (1999) have found that it seems that intelligence
is important in learning language analysis and rules, while it is less important when “instruction focuses
more on communication and interaction” (p53).
Disabilities
There are many different disabilities that may affect a learner, the main ones being visual, hearing
physical, mental, intellectual and learning disabilities. The disabilities may be congenital or they have
been acquired as a result of an accident, illness or drug abuse. All these learners should be treated, as
much as possible, the same as any other learners. It is important for a teacher/trainer to have some
understanding of the disability and issues that may arise to assist the learner to attain their full
potential.
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Visual impairment can be assisted with a wide variety of aids from guide dogs to computers
which enlarge text or software which provides an audible reading of the text on the screen.
White boards can be adapted so that information on a white board can be seen enlarged on a
learner’s computer.
Hearing impairment may be accommodated as simply as the learner sitting in a specific place in
the classroom, or the teacher/trainer facing the learner when speaking. Other electronic aids can
also be used.
Physical disabilities can be accommodated by having lifts, ramps, wide doorways and computers and
other electronic aids.
Mental health issues – it is important for a teacher/trainer to understand learner’s mental health
issues so there is no undue pressure put on the learner.
Intellectual disabilities – all learners should be encouraged to reach their full potential, but it is also
important not to ask a learner to engage with tasks that they are not able to do. Many of these
learners have had a history of failure and it is important not to repeat this.
Learning disabilities can often be accommodated by different means such as using a calculator
or other technologies. Some disabilities will come with labels such as ADHS or dyslexia, but all
learners will require the teacher/trainer to have patience and understanding.
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The learning styles of the adult literacy learners
VAK: Visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles
Learning styles can be described in many different
ways, one of the simplest suggests that each learner
has a preferred learning style which is either visual,
auditory or kinesthetic. These styles relate to how a
learner best takes in information. No-one uses one of
the styles exclusively, but most have a preferred style.
If you are aware of your preferred learning style, it is
thought that you can enhance the other (non-preferred)
styles to your advantage. It is also useful, as a
teacher/trainer, to be aware that learners do learn in
different ways that we need to cater for a variety of
learning styles.
Visual Learners
Visual learners relate most effectively to written information, notes, diagrams and pictures. Typically
they will be unhappy with a presentation where they are unable to take detailed notes - to an extent,
information does not exist for visual learners unless it has been seen written down. This is why
some visual learners will take notes even when they have printed course notes on the desk in front
of them. Visual learners will tend to be most effective in written communication, symbol manipulation
etc.
Visual learners make up around 65% of the population.
Auditory Learners
Auditory learners relate most effectively to the spoken word. They will tend to listen to a lecture, and
then take notes afterwards, or rely on printed notes. Often information written down will have little
meaning until it has been heard - it may help auditory learners to read written information aloud.
Auditory learners may be sophisticated speakers, and may specialise effectively in subjects like law
or politics.
Auditory learners make up about 30% of the population.
Kinesthetic Learners
Kinesthetic Learners learn effectively through touch and movement and space, and learn skills by
imitation and practice. Information is normally not presented in a manner that suits their learning
style and as a result these learners may be perceived as having a learning disability.
Kinesthetic learners make up around 5% of the population
Other learning style theories
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
Kolb believes that learning does not take place without reflection. Kolb proposed a four-stage
learning cycle where the process can begin at any stage of the cycle and is continuous. This
also has repercussions related to teaching as each person has strengths in different aspects of
the cycle. People usually begin with their preferred style.
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Concrete Experience
Putting into practice
Active
Experimentation
Reflective
Observation
Experimenting to find
solutions
Objectively analyse
the outcomes
Abstract
Conceptualisation
Reviewing your
conceptual
understanding
Although it is represented as a cycle, it can also be viewed as two distinct dimensions:
Concrete / Abstract
Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct experience, by doing, seeing, acting,
sensing and feeling.
Abstract perceivers take in information through analysis, observation and thinking.
Active / Reflective
Active processors make sense of an experience by immediately using the new information.
Reflective processors make sense of an experience by reflecting on and thinking about it.
Carl Jung and Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
This is more complicated than some of the other learning styles models as it relates to personality,
not just learning style. The MBTI indicate a person's preference on each of four continuums below:
Energy Orientation: Those who prefer Introversion draw their primary energy from the inner world
of information, thoughts, ideas, and other reflections. Those who prefer Extroversion are drawn to
the outside world as their elemental source of energy, and engage with the people, places and
activities of the outside world for their energy.
Outer World Orientation: those who prefer Judging have a style oriented towards organisation,
planning, closure, a drive to order the outside world. Those who prefer
Perceiving are typically adaptable, flexible and leave options open. A lack of closure tends to be
easily tolerated.
Taking in information: Those who prefer Sensing favour clear, tangible data and information that fits
in with their direct experience. Those who prefer Intuition are drawn to information that is more
abstract, conceptual, big-picture and represents imaginative possibilities for the future.
Making decisions: Those who prefer Thinking tend to make decisions in an objective, logical and
analytical manner with an emphasis on tasks and results to be accomplished. Those who prefer
Feeling make their decisions in a somewhat global, visceral, and value-oriented way noting in
particular how decisions impact on other people.
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Felder and Solomon
Felder and Solomon describe learning styles as lying on 4 different continuums:
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Active – reflective: Active learners like to be involved in doing something while reflective learners
prefer to think about it quietly
Sensory – intuitive: Sensory learners like using well established methods and learning facts
while intuitive learners like to work out relationships for themselves.
Visual – verbal: Visual Learners learn better when they see pictures and diagrams while verbal
learners prefer to read or listen to an explanation
Sequential – global: sequential learners like to undertake things step by step while global
learners prefer to see the big picture, not necessarily learning in an ordered manner.
Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner theorised that there are multiple intelligences not just one form of intelligence.
Modern western culture emphasises verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligence but there
are many other forms of intelligence that are over-looked. Gardner believes that there are at least
eight forms of intelligence.
Verbal Linguistic intelligence (sensitive to the meaning and order of words)
Logical-mathematical intelligence (able to reason and recognize patterns and orders)
Musical intelligence (sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone)
Spatial intelligence (perceive the world accurately in three dimensions)
Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence (able to use the body skillfully and handle objects adroitly)
Interpersonal intelligence (understand people and relationship: sociable)
Intrapersonal intelligence (able to understand oneself and others accurately: empathetic)
Naturalist (connected to the intricacies and subtleties in nature)
Accommodating difference
It a frequent cause of learner attrition is dissatisfaction resulting from
a strong though ill-defined sense that all is not happening as it ought.
... the ultimate root of this reaction may well be ... differences and a
sense of alienation."
Willing (/993, p22)
Many factors in a learner’s background can be accommodated by providing a variety of learning
activities, providing facilities for a learner with disabilities and an understanding of how all the factors
discussed might affect a learner. However there are some factors that may not be able to be
accommodated, eg the gender of the teacher/trainer or the other participants in the class.
There are also factors that may require the learner to accept or modify as part of their education,
such as preference for grammar or maths worksheets rather than working with real life problems
and texts. These issues will be the focus of the last section in this Topic.
Learning styles and the ESL learner
“...it should be noted that LEP* students bring to the classroom quite
different inventories of language, prior knowledge, experiences, and
learning styles... These differences may prevent these students from
effectively applying their prior knowledge or experiences to newly
acquired information, as is expected in constructivism.”
(Bae, 2004). * LEP limited English proficiency
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References
Each of the following references are easy to read and have sections specific to ESL learners. They
can also be used as general references to provide information on adult learning principles and
literacy theory.
Barton, D., Appleby, Y., Hodge, R., Tusting, K. and Ivanic, R. 2006, Relating adults’ lives and
learning: participation and engagement in different settings, NRDC, London. (Chapter 3: pp11-22)
http://www.nrdc.org.uk/publications_details.asp?ID=48
Accessed March 2007
Burt, M., Peyton, J. K. & Adams, R. 2003, Reading and adult English language learners: A review of
the research, Centre for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC., (Section1: Factors Influencing Adult
Literacy Development in English, pp7-22) http://www.cal.org/caela/research/raell.pdf
Accessed
March 2007
Imel, S. 1997, Adult Literacy Education: Emerging Directions in Program Development, ERIC
Digest. http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/literacy.html Accessed March 2007
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Section 3 Learning as an adult
Adult learning principles underpin all education for adults and for education targeting youth, the
characteristics of applied learning are the underpinning tenet.
Adult learning principles and practice
Unlike children, adults bring a range of knowledge, experience and skills to learning. They also have
a concept of themselves as learners. However, the life experiences of adults mean they bring
considerably more to the learning experience – more knowledge, more experience, more skills,
more opinions and a clearer view of themselves as learners. This may facilitate or hamper learning
depending on the types of experiences, skills, knowledge, etc they bring to the learning experience.
Adults also have a number of competing demands on their time – family, work, community
commitments, etc. which may interfere with learning. This section explores adult learning principles
and how these relate to literacy learners.
Malcolm Knowles is sometimes known as the ‘father of adult learning’. He popularised the term
andragogy (adult learning) as opposed to pedagogy (child learning). He identified the following
characteristics of adult learners:
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Adults are autonomous and self-directed learners.
Adults have life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family
