Working Memory
A guide for SENCOs and teachers
March 2015
1
Contents
Wh s ‘w k
memory?
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How does working memory operate?
What might I see in the classroom?
What is the impact of poor working memory on learning?
How can I identify difficulties and assess working memory?
How can I help?
Further reading
2
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What is working memory
and how does it differ from
other forms of memory?
Working memory deficit is a difficulty which is often overlooked and not
fully understood by teachers. The impact in the classroom can be huge across the whole curriculum - and the understanding of what working
memory is, what constitutes a high working memory load and how this
can be reduced and supported is essential in developing successful
classrooms for all pupils.
Definition
‘Working memory is the term used to refer to the ability we have to
hold and manipulate information in the mind over short periods of
time. It provides a mental workspace or jotting pad that is used to
store important information in the course of our everyday lives’
(Sue Gathercole 2008).
It is thought that working memory is central to an understanding of how
people think and is closely associated with learning. It encompasses the
skills that underpin reasoning, remembering and more recently has been
linked
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s
of reading, writing and mathematics can be closely linked to their scores
on working memory tests.
Weak working memory is also known to be a component of the specific
learning difficulty of dyslexia as it affects the
l’s ability to retain and
recall phonological information.
In order to understand working memory and how it operates in our daily
lives it is important to understand the different forms of memory that
store a variety of information – some of which are permanent stores and
others more fleeting.
3
Procedural Memory is formed of learned skills
involving co-ordination of physical movements
such as writing your name or driving a car. Once
established these memories last a lifetime.
Semantic Memory is where we store items of
information that we frequently use or are exposed
to; the capital of France, 5+5, the name of the first
woman prime minister. If this information is
frequently used – retrieved from the memory store
– it will last a lifetime. However it will become more
difficult to access if it is not used.
Autobiographical Memory is the store of facts and
significant events from your life such as a wedding
day, first day at school. It comprises lots of sensory
memories of feelings, sound, smell, taste and sight.
These stimuli make the memories very strong and
they can be easily brought back by experiencing
the same sounds (eg. songs), smells and other
sensory stimuli.
Episodic Memory records the details of particular
experiences and only lasts for up to several days –
the time that you need to store that particular
information. For example remembering that your
supermarket delivery is due at 10am tomorrow.
Once the need for that particular memory has
passed then it will fade.
4
It is estimated that 1 in 10 pupils have a significant difficulty with Working
Memory that impairs their learning; this equates to 3 pupils in an
average classroom
Some examples of tasks that depend on working memory / place a high
demand on working
 F ll w
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 Hearing an unfamiliar word – such as in a foreign language - and
attempting to repeat it several seconds later
 Adding up and remembering the total amount spent as you select
items from shelves at the supermarket and add them to your
basket
 Remembering to measure and combine the correct amounts of
ingredients (rub in 50g of margarine and 100g of flour, then add
75g of sugar) when the recipe is no longer in view
5
It is often said that the average adult cannot hold more than six or seven
units of information in working memory. A unit of memory depends on
whether or not the material to be remembered is organised in a
meaningful way or not.
Combining two sources of memory –
working memory and memory for
meaning – boosts memory
performance dramatically
Once information has been lost from working memory it cannot be
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retrieve the information as the memory traces are no longer there. This
could explain why a child may stare blankly at a teacher when asked
what he or she should be doing next. It is important that such memory
failures are recognised in the classroom and that the teacher and pupils
work together to
6
How does working memory work?
There are four main parts to the currently recognised working memory
model. These are Verbal Short–term Memory ( Phonological Loop) ,
Visuo-spatial Short-term Memory (Visuo-spatial sketchpad), what is
commonly known as the Central Executive, and finally the Episodic
Buffer.
Instead of all the received sensory information going into one single
store, these are the different systems for dealing with the different types
of information.
The Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad (VSS) or inner eye stores and
processes information in a visual or spatial form. The VSS is used for
navigation.
7
The Phonological Loop (PL) is the part of working memory that deals
with spoken and written material. It can be used to remember a phone
number. It consists of two parts
 Phonological Store (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception
Holds information in speech-based form (i.e. spoken words) for 1-2
seconds.
 Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Linked to speech
production. Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the
phonological store.