responsibilities, and previous education. They need to connect learning to this
knowledge/experience base.
Adults are goal-oriented and usually know what goal they want to attain.
Adults must see a reason for learning something.
Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work.
Some would contend that Knowles only introduced a theory of teaching rather than a theory of adult
learning (Merriam and Caffarella 1999). It is further contended that Knowles did not establish a
proven theory, rather he introduced a "set of well-grounded principles of good practice" (Brookfield,
1986).
Since the work of Knowles many have contributed to the body of knowledge about adult learning.
The table below outlines some of the characteristics of adult learning and their implications for
teachers.
Characteristics of adult learning
Learning is motivated when there is a
recognised need, or a mismatch between an
individual’s experience and their perception of
the world.
Implications for teaching/facilitating
Teachers and learners need to structure the
process of learning together so that it is
relevant to the experience or problem that
created the need to learn.
Learners bring their own experiences and
meaning systems to the learning situation.
Teachers must not regard themselves as the
fount of all knowledge but use learner’s
experiences and prior knowledge as learning
resources.
Individual needs are brought to learning
situations.
Learning should be as individualised as
possible. Facilitators should link the content of
the training to learner needs and experiences
and not assume the links are obvious.
People learn best when their sense of self is
not threatened.
An ethos of respect and non-threatening
environment. Cooperation rather than
competition.
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Learning occurs at different rates.
Different learning speeds should be
accommodated and accounted for.
Diversity of learning styles, methods and
personality traits exist.
These styles are recognised and catered for
by using a range of teaching methods and
activities.
Empathy and sensitivity required to create a
successful learning outcome for all.
Learners bring their own self esteem and self
perception and degrees of confidence to the
learning context.
Table adapted from Burns R. 1995 The Adult Learner at Work Business and Professional Publishing, NSW.
Applied learning
Applied learning is a term used mainly in relation to youth education, and often, but not always,
school contexts. It has, at various times, been referred to as problem based learning, contextualised
learning and experiential learning. It is often equated with ‘hands on’ or practical learning and has
many similarities with adult learning theory.
Current understanding of the term ‘applied learning’ varies. However, a number of recurring themes
are consistent across all definitions and can be seen to be the underpinning concepts of an applied
learning approach.
Underpinning concepts
Firstly, applied learning is an approach, which emphasises the relevance of what is being learnt to
the ‘real world’ outside the classroom, and makes that connection as immediate and transparent as
possible. This focus on a ‘real life’ application will often require a shift from a traditional focus on
discrete curriculum areas, as learners focus on learning and applying the skills and knowledge they
need to solve a problem, implement a project or participate in the work force.
Secondly, and a result of this, applied learning will involve learners and their teachers in
partnerships and connections with organisations and individuals outside the education organisation.
These partnerships provide the necessary context for students to demonstrate the relevance of
what they have learnt.
Thirdly, and of equal importance, applied learning is concerned with nurturing and working with a
learner in a holistic manner, which takes into account their personal strengths, interests, goals and
previous experiences. Working with the whole person involves valuing skills and knowledge that
may not normally be the focus of more traditional education curricula. It also means taking into
account differences in preferred learning styles, and ways of learning.
Finally, applied learning also acknowledges that part of the transition from school to work is being
treated as an adult, and that moving learners out of the classroom to learn also means helping them
to make a shift to become more independent and responsible for their own learning. This means
that applied learning needs to be learner centred and applied learning goals and outcomes should
be negotiated with learners, as well as other stakeholders.
Characteristics of applied learning
These concepts described above lead to the construction of a set of characteristics of applied
learning:
1. Make connections with communities and real life experiences
2. Link context/application with theory/skills.
3. Allow learners to take control of their learning. Negotiate the curriculum. Engage in a
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dialogue with learners about their curriculum.
4. Share knowledge and recognise the knowledge learners bring to the learning environment.
5. Use and build on the skills, knowledge and experience of the learners.
6. Build resilience, confidence and self worth – consider the whole person.
7. Integrate learning. In life we use a range of skills and knowledge. Learning should reflect
the integration that occurs in real life tasks.
8. Promote diversity of learning styles and methods. Everyone learns differently. Accept that
different learning styles require different learning/teaching methods. But value
experiential, practical and ‘hands on’ ways of learning.
Theory v application?
Applied learning is not just about ‘doing’. Equal importance is placed on theory/skill and
application/context. The theoretical understandings and knowledge required to complete a task will
be drawn out from the context, which also provides the opportunity to use and apply what has been
learnt. When an applied learning approach is used, the starting point will often be the context and
application – not the theory (Tout, Motram & Leigh-Lancaster, 2006).
Modified from an information sheet on the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website
www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
When undertaking tasks related to planning and delivering a learning program and activities,
account should be taken of how adults learn and the link between adult learning principles and the
program.
Developing learning strategies
While some adult literacy learners have good learning strategies, others use a restricted range of
strategies that are not always effective. The focus of this section is on the development of learning
strategies.
“Learning is a complex and often difficult process - particularly for adults. It requires effort,
concentration, motivation and change. When learning new information and/or skills for example, it's
pretty common to focus more on what (is learned) rather than how (it is learned). Practised learners
use strategies and behaviours to take on new information, skills etc. Adults who aren't successful
learners- particularly in more formal learning/educational settings - often blame themselves for a
'lack of intelligence'. It is more likely that these learners may not understand or be aware of their
own learning strengths and how to use them” (Hodge, 2002).
Learning strategies are skills, approaches and behaviours that enable effective and efficient
learning.
Learning styles and learning strategies
Most people have a preferred learning style eg. visual, auditory or kinaesthetic. However, they may
use different learning strategies based on the content and context of what they are learning.
Learning styles change little over time but learning strategies can be added to and modified over
time and with experience (Smith & Dalton, 2005).
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Learning style:
 typical way a learner likes to go about learning
 difficult to change.
Learning strategies:
 how we decide to go about learning something
 are likely to be linked to learning styles
 can be added to and modified as we are exposed to
learning experiences
 will vary according to context and content.
Eg. prefers to learn by talking to and
watching others
Eg. Making circles using Word (new
learning) occurs through watching
and listening to others as well as
through practice.
Why develop learning strategies?
Increasing learning strategies assists learners to:
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operate with greater independence
operate with greater confidence
work more effectively with others
be more self-directed in learning and in life
make improved judgments in selection and use of resources
think and reflect about what is learned and how
organise their time and available resources
improve their employability skills.
Examples of learning strategies
Although there is no one definitive list of skills, approaches or strategies that can be identified
exclusively as ‘learning strategies’, learning strategies include:
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setting goals
planning how to reach your goals
checking your ‘on-track’ to obtain your goals
knowing when to seek help and how to get it
reflecting on what you know and connect it with what you have just learnt
being conscious of how, what and why you learn (metacognition)
researching to gain knowledge
thinking about how you could use new skills and knowledge (transfer)
memorising
matching
sequencing.
What do good learners do?
Effective learners are characterised by the ability to:
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identifying short medium and long term goals and the steps required to achieve them
formulate the steps to achieve those goals
identify strengths and weaknesses of own learning
actively engage in learning tasks in teams or by self
manage, prioritise and complete the steps in their plans to reach goals or fulfill
commitments
fulfill training requirements, (attend regularly, be on time, join in/contribute, interact
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
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appropriately with others)
give and receive constructive feedback
come to recognise (and try to fix) barriers (eg. personal or emotional) to learning
move from the dependent (passive) to independent (active) learning
recognise strategies and techniques that work for them (and differences in others)
think about and sometimes modify their own strategies
try different learning strategies.
Goal Setting
Goal setting is about naming things you want to do or achieve. Sometimes they are short term-goals
(getting up early) and sometimes they are long term (losing weight, getting a job).
When you have a group of students ask them to what it is they want to do:
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next week
in a month
next year
in five years.
Help students develop individual learning plans.
Are your students planning a group activity or project, eg, excursion, painting a mural on a
community wall, organising and preparing breakfast for children at the local primary school? Ask
your students what they hope to achieve from the activity or project. This will be their goal.
Developing an action plan
It is no use setting goals if you don’t have a plan to follow to achieve your goals. Sometimes the
plan is commonsense. For example, if your goal is to get up earlier, then the plan is to set the alarm
for an earlier time. However, some goals require a great deal of planning eg.getting a (new) job.
Ask students how they will go about achieving their short and long term goals, their individual
learning plans or the group activity/project.
They should develop a step by step plan that shows the steps that need to be taken. If it is a group
activity, they should define who will do what.
Keeping track
Learners need to keep a check that they are ‘on-track’ – that they are following their plan or, if not,
why not and how they will modify the plan.
Checklists, charts and journals are a common way of keeping track.
Seeking help
Learners need to know that it’s OK to seek help from other sources – the trick is to know when to
ask for help, who from and how much.
Researching
Researching is more formal than seeking help. It can include interviewing people, undertaking
surveys, reading relevant resources (print and electronic). Learners need to choose the most
appropriate research strategy for the task they are undertaking and need to be able to identify
appropriate resources. You may need to assist learners to develop a range of reading strategies
(eg. scanning, skimming, reading for meaning) to be able to effectively undertake a range of
research.
Reflecting, connecting and transferring
Reflection is an essential part of the learning process. It helps learners to be aware of what they
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know about the topic and to connect it with new knowledge and skills. Learners are then more likely
to transfer their learning to new contexts.
Metacognition
Metacognition is about “being in control of your learning, monitoring your learning, knowing what
you know and what you still don’t know” (McCormack & Pancini, 1990) and about how you have
learnt it. It’s also about selecting ways that will assist students to learn.
Students will be using metacognitive processes when they:
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keep a reflective journal,
use Mindmapping to summarise new information,
use models of existing work,
question why they got a correct or incorrect answer,
think about how to do the task next time.
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Section 4 Adult literacy – theory and teaching methodology
This section covers the main theories and methodologies underpinning adult literacy teaching and
how these translate into practice.
This section starts by looking at why a theoretical base is important for adult literacy
teachers/trainers and then considers the theories that have been the most influential in relation to
adult literacy pedagogy.
Most teachers/trainers have a theory of teaching that provides direction for what they do in teaching
situations - the activities they choose, how they construct teaching and learning, teaching practices
they commonly draw on. Halliday (1979) suggests that learners need to be engaged in:
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the learning of language and literacy - the learning of language and literacy strategies and
skills
learning through language and literacy
learning about language and literacy - learning to talk about language.
Each theory is complex and it is important for practitioners to have an in-depth understanding of
each theory. Brief definitions of different language and literacy theories are summarised below.
Skills based approach (eg. phonics). This approach perceives literacy as a set of skills that remain
constant and can be learnt and used in all contexts.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between linguistic and psychological behaviour. It
is an attempt to describe the mental processes involved in language acquisition,
comprehension and production. It sees a strong relationship between language, thought, and
culture and acknowledges a reader’s prior experience and knowledge as a factor in gaining
meaning from text.
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language shapes and is shaped by society. It takes into
account all aspects of society including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way
language is used. It ranges from the study of the wide variety of dialects across a given region down
to the analysis between the way men and women speak to one another.
Sociolinguistics considers questions such as:
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What factors cause individuals or groups to change their language in order to sound either
similar to or different from others?
How and why do people change how they use their language?
How are language and status or class related?
How does education affect how people use language?
How do social networks affect language use?
What features of language do people vary according to their social situation?
For a very clear explanation of sociolinguistics by Connie Eble go to:
http://www.pbs.org/speak/speech/sociolinguistics/sociolinguistics/ .
Systemic functional linguistics is a theory of language in context and suggests that language can
only be understood in relation to the context in which it is used. It accounts for the syntactic
structure of language, and also places the function of language as central (what language does, and
how it does it). It focuses on language at the level of the whole text.
People use language to make meaning and meaning is constructed by choices of vocabulary and
grammar.
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There are different purposes for using language and different contexts produce different texts.
In our society we need to accomplish different tasks which require language use. These culturally
created patterns of language are called genres.
In systemic functional linguistics language is seen to vary in relation to three variables, the field, the
tenor and the mode. Halliday (1985) argues that lexical and grammatical features of texts have
identifiable functions.
1. They represent and portray the social and natural world (the "field" or subject matter).
2. They construct and effect social relations (the "tenor" or who is involved).
3. They develop conventions as coherent, identifiable texts in particular media; spoken,
written or online (the "mode" or medium of communication).
Systemic functional grammar is a tool for analysing and explaining how language is used. A range
of other descriptions of language functions have been developed.
Genre theory aims to teach learners how to create and analyse spoken and written genres so
they can use language to participate fully in their culture.
According to genre theory texts are socially constructed and serve particular functions in a
social context. A text has a specific schematic structure – a distinctive beginning, middle and
end. It will use predictable language structures, depending on its social function, and will
conform to certain established patterns. Genre theory emphasises this predictability and seeks
to identify the characteristics of different texts.
Main features of a genre approach to teaching are:
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a focus on the predictability of texts
an emphasis on different types of texts
an emphasis on identifying the purpose and potential audience of a text
language features of genres can be identified and learned
models of genres are analysed
an ability to deconstruct texts to ascertain their purpose
the differences and similarities between spoken language and written language are explored
includes learning about language as well as learning language
learners and teachers/trainers work together to jointly construct texts.
The following model provides a combined approach to text analysis, which complements that of
systemic functional linguistics and other social theories of language, such as genre theory.
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A model of reading
The goal of reading is to construct meaning from text.
Peer Tutor Program & Training Manual, DET 2001
Written text only has meaning within a context of shared understanding, both within the rules and
norms of a culture, and according to the situation. The reader needs to fully understand these
contexts to be able to construct meaning from a text. Reading is an active interplay between the text
and the reader. The reader needs to be able to adopt four different roles and to be able to recognise
the different information systems contained in any text.
Context of culture and situation
 We learn to read and write as individuals in social contexts.
 People use literacy practices to interact with each other to achieve social purposes.
 Literacy practices are culturally based ie different cultural groups use and value literacy
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
practices in different ways.
Peoples’ views of what literacy is and what its purposes are, stem mostly from the
experiences they encounter at home, at work and in their broader community.
When working with students, a teacher needs to build on these experiences.
Incorporating these with the learning environment will shape the way students view
themselves as readers and writers.
Meaning in written text is contained in the following four information systems:
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Semantic information
The semantic information contained in a text links the symbolic representation on the page to its real
life meaning. The reader accesses the semantic information when they ask themselves “does this
make sense?”
The semantic information includes:
 Word meanings
 Common expressions
 Subject specific vocabulary
 Figurative language (metaphors, idioms, slang)
 Real-world knowledge
Grammatical Information
The grammatical information contained in a text links the meanings to each other in a coherent
structure. The reader accesses the grammatical information when they ask themselves “Who?
What? Why? How? By whom? When? Does this sound correct?”
The grammatical information includes:
 Text organisation
 Sentence structure
 Word order
 Agreement of subject and verb
 tenses
Graphological Information
This includes all the visual cues to meaning. The reader accesses the graphological information
when they ask themselves, “What does this look like?”
The graphological information includes:
 Formatting features: colours, styles, arrangement of page
 Pictures
 Headings, subheadings, paragraphs
 Punctuation
 Recognising some words (sight words)
Phonological Information
This includes all the “sound” cues contained in the written text. The reader accesses the
phonological information when they ask themselves, “How do the letters on the page match the
sounds in the spoken version of this text?
The phonological information includes:
 Relationship between sounds and letters, letter clusters
 Ability to separate the sounds in words
 Ability to sound out unknown words
Good readers can access and integrate all four sources of information fluently and
continuously (and often subconsciously) as they read. They need to be learnt and practised
all together.
Look at the following text in relation to the four systems of information, and the four roles of the
reader.
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Symmetry operation on the regular dodecahedron form a mathematical object called a group,
which has been a major topic of interest to mathematicians for the past 150 years. The theory of
groups has also found important applications outside mathematics, notably in crystallography and
in the physics of elementary particles.
All finite groups are built up from so-called simple groups, which play a major role in group theory
similar to the role of atoms in physics or prime numbers in arithmetic. The rotations of the
dodecahedron that preserve its orientation in space form the smallest simple group whose
elements do not commute with one another: in other words, the final position of the
dodecahedron with respect to a fixed direction in space depends on the order in which rotations
are carried out. There are 60 elements in the group, which correspond to the five positions of each
of the 12 faces of the dodecahedron.
The group has played a major role in the history of mathematics. The French mathematician who
invented group theory, showed that the simplicity of this group and the fact that is has a nonprime number of elements lead to the resolution of a classic mathematical problem: the general
polynomial equation with rational coefficients whose highest power is x5 cannot be solved with
radicals.
Source :Tutor Training Programme, Adult Literacy Unit, Adelaide College of TAFE, SA 1987
While a reader who has no knowledge of this field of mathematics may be able to decode this text,
a lack of semantic awareness, and being an “outsider” in the culture, can make it impossible to
construct meaning. The reader needs to be able to participate and use a text in order to truly “read”
it.
Characteristic differences between spoken and written language
Spoken Language
Written language
Generally more dependent on content
Generally less dependent on content
More pronouns (especially personal)
Fewer pronouns (especially personal)
Fewer content words (verbs, nouns)
More content words
Actions generally represented by verbs
Actions may be represented by nouns
Speaker and listener are close
Writer and reader are distant
Compare the following three texts:
Text A
S1: Here, put this in now.
S2: Hang on.
S1: That’s OK.
S2: OK. How much?
S!: All of it, the lot.
S2: Like this?
S1: Yeah, now just work it in...softly...softly...not too fast or it won’t work.
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Text B
Add seasoning and briskly beat the mixture. Beat egg whites until they hold firm peaks. Fold
into mixture. Pour into a buttered soufflé dish.
Text C
The addition of the beaten egg whites provides the necessary aeration to enable the soufflé
to rise.
Consider these questions:
 What is the common topic of these texts?

Where would you expect to find each of these texts?

Which text was originally spoken and which was originally written?

What features of the language tell you this?

What are the similarities and differences in the language of the three texts?
Sue Hood, Nicky Solomon, Anne Burns, Focus on Reading, 1996 pp9-11
Critical literacy sees language as being socially and culturally constructed as well as political. It
attempts to provide a set of tools to enable us to critically look at written, visual, spoken, multimedia
and performance texts – including those we create. Critical literacy involves going beyond surface
meaning of texts by analysing and critiquing the interaction between texts, language, power, social
groups and social practices.
Critical literacy comes from different theories:
 the work of critical discourse theorists and their recognition that language is not a neutral


commodity
genre theory and systemic functional linguistics and a belief that a knowledge of language
and the text choices we make to achieve certain social purposes is useful to language
learners
Freirean notion of empowerment and/or related feminist ideologies.
Although there are a range of definitions there are some shared assumptions of critical literacy
theorists:
 literacy is a social and cultural construction,
 that the function and uses of literacy are never neutral or innocent,
 meanings constructed in text are ideological and involved in producing, reproducing and
maintaining arrangements of power which are unequal.
(Kamler and Comber, 1996)
Critical literacy and practice: What the research tells us.
 Authentic texts seem to be the most useful texts for exploring critically.
 It appears more useful in general to allow learner interest and need to be the deciding factor


in the selection of texts, rather than the pursuit of critical literacy ‘teaching points’.
Some believe that even the most innocuous seeming texts have an ideological element.
Others believe that not all texts are loaded to the same extent.
Texts and text types with clear ideological loading may be a useful starting point to show
learners the sorts of issues and language you want to focus on. It is then possible to move
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
on to texts and text types with more concealed assumptions and reader positioning.
An awareness of intertextuality, or how texts relate to other texts and text types, is relevant to
critical reading.
(Brown, 1999)
“Bottom up” or “Top down” readting theories
Reading theories are often referred to as “bottom up” or “top down”. Bottom up theories are
associated with a skills based approach to reading development. Reading development based on
psycholinguistic approaches are known as “top down theories”.
Bottom up theory
Top down theory
(skills based approaches)
(eg. psycholinguistics)
Reading and writing consist of learning a
number of skills which, if taught in the
correct sequence, will lead to learning to
read and write.
Reader tries to make meaning of the whole
text.
Writing focuses on making meaning first and
then skills.
Each theory is complex and it is important that participants read relevant references to gain a more
in-depth understanding of the theories.
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Section 5 Teaching reading
References for some of the different theories relating to the teaching of reading and literacy theory
are provided below. At the time of publishing all Web links were active.
Skills based approaches
*Anstey, M. & Bull, G. 2004, The Literacy Labyrinth, 2nd edition, Pearson Prentice Hill,
Frenchs Forest, NSW. (Chapters 5 and 7)
Hempenstal, K. 1999, ‘The role of phonics in learning to read: what does recent research
say?’, Fine Print, Vol 22. No 1, pp. 7-12.
www.valbec.org.au/05/fineprint/archive/1999/99AU.PDF Accessed: April 2007
Reyhner, J. 2003, ‘The Reading Wars: Phonics versus Whole Language’ North Arizona
University. http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/Reading_Wars.html Accessed: April 2007
Features of psycholinguistic pedagogy
ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, 1992, ‘What Is Linguistics?’, ERIC
Digest, ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, Washington DC.
http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-925/what.htm Accessed: April 2007
Sociolingusitics
Wolfram, W. nd, Sociolinguistics, Linguistics Society of America
www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-socio.cfm Accessed April 2007
Eble. 2005, ‘Available at: www.pbs.org/speak/speech/sociolinguistics/sociolinguistics/
Systemic Functional Linguistics
Chapelle, C.A. 1998, ‘Some notes on Systemic-Functional linguistics‘, English/Linguistics,
511 October 28, http://www.public.iastate.edu/~carolc/LING511/sfl.html Accessed: April
2007
*Hammond, J., Burns, A., Joyce, H., Brosnan, D & Gerot, L. 1992, English for Social
Purposes: A handbook for teachers of adult literacy, National Centre for English Language
Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, Sydney. pp. 1-13.
The Pennsylvania State University, ‘A brief introduction to the work of M.A.K. Halliday and
Systemic-Functional Linguistics’, The Pennsylvania State University
http://language.la.psu.edu/spcom497b/halliday.html Accessed: April 2007
Genre theory
*Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (eds), 1993, ‘Introduction: How a Genre Approach to Literacy can
transform the way writing is taught’ in The Powers of Literacy: A genre approach to teaching
writing, Falmer Press, London, pp. 1 – 21.
Wray, D. & Lewis, M. 1998, ‘An Approach to Factual Writing’, Reading online.
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http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=writing/index.html Accessed:
April 2007
Critical literacy
Cervetti, G., Pardales, M.J., & Damico, J.S. 2001, ‘A tale of differences: Comparing the
traditions, perspectives, and educational goals of critical reading and critical literacy’,
Reading Online, Vol. 4, no. 9.
http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/cervetti/index.html
Accessed: April 2007
*Freebody, P. & Luke, A. 2003, ‘Literacy as engaging with new forms of life: the ‘four roles’
model’ in G. Bull & M. Anstey (eds) The Literacy Lexicon, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, Frenchs
Forest, NSW.
Van Duzer, C & Florez, MC 2001, ‘Critical Literacy for Adult Literacy in Language Learners’,
ERIC Digest. http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-1/critical.html Accessed: April 2007
When working with adults it is important for teachers to understand the importance of providing a
teaching and learning environment in which skill development occurs in meaningful contexts which
promote the development of a range of skills (as opposed to skills being taught as separate items).
The development of reading and writing skills is closely linked and some of the concepts and ideas
considered in this section. They can also be applied to the next section on teaching writing. (See
Anstey & Bull 2004, pp193-198 for a discussion of the connections between reading and writing).
The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid! Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at
Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a
wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be
in the rghit pclae. Th e rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed
it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed
ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? Yaeh,
and I awlyas thought slpeling was ipmorantt.
The theories used to describe the reading process are many and varied and experienced
practitioners use a combination of techniques rather than rely solely on one methodology. The
characteristics of good and poor readers have been analysed and show that good readers typically:







Look for meaning in the print in front of them. They expect it to make sense.
Continuously question what they are reading.
Read in chunks. They focus on meaning, not on every letter of every word.
Constantly guess or predict what’s coming next. They use the text to confirm their
predictions
Infer the meaning of unknown words or phrases from the context.
Keep reading. They skim over words or phrases they don’t understand, unless the unknown
word or phrase stop them from making sense of the print.
Read in different ways, depending on what they’re reading and why they’re reading it. They
only pay attention to what is relevant to their purpose.
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Poor readers typically:







Don’t expect the print to have meaning for them.
Don’t question what they read.
Read every word. They don’t have time to think about meaning.
Don’t guess or predict sensibly.
Rarely use the context to help them understand difficult words or phrases.
Stop reading if they come across a word or phrase they can’t read or don’t understand.
Always read in the same way, regardless of what they’re reading or why they’re reading it.
Modified from Emergency Services Literacy Awareness Kit, Harris
Freebody and Luke (1990) proposed that successful readers have four different identities:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Code breaker
Meaning maker
Text user
Text analyst/critic
The table below provides information about the type of questions that Freebody and Luke believe
readers ask, consciously or subconsciously about a text they are reading.
Reader identities
Code breaker
Meaning maker
What is the code?
What does this mean for me?
How do I crack this?
How is the meaning shown in the text?
How does it work?
How do the ideas in this text connect with
each other? How are they sequenced?
Decoding/ encoding (eg. sound/ letter
relationship speech sounds).
What strategies can be used to get and
remember meaning?
Engaging in the technology of the code.
What might I already know (knowledge and
experience) that helps me to make meaning
of this text?
How will my purpose in reading this text
influence the meaning I gain from it?
Text user
Text analyst/critic
What is the purpose of this text?
Who produced this text? What are their
values, opinions, interests?
How have the possible uses of this text
shaped it?
What will I do with this text here and now?
What will others do with this text?
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What is the text trying to make me do or
believe?
In who’s interests?
What views, values, interests are absent from
the
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What are my options after reading this text?
text? Why?
Language is a social activity - participation in
language requires participation in and
understanding of the social purpose of the
text.
what does all this do to me?
Language users need to have an awareness
that
texts are constructed by people who
are not neutral but whose ideology
underpins the text.
Freebody, P & Luke, A 1999, Further notes on the Four Resources Model’, Reading online
http://www.readingonline.org/research/lukefreebody.html Accessed: April 2007
What Readers need





Readers need to understand the cultural and social purpose and roles of the text as well as
to process and comprehend its meaning.
Readers need to be able to read critically in order to understand the way the text “positions”
them. Different individuals will react to the meaning in the text in different ways according to
their beliefs and viewpoints.
Readers need to understand how language works as a system including different linguistic
features of spoken and written languages.
Readers need to be able to understand that reading involves using a number of skills and
strategies at the same time. These involve drawing on social and cultural knowledge,
knowledge of the language of the text, and strategies for accessing meaning such as
predicting, scanning or skimming for the gist of meaning.
Classroom tasks need to begin with a focus on whole texts rather than on decontextualised
words, phrases or sentences. This includes giving learners an understanding of the overall
structure of the text.
Sue Hood, Nicky Solomon, Anne Burns, Focus on Reading, 1996 p24
Strategies for teaching reading
Stages of reading
The process of reading has 3 stages.
Before reading
Pre-teach important
vocabulary
Use visual cues to predict
meaning
Discuss purpose, audience
context, schematic structure
Decide on the level of
difficulty of the text for the
reader (independent,
instructional, frustration).
During reading
Which strategy/ies you use
will depend on whether you
are working in a group or
one-to-one; with native or
non-native speakers; the
level of independence the
student has with this
particular text.
Read text to student, getting
them to follow with their
finger
Independent level: >95%
words known- can read
unaided
Get them to read aloud, and
support them to decode
problem words
Instructional level: >90%
words known – use
Get them to read silently
several times, first for gist,
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After reading
Create glossaries, word
banks and interactive
activities to help learn new
words
Discuss the text, check
predictions
Revisit new words and their
meanings
Critically examine the social
purpose of the text – has it
fulfilled its purpose? Did the
writer achieve his/her goals?
Encourage the student/s to
form opinions about the
meanings contained in the
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supported reading strategies
like PPP
Frustration level: <90%
words known – read to the
student
It’s important that the
emerging reader can gain
success.
then more closely.
text.
Get them to read silently for
gist, then reread as a group
activity, discussing
meanings, structural features
and vocabulary as you go.
Encourage students to reflect
on own performance – what
went well, what needs more
work
Use a highlighter on
unknown words
Get student to recall and
paraphrase what they’ve just
read
Questions you might ask:
Questions you might ask:
Questions you might ask:
What do you think this is
about?
Were our predictions
correct?
What did you think of that?
What is this text trying to do?
Can you guess the meaning
of that word from the
context?
What special features does it
have? eg. pictures,
diagrams, headings, bullet
point, questions
What information would you
like to find out from this text?
Can you recognise that word
which we came across
previously?
Can you find the root word in
the middle of that big word?
Can you break the word up
into syllables?
Can you tell me what you’ve
just read in your own words?
Can you put this (unknown
word) in a sentence?
What’s your opinion of this
text?
Did the text fulfil your
expectations?
What words can you find that
fit this (particular cluster
pattern)?
What sound is that
combination of letters
making?
Strategies for beginning readers
Language experience
Chat with your student about themselves, their family, hobbies, childhood, favourite TV show, etc.
Write down what they say. Use this text as the basis of the reading activity.







Help your student to understand individual words.
Cut whole text into sentences. Get student to sequence the whole text
Cut sentences into individual words and get students to re-order into sentences
make a cloze activity from the text – a cloze activity is when you blank out words from the
text, and have to use prediction skills to find the correct word
use particular words from the text in matching and word recognition activities
use particular words to make word banks of sight words
use particular words to build banks of letter clusters, eg. words starting with “th”
Environmental print
Begin to develop student’s word recognition skills of words contained in signs, notices, advertising
and forms that are important in their lives, eg. ENTRANCE, DANGER, STOP, HARMFUL IF
SWALLOWED
You can use:

supermarket advertising
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
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
grocery labels
medicine labels
OH & S signs
Learner drivers’ knowledge test
Encourage students to recognise words they can guess from the context clues:





underline or highlight words,
write words on word cards
Match words with pictures
Eventually read words independently of context clues
Add words to sight-word lists
Reading for fluency practice
Start with your student’s interests. Find a text you know they will enjoy.










Before reading, talk about the context and purpose of the text
Predict meaning
Read a few paragraphs aloud to the student, using your finder to trace under the words
Pause often to discuss meaning
Highlight a few key words, especially if they recur, are key meaning words, or have a
recurring letter pattern
Re-read the text, pausing at highlighted words – encourage student to try saying them
Get students to highlight known words
Get students to read text , with support
You can try recording the text and getting them to listen and read
Use Pause Prompt Praise (PPP): get student to read to you. When they stop at a problem
word, pause to give them time to think about it. Then give them some clues eg. What letter
does it begin with? Can you think of a word that begins with ‘s’ that fits in here? Read on to
the end of the sentence, then have a guess. If they still can’t get it, give them the word. Make
sure you praise all their efforts, regardless of success.
Strategies for Intermediate level readers
Pre-reading



predict social purpose, context and meaning
pre-teach new vocabulary
discuss topic and issues
Reading



scan graphics, title, etc for gist
check predictions and questions
read critically: Why was this written? What does the author want me to do?
After reading



Recall, retell, paraphrase
Re-read for specific information (skimming) and detail
Discuss structure, syntactical and generic features
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Other strategies





Using cloze activities
100 words per minute reading (This builds speed and fluency in silent reading. Begin with
where the student is at, for example, 25 wpm. Gradually work towards the goal of 100 wpm.
This is a good opportunity to create a progress graph. Always check meaning after reading)
Mindmapping of ideas and their relationships
Classification of information
Making word puzzles and games
Some ideas for group work










Group work enables opportunities for discussion and group interaction and problem solving,
developing individual communication skills as well
Work with topics or themes which may be negotiated with the group - work should always be
meaningful for learners
Relate learning to materials from other courses or the workplace
Projects based on independent living skills, job search, excursions, guest speakers, life
experiences
Following current issues in the news
Bringing in items connected with hobbies to talk and write about
“My place in space” -Looking at holiday brochures, maps, atlases, Google Earth
Reading and writing about people’s lives
Keeping a journal
Compiling a newsletter or magazine
Genre types
Genre type
Recount
Telling what
happened
Procedure
How to do
something, eg.
recipes, instructions
Argument usually
only presents one
point of view, either
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Features
 Structure usually consists of:
o Orientation (who, where, when)
o Detail of events, usually time sequenced
 Use past tense
 Action verbs 9went, did, thought)
 Linking words to do with time (after, then, next)
 Structure usually consists of:
o The goal (often just a heading)
o Materials (listed)
o Method (sequentially in steps
 Use of imperatives, that is, commands, where verbs are usually
placed at or near the beginning of the sentence (take, beat,
dampen, screw...)
 Usually set out in point form or a series of numbered steps
 Avoid the use of emotive words
 Usually uses simple present tense
 Use of logical connectives 9therefore, so, because of,
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for or against

Discussion
Presents two or
more points of view




Explanation
How or why
something happens




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however...)
Structure usually consists of:
o Statement of point of view first
o Development of argument point by point with examples,
statistics, facts
o Restatement of position at the end
Avoid the use of emotive words
Usually uses simple present tense
Use of logical connectives 9therefore, so, because of,
however...)
Structure usually consists of:
o Introduction – states the issue and points of controversy
o Statement of the argument for, point by point with
examples, statistics, facts
o Statement of the argument against, point by point with
examples, statistics, facts
o Conclusion – a recommendation based on the weight of
evidence
Verbs are simple present (or sometimes past)
Structure usually consists of:
o A general statement
o A sequenced explanation of how or why, usually a series
of logical steps in a process, in the order in which they
happen
Linking words to do with time (first, following, finally)
Linking words to do with cause and effect relationships (if/then,
as a result, since)
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Section 6 Teaching writing
This section begins by looking at the differences between spoken and written language. It also
briefly looks at some of the main pedagogical approaches to teaching writing and looks at how
these approaches could be used with adult literacy learners.
Process Writing
Concept of process writing was developed in relation to children. Graves believed that children
could learn to write more effectively if they followed the same process as 'real' writers. This process
has been applied to adult literacy learners.
Process writing was a reaction against the traditionalist view that writing must conform to certain
rules and that the final text should be the main focus of attention. It was based on research which
observed how children wrote and the creative, spontaneous nature of writing. It placed the
emphasis on how writing takes place, rather than on the end product of writing.
The process of writing was analysed and distinct stages of writing identified. The process model
mirrors the process that writers go through to develop a text with constant drafting, editing and rewriting until final product is developed. The writing stages include:





Pre-writing
Drafting
Conferencing
Revising
Publishing.
A process approach to teaching writing aims to encourage creativity. It places an emphasis on
personal experience in writing while encouraging an individual’s ownership of a text.
For further information about process writing see Graves, D . 1983, Writing: Teachers and Children
at Work, Heinemann, New Hampshire.
Whole language approach to writing
The whole language approach is based on the idea that language is derived from experience and
that the language arts skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are interrelated and should
be taught in an integrated way. The approach was derived for children but has been used by some
adult literacy teachers/trainers. Teachers/trainers should take advantage of opportunities that occur
naturally for learners to listen attentively, to communicate with others, and to read and write for
meaningful purposes.
In the whole language approach, learners are given opportunities to read to improve their reading
skills and time to write to improve their writing skills. This contrasts with a skills based approach in
which component skills (e.g., spelling, grammar, punctuation) are taught separately. In the whole
language approach, learners are encouraged to express their ideas and feelings and to find new
interests to talk about.
Brian Cambourne is one of the main proponents of the whole language approach. He proposes a
number of conditions in which the learning of language occurs.
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Cambourne's conditions of learning
Immersion
Learners need to be surrounded by an environment that is rich in spoken
and written language.
Demonstration
Learners need opportunities to observe models of the way written language is
used in daily life.
Engagement
Learners need opportunities to try reading and writing activities on their
own.
Expectation
Learners need to be in an environment where those around them believe that
they will acquire literacy skills.
Use
Learners must use reading and writing skills throughout their daily lives.
Approximation
Learners should be free to make attempts at written language that move closer
and closer to conventional reading and writing.
Response
Learners need to receive feedback from knowledgeable people on their
attempts at reading and writing.
For further information about the whole language approach, see:
Cambourne, B. 1988, The Whole Story, Ashton Scholastic, Sydney.
Goodman, K. 1986, What's Whole in Whole Language~, Scholastic, Ontario.
Genre approach to writing utilising the teaching-learning cycle
The genre approach to teaching writing is based on a teaching-learning cycle in which:
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the context or field of knowledge of the topic or text type is built
the genre of the text is modelled
a text from a genre is jointly constructed
a text from a genre is independently constructed.
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Modified from Hammond, 1992
Tips and Strategies for Developing Writing Skills
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Start with where the learner is at, or with what they want or need to do. Sometimes the two
may not be connected. Even so, try to “walk them through” the whole writing process.
Break each writing task down into its various parts, and teach them systematically: eg.
Purpose, audience, structure, paragraphs, sentences, vocabulary, spelling.
Be aware of different genres – teaching generic features creates a “short cut” for the learner
and develops transferable skills.
Analyse each text for its structural features as this helps to demystify a long and complicated
text. Spend time talking about a writing task before you begin.
Gather models, or create your own. Copying from models is a good way to learn. It also
gives you lots of examples to look for common features with your students.
Cut model texts up and get your students to reconstruct them in sequence.
Use mind maps (semantic mapping). They’re great for getting ideas down before you have to
start structuring your ideas. They also give you the first draft from which you can order the
ideas.
Encourage your student to fast-write their first drafts, that is, write without stopping for five
minutes (or more, as they get better). This means not lifting their pen from the page. If they
run out of ideas, they are to keep writing the last word word...word...word..., until they think of
a new one. Don’t worry about spelling, grammar or punctuation – correction comes later.
Absolutely no dictionaries at this stage.
Spelling, punctuation and grammar are not important in the drafting stage – getting ideas out
is! If your student gets stuck on a word, tell them to guess.
When editing, encourage students to check their own spelling, etc. Read their drafts back to
them and ask if their writing makes sense to encourage them to find their own mistakes.
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Encourage students to be ruthless and dispassionate with editing: discourage them from
becoming personally attached to drafts, so that they are not upset when they have to change
things.
Scissors, glue-sticks, highlighters, white-out and coloured pens and pencils are editing tools.
Encourage students to use them.
Of course in the computer age, the same can be done with the copy, cut and paste buttons.
Show learners how to use a dictionary, thesaurus and spelling/grammar check on their
computer.
Be their “critical friend” A critical friend gives you frank and fearless feedback on you first
drafts. You have to encourage students to make each piece of writing as good as it needs to
be for its purpose. Does the writing achieve what it sets out to do? Are the ideas clear?
Encourage your students to write every day. Encourage them to keep a diary or journal, even
if they only write a few lines about what they did that day. It helps build fluency.
Beginner writers especially might like to do scrap-booking, captioning photos, or making
photo-stories.
Telling one’s own stories is a powerful learning strategy. Seeing one’s own stories in print is
really empowering. Drafting and re-drafting a text, proof-reading, editing and publishing is
very motivating for any writer.
Cookbooks and instruction manuals on areas of expertise and interest are great resources.
Copying is good, especially for beginning writers. The more copying they can do, the more
confident they will feel.
Speed copying is a good way of building confidence and fluency. Choose a text that your
student can manage to read with some help. Have them copy it as quickly and as accurately
as they can for 5 minutes initially; building to 20 minutes. Keep a record of how many words
they manage to copy in each session. (This information can make a good graph). You will
see that the number of words copied in a given time progressively increases. This technique
also has a miraculous effect on their reading and spelling as well!
Exchange letters, stories, emails, SMS messages. Make your writing work together a
meaningful communication activity.
A note on spelling
In an adult learning environment, time is often limited. Your aim is to help your student learn to spell
the important words related to their occupation, immediate life needs and interests and to develop a
routine for checking their written work and finding and fixing most of their errors.
How do we spell?
When we spell, we are using three senses:
1. The visual memory for the appearance of the word. This is perhaps the most important factor
in learning to spell.
2. The sound of the word. Be aware however, of the vast number of words in English that don’t
make a direct sound/spelling connection, eg. walked is pronounced /waukt/
3. The feel of the word as we write it is important. A mis-spelling can actually feel wrong.
We also draw on our knowledge of the meaning of the word, it’s semantic connection to other
words, and it’s context.
Tips for helping students with their spelling
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Encourage students to “have a go” and to not be frightened of making mistakes. Chances
are, they will have most of the word right, then they’ll know which part they will have to learn.
Help your student to find their way around a dictionary.
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Set up a “learn to spell” routine, eg. COPY, COVER, WRITE, CHECK (CCWC). Concentrate
on about five words that your students need to learn at one time. Direct students to write
them correctly on a sheet of paper, then copy them as many times as is needed to memorise
the word. Then have students cover the word and write it without any clues. Students can
self correct. If it is incorrect they can start again. The students write the word again the next
day, then a week later, to check if the word has moved into their long-term memory.
The teacher can write words in alternative ways and the students can try and determine
which one looks right.
Encourage students to ask someone.
English is not phonetically regular. Show students that they can’t sound out every word.
Some spelling rules are worth learning, but many have as many exceptions as regular words.
Other useful spelling strategies include:
o Breaking into syllables
o Finding the little word in the bigger word
o Looking for spelling patterns
o Look at words with similar meanings
o Looking at origins of words and root words
o Prefixes and suffixes
Tips for improving handwriting and learning the alphabet
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As a teacher for a beginning group of writers, always print.
Introduce one or two letters at a time, both upper and lower case.
Choose example words that begin with that letter.
Get students to trace, then copy, the letters using lined paper.
Look for environmental examples around them.
Teach them to write critical words: their name, address, the names and ages of their families,
numbers, occupation, marital status, nationality, etc.
Use word shapes, jumbled words, missing letters, crossword programs, matching games.
Encourage your students to practice writing sentences, not just words or letters.
References
Read the article, ‘Teaching literacy – the bower bird approach’ by Newcombe (1999). (Available at:
www.valbec.org.au/05/fineprint/archive/1999/99AU.PDF)
Other references include:
Cope, B. & Kalantzis, M. (eds), 1993, ‘Introduction: How a Genre Approach to Literacy can
transform the way writing is taught’ in The Powers of Literacy: A genre approach to teaching
writing, Falmer Press, London, pp. 1 – 21.
*Hammond, J., Burns, A., Joyce, H., Brosnan, D & Gerot, L. 1992, English for Social
Purposes: A handbook for teachers of adult literacy, National Centre for English Language
Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, Sydney. pp.19-23, and Part 3.
‘An Approach to Factual Writing’, Reading online.
www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=writing/index.html Accessed: April
2007
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Section 7 Developing oral communication skills
The focus of this section is the development of the oral communication skills of English speaking
background learners. The development of oral communication skills by non-English speaking
background learners is addressed in TAELLN703A Develop English language skills of adult
learners.
What is oral communication?
Oral communication is the use of a range of speaking and listening skills through which we convey,
interpret and construct meaning within an immediate social context. For adults, oral communication
is a process of using and interacting with spoken language in diverse and complex social,
vocational, academic and technical contexts demanded by contemporary society. Full participation
in these contexts requires the use of a range of skills.
Features of oral communication
Genre, vocabulary and syntax are important elements of spoken and written language; however, the
immediate and interactive quality of oral communication means that voice qualities - such as pitch,
accent, tone - gesture, and facial expression are important skills for shaping meaning. Meaning can
be eloquently implied and inferred through the use of these features, and they form an important
dimension to our understanding of oral communication
Oral communication needs of adult literacy learners
English speaking background learners and non-English speaking background learners
In fact, both these groups of learners share the need to develop oral communication skills to enrich
and maximise their access and involvement in various aspects of society. What manifestly stops
non-English speaking background (NESB) learners from doing this is a lack of working
knowledge of fluent and accurate English. Many learners with an NES background attend literacy
classes with an awareness of the importance of developing their oral communication skills and
express a desire to do so.
Literacy learners who are native English speakers approach oral communication from a different
perspective. Most have been immersed in the use of spoken English over their lifetime, and have
had the opportunity to develop a repertoire of oracy skills. Many will not perceive the need to
improve their oral communication skills with the same urgency as ESL learners; often their
expressed priority is to improve writing skills.
In order to participate fully in society, the need for literacy learners, in relation to oral
communication, is to gain control over a wide range of registers.
Modified from paper presented by Katrina Lyle at Victoria University, October 2005
Register and oral communication
All English speaking adults will be expert at using many different types or styles of language— many
registers. The term register simply describes the various styles of language available for writing or
speaking.
No register is right or wrong in itself. Correctness depends on the context of communication. Using
slang is probably fine when relaxing with friends, but include it in a job application letter and don't
hold your breath waiting for a positive answer.
The features which interconnect to determine the register of communication, oral or written, are
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purpose of the text/exchange
who is involved (participants and their status)
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the subject matter
the channel of communication.
A change in any one of these will probably create a change in the register. We are culturally so
attuned to the 'appropriateness of the register' that we only pay attention to it when someone makes
a mistake in their use of register.
Modified from paper presented by Katrina Lyle at Victoria University, October 2005
Techniques for developing oral communication skills
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Develop competency in oral communication across a wide range of meaningful registers.
Integrate oral communication with development of other key literacies.
Provide a wide range of learning tasks which have oral communication outcomes as their
end point.
Use oral communication as a vehicle for promoting learning in other areas. This builds on the
relationship between spoken and written language and language and thought.
Use modelling and scaffolding to develop skills and confidence in the use of new oral
communication skills.
Make the learning process explicit.
Support the development of underpinning oral communication skills:
o turn taking
o understanding verbal and non-verbal cues
o listening skills
o rephrasing
o voice projection, intonation
o opening, sustaining and closing speech episodes
o selecting and sequencing
o identification of audience and purpose.
Highlight how language and power interact.
When promoting the transference of skills beyond the classroom
o incorporate learning and tasks from real life situations
o encourage independence
o encourage learners to be aware of when and where they can use the skills
o encourage learners to report the use of skills outside the classroom.
Modified from paper presented by Katrina Lyle at Victoria University, October 2005 and article contributed to
Fine Print ‘Spreading the word – sharing discourse in the classroom’, Vol 25, No. 4, Summer.
Reference
Casarotto, N. & Lyle, K. 2004, What’s That You Said: Establishing NRS levels in oral competency
for native speakers of English, CAE and Linda Wyse and Assoc, Melbourne.
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Section 8 Program development and design
The focus in this Topic is on developing a teaching and learning program for a group of learners
based on accredited curriculum or Training Package. The major and practical focus of the Topic will
be to go through a process of designing a program for a group of learners, including the
development of some sample activities that can be trialled with learners and revised. This will
include looking at finding suitable resources.
Pathways and provision
There is a range of educational provision that supports the development of adult literacy, numeracy
and English language skills. Literacy learning may take place in TAFE institutes, community houses,
libraries, schools, Job Network providers, prisons or workplaces. LLN may be taught as part of an
accredited general education course or integrated into vocational or workplace training. It may be
facilitated by a teacher/trainer in a classroom, online or at the other end of a phone line. Funding for
programs comes from the Commonwealth and state governments.
Commonwealth funded
The Commonwealth government funds a number of programs associated with the development of
adult English language, literacy and numeracy.
The Workplace English Language and Literacy (WELL) Program provides funding to support
workers undertaking training to develop English language, literacy and numeracy skills sufficient to
enable them to meet the demands of their current and future employment and training needs.
Training is undertaken in the workplace and is likely to be integrated with vocational training. The
program requires RTOs and businesses to work together.
The Language, Literacy and Numeracy Program (LLNP) seeks to improve participants’ language,
literacy and/or numeracy, with the expectation that such improvements will enable them to
participate more effectively in training or in the labour force and lead to greater gains for them and
society in the longer term. The LLNP provides up to 800 hours of free accredited Language, Literacy
and Numeracy (LLN) training for eligible job seekers whose LLN skills are below the level
considered necessary to secure sustainable employment or pursue further education and training.
Eligible job seekers are referred to a LLNP provider by Referring Agencies, currently Centrelink, Job
Services Australia (JSA) providers and Disability Employment Service (DES) providers.
The Language, Literacy and Numeracy (LLN) Practitioner Scholarships Program was first
announced in the 2009-10 Budget as part of the ‘Building the Basics Package’ component of the
Jobs and Training Compact. The program has been expanded and extended for a further three
years (to 2013-14) as part of the ‘National Foundation Skills Outreach and Leadership Project’,
announced in the 2010 budget.
The primary objective of the program is to provide an incentive for individuals to enter the adult LLN
field by supporting them to undertake approved study towards an adult LLN practitioner
qualification. It is specifically targeted at:
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new entrants (individuals with no prior qualifications as teachers or trainers) who wish to gain
an adult LLN qualification and enter the field;
vocational trainers wishing to gain an adult LLN specialisation and enter the field; and
individuals with prior relevant training (eg generalist teachers) wishing to ‘up-skill’ into an
adult LLN specialisation with the intention of entering the field.
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English language tuition is provided under the Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), funded
through the Department of Immigration and Citizenship, for migrants and humanitarian entrants who
do not have functional English. Refugee and humanitarian entrants under the age of 25 with low
levels of schooling are eligible for up to 910 hours of English language tuition while those over 25
are eligible for up to 610 hours of tuition, and other migrants are eligible for up to 510 hours of
tuition. Around six million hours of adult English language tuition are provided each year.
States and Territories
States and Territories use a percentage of their VET recurrent funding and their own contributions to
deliver language, literacy and numeracy programs within their communities or fund special initiatives
that support essential skills development. These courses are categorised as General Education.
Enrolments in General Education are estimated to make up 21.5 per cent of all VET enrolments
(AVETMISS, 2000).
Stand alone adult English language, literacy and numeracy courses
Enrolments in language, literacy and numeracy accredited courses make up over 70 per cent of
General Education enrolments (Shreeve, 2002). Each state and territory has developed or uses
accredited courses offering variable hours of training to achieve variable outcomes including
Certificates at Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) Levels I, II, and III.
Integrated provision in vocational education and training
Adult English language, literacy and numeracy has been built into Training Packages so that the
literacy and numeracy practices used in work and described in the standards for assessment and
training can be taught and assessed along with technical skills. In most Training Packages there are
mandatory and core units that cover generic skills like communication.
Adapted from ‘Appendix One: Adult English language, literacy and numeracy provision in VET, 2003’, Department of
Further Education, Employment, Science and Technology (SA) 2005,
Advanced Diploma of Language, Literacy and Numeracy Practice In VET, Adelaide.
NCVER 2006, Australian vocational education and training statistics: Adult literacy and numeracy
courses 2002-04, NCVER, Adelaide. Available at: http://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/1697.html
Last accessed June 2007. The Executive Summary is provided below.
The Language, Literacy and Numeracy Program (LLNP) Australian vocational education and
training statistics: Adult literacy and numeracy courses 2002-04
This report provides data on courses in the vocational education and training (VET) sector that are
generally described as 'adult literacy and numeracy courses'. This includes General Education
Programmes, Social Skills Courses, Employment Skills Courses and Other Mixed Field
Programmes, plus some other activity. It does not include data on literacy and numeracy embedded
in other vocational courses.
 There were 188 300 students enrolled in literacy and numeracy courses in 2004, which
represents 11.8% of total VET students.
 Overall, literacy and numeracy activity has grown- from 11.3% of total VET annual hours in
2002 to 12.8% in 2004.
 In 2004, 61.2% of all literacy and numeracy students were enrolled in General Education
Programmes (115 300 students), with a further 21.6% (40 600 students) in Employment
Skills Courses and 15.9% (30 000 students) in Other Mixed Field Programmes. The
remaining 1.3% (2 500 students) were enrolled in Social Skills Courses.
 In 2004, most literacy and numeracy activity continued to be undertaken by:
o females (54.8% in literacy and numeracy courses, 47.7% in total VET)
o people aged between 30 and 49 years (38.5% in literacy and numeracy courses,
35.0% in total VET)
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people from English speaking backgrounds (58.9% in literacy and numeracy courses,
69.0% in total VET).
The majority of literacy and numeracy course enrolments were in non-Australian
Qualifications Framework (AQF) areas. Within the AQF, activity was dominated by certificate
I courses, with significant numbers of certificate II courses also.
While literacy and numeracy students have lower levels of achievement from their courses
and subjects than the average for total VET students, they report higher levels of satisfaction
with the quality of their training.
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Section 9 Designing a program
Meeting learner needs
When teachers are designing a learning program they should build on the information and
understanding of a learner’s needs they have gleaned from the initial assessment. The teachers
should utilise their knowledge about teaching and learning theories to develop a suitable teaching
program by negotiate the curriculum and match the needs of the learners against the Training
Package or accredited course guidelines.
Successful adult literacy/numeracy teachers use their knowledge and understanding of teaching
and learning theories, and look at how this influences and impacts on curriculum and lesson
planning for working in classes with learners who have different learning styles and who have
identified barriers to learning.
Some points to consider when planning a program include:
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what ACSF level has the learner been assessed at
start where the learner is at
negotiate the curriculum
use relevant contexts of interest to the learners
use and build on the skills of the learners
apply knowledge – connect with real life experiences and communities
build resilience, confidence and self worth – consider the whole person
integrate learning – don’t separate learning into separate sets of unconnected skills
promote diversity of learning styles and methods.
In relation to curriculum and lesson planning it is important to meet the learner’s needs through
negotiating the curriculum so that the teaching and learning meets many of the requirements of
adult and applied learning theory and associated principles.
The teacher will also need to know things other than just the learners’ ACSF levels in order to be
able to negotiate the curriculum and meet learners’ educational needs. The teacher needs to ask if
the literacy program is for a particular purpose such as part of workplace LLN provision? Does it
change the situation? How? What can be negotiated? What can’t be negotiated? What can you
find out about in terms of learner characteristics and interests? What else might be important?
A key point here is that if you are to negotiate the curriculum you need mechanisms for finding out
about learner’s characteristics and interests – their preferred learning styles, their (at work, at home,
in the community and personally). This can be collected at the initial assessment and interview, but
also can be collected by the teacher or trainer during the first few classes, or if it is a workplace
class by a visit or visits to the workplace. However, this needs to continue for the duration of the
teaching or training program so that the teacher or trainer can tap into the learner’s interests and
needs.
There is no point in gathering all this information unless you use it to guide the way you teach a
group of learners and what you decide to teach them. What if all learners have different interests?
What are their own interests and goals in relation to the outcomes of the educational program and
how does this impact on what you decide to teach? Negotiating the curriculum is important but it has
to be within the framework of the course document or Training Package if your students have been
enrolled in accredited units.
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Classroom management and supporting individuals
In the classroom the teacher has cope with different interests and LLN levels in the one class. To
support individual programs you may need to develop the students’ Online/IT skills (computer
literacy), Individual Learning Units, self paced materials, etc.
As the facilitator you may need to be prepared with some suggestions and possibilities, for
example:
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use open ended questions, projects and investigations. This enables the learner to take
some responsibility for what they decide to investigate and learn, alongside allowing learners
to work at their own level and in their own way, or,
use the same themes/topics – but offering different options or projects. An example would be
using sport as a theme but learners can research and work on their own particular sport – eg
netball, AFL, ARL, tennis, swimming, etc. This also allows learners to work at different levels.
Two useful references for evaluating Web resources and teaching critical literacy can be found at:
1. http://library.usm.maine.edu/research/researchguides/webevaluating.html Last accessed
April 2007
2. http://www.studygs.net/evaluate.htm Last accessed April 2007
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Section 10 Assessment and evaluation
Initial assessment for placement and diagnostic purposes is covered in the elective unit
TAELLN705A Design and conduct pre-training assessment of Language, Literacy and Numeracy
Program. The Unit covers initial assessment and processes for conducting initial assessments in
order to work out how to best meet learner needs. The Unit TAELLN705A can be undertaken prior
to or in parallel with this Unit.
The skills and knowledge related to assessment within the VET sector are covered in:
TAE10
TAA04
TAAASS401C Plan and organise assessment
TAEASS401A Plan assessment activities and
processes
TAAASS402C Assess competence
TAEASS402A Assess competence
TAAASS403B Develop assessment tools
TAEASS502A Design and develop assessment tools
TAAASS404B Participate in assessment validation
TAEASS403A Participate in assessment validation
It is possible that course participants will have previously completed these units as part of the
Certificate IV in Training and Assessment. This Unit does not attempt to cover the content dealt with
in the four units from the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment.
Course participants may have also undertaken TAAASS501A Lead and coordinate assessment.
Purposes of assessment
There are many possible reasons for assessing the literacy skills of adult literacy learners.
Possible reasons include to:
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place learners
provide feedback on learner progress
provide information on strengths and weaknesses
provide information to funding bodies
provide learners with a record of their progress
improve learning
feed into program evaluation
set and negotiate goals
recognise prior learning and current competence
assist learners to articulate to other courses.
When to assess?
With competency based assessment, formative and summative assessments are not mutually
exclusive and may overlap with teaching/learning activities.
Assessment should take place before taking part in an education program (initial assessment),
during (formative) or at the completion of the program or section of the program (summative). For
some purposes it may be necessary to assess at two or three points. e.g. during a program and at
the end of it.
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Assessing learner competence
This section provides participants with the chance to look at the range of characteristics,
behaviours, skills and knowledge that teachers take into account when making judgements about
learner competence.
This section requires knowledge and understanding of competency based assessment: a general
understanding of this form of assessment; the role of evidence and what constitutes evidence; and
the principles of competency based assessment. If participants are unfamiliar with these concepts,
they should refer to texts covering the assessment units of the Certificate IV in Training and
Assessment. Even for participants who have completed the assessment units from the Certificate IV
in Training and Assessment and/or are familiar with competency based education, it may be
advisable to review these concepts.
In relation to the principles of competency based assessment, the concepts are about the validity,
reliability, flexibility and fairness of assessment tasks:
1. Valid – assesses what it claims to assess
2. Reliable – ensures consistency from learner to learner and context to context. (e.g. another
teacher would make the same judgement)
3. Flexible – must be appropriate to a range of delivery modes, sites of delivery and needs of
learners
4. Fair – doesn’t disadvantage any group of learners.
In relation to evidence, the important concepts include understanding the different sorts of evidence:
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Direct (e.g. observation of performance; video or photo of performance; learner’s product)
Indirect (e.g. simulation; role play; case study analysis)
Supplementary (e.g. written or oral questions; feedback from a third party).
Participants, when they assume the role of assessors, should also have an understanding of the
rules of evidence. These are:
1. Evidence must be valid. This means that it must demonstrate what it claims to.
2. Evidence must be authentic, meaning that you must be sure the evidence is the
candidate's own work. This is easier to do in a situation where you can see the person
producing the work. At other times it may be necessary to rely on a third party report.
3. There must be sufficient evidence -enough evidence to make an accurate assessment.
4. Evidence provided must be current -recent enough to prove that the candidate has up to
date skills in the competencies being assessed.
What makes a good assessment task is summarised in the following table and should be familiar to
any teacher familiar with competency based assessment.
 Assesses what they are claiming to assess (valid)
 Is reliable, flexible and fair
 Has a clear purpose (for both the learner and the teacher)
 Is set in a relevant context
 Ensures access to resources appropriate to the task
 Caters for different learning styles. Where this isn’t possible for one
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assessment event, then over a number of assessment events, different
learning styles should be catered for
 Allows enough (not too much or too little) evidence to be
collected
 Allows for different learners to perform at different levels
 Is integrated - assesses more than one element, if possible
 Mapped against elements and criteria (to ensure under or over
assessment doesn’t occur)
 Is based on previous teaching/learning
 Learners are clear about what is expected of them.
Assessment events should be viewed as opportunities for learning.
Validation and moderation
The importance of validation of assessment tasks and responses has been highlighted by the
AQTF. This section looks at the role of validation and moderation in adult literacy education in VET.
Students of this course should read pages 8 – 11 of Booth et al. 2002 and the definitions of
validation and moderation used in TAAASS404A: Participate in assessment validation and AQTF
2007: Users’ Guide to the Essential Standards for Registration.
Validation is a process involving assessors working in collaboration to review, compare and
evaluate their assessment process and their assessment outcomes in relation to the same unit/s of
competency. This includes validating assessment methods/tools, the evidence that was collected
using these assessment methods/tools and the interpretation of that evidence to make a judgement
of competence. Validation may be undertaken prior to and post the assessment of candidates and
includes validation of formative and summative assessment activities (the latter includes
assessment for recognition purposes).
Moderation is one approach to validation. It is the process which involves assessors in discussing
and reaching agreement about assessment processes and outcomes. It enables assessors to
develop shared understanding of competency standards, the nature of evidence, and the basis on
which assessment decisions are made, etc. Other approaches to validation include assessment
panels, collective development and review of banks of assessment tools and exemplars,
benchmarking, client feedback mechanisms.
References
*Booth, R., Clayton, B., House, R., & Roy, S. 2002, Maximising confidence in assessment
decision making, NCVER, Adelaide. Available at:
http://www.ncver.edu.au/research/proj/nr9029.pdf Last accessed March 2011.
Thomson, P., Saunders, J. & Foyster, J. 2001, Improving the validity of competency-based
assessment, NCVER, Adelaide. Available at:
http://www.ncver.edu.au/research/proj/nr9035.pdf Last accessed March 2011.
© TAFE NSW
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Evaluating training programs
Evaluating a training program is vital to ensure quality outcomes for learners and continuous
improvement for the education organisation.
Students should be given the opportunity to give feedback on the quality and relevance of delivery
and learning resources. So should other stakeholders, such as employers, funding bodies and
colleagues in the education organisation. In a best-practice training environment, teachers will
reflect on this feedback and use it to improve their practice and products. Continuous improvement
should be the aim of all RTO’s.
Student feedback can be obtained by using surveys, interviews or reflective journals. Employers
may be surveyed or invited to discuss perceived outcomes from training in the organisation.
Assessment validation and moderation sessions in the education organisation can give valuable
feedback to individual teachers, and allow the sharing and cross-fertilisation of ideas amongst staff.
© TAFE NSW
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