The labels given to the components of the working memory reflect their
function and the type of information they process and manipulate. The
phonological loop is assumed to be responsible for the manipulation of
speech based information, whereas the visuo-spatial sketchpad is
assumed to be responsible for manipulating visual images. The model
proposes that every component of working memory has a limited
capacity and also that the components are relatively independent of
each other.
Central Executive: Drives the whole system (e.g. the boss of working
memory) and allocates data to the subsystems (VSS & PL) which
controls attention and higher–level mental processes involving coordinating storage and mental processing. It also deals with cognitive
tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving.
The Episodic Buffer is the most recent addition to the working memory
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not just store information in one form such as visual or auditory. This
means it is unlike the VSS or PL the episodic buffer is thought to bind
together information and therefore give us a sense of consciousness –
integrating information into a coherent episode.
Noteworthy facts from the described model of working memory are:
 Each of the four components has its own limited capacity
 There are links running in both directions between each of the
individual stores and the central executive
8
 There is no corresponding path between visuo-spatial and verbal
short-term memories
It is worth noting that the m ‘Sh
m m m y’ (STM) is commonly
used to describe situations in which the individual simply has to store
some material without manipulating it or doing something else at the
same time. E.g. remembering a telephone number. Working memory
tasks tend to tax the central executive, and are more complex than short
term memory tasks, involving storage and manipulation.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
 Working memory is used to hold information in mind and
manipulate it for brief periods of time. Pupils often have to hold
information in order to be engaged in effortful activity.
 Working memory is limited in capacity which varies between
individuals and is affected by the characteristics of the task.
 Working memory is a series of linked components.
 Short term memory involves storage, whereas working memory is
involved with storing and processing.
Information is lost from working memory
when we are distracted (including noise
and movement) or its limited capacity is
overloaded.
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What might I observe in the
classroom?
In this section, the characteristics of a child with working
memory difficulties will be described. The types of activities
that place a high demand on working memory will be
explained and some examples given.
What might I see if working memory is a
problem?
Why might I be
seeing it?
The boys, as a group, are making less academic
progress than the girls.
More boys than girls
have working memory
problems.
Booster and catch up groups have more boys than
girls.
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In a pre-tutoring group, they appear to have
understood the topic and are confident to talk.
However, when the topic is covered in class, they
are silent unless called upon, in which case they
look very nervous.
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they have previously answered in a smaller group.
They have one or two close friends and dislike
large group games.
They are often in trouble with pe s f
game wrong
10
‘
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Larger groups place
more demands on
working memory.
Th y ‘h
’ sh
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sw b f
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forget it. If made to wait before they are asked, they
may open their mouths to answer and then forget
what to say.
They may start a task off well but when the teacher
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cannot remember where to start again afterwards.
Having to store
information and
process new
information at the
same time is difficult.
They are easily distracted by people around them
chatting or doing other activities.
Their mental maths is significantly below their
ability if given a pencil and paper and more time.
They can read the words but not be able to tell you
wh h y’
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comprehension improves.
A lesson or activity may start off well but not be
finished to the same standard.
Working memory is
easily overloaded
Long discussions may end with disruptive
behaviour.
Af
ds
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m y
h m ‘z
’
Work is rushed and finished early.
They are the last to carry out instructions
They may be watching others a lot
They ask their friends to clarify tasks
If interrupted in the middle of a task, they struggle
to re-start.
They may miss whole steps out when attempting a
task.
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Holding and
manipulating
instructions is difficult
Common high working memory loads activities often seen in
schools:
Remembering sequences
 Counting patterns (times tables) especially when reversed e.g.
turning a multiplication sum into a division fact mentally.
 Multi-step sequences to answer questions e.g. long multiplication.
 Copying unknown words off a board e.g. new vocabulary.
 Writing lengthy sentences containing content that has not been
fully understood.
Following lengthy instructions
 A homework instruction given verbally at the end of the lesson
after the bell has gone.
 I s
s h
s h w d ‘ f’ d ‘ ’ . . ‘if you have done p45
you can chose to do worksheet 1 or worksheet 2. Otherwise you
h
d 45
46.’
 Instructions given out of order e.g. ‘b f
y u do the green
worksheet you must have put your book in the red box but only do
this after y h
h d
d l ’.
Keeping track of the place reached in the course of multi-level
tasks
 A 3-step question in maths.
 Any problem solving activity.
 Coursework.
12
 Copying from the board.
 Navigating around a school.
 Collecting equipment needed for a task.
 Writing the date, title and learning objective before attempting the
task.
13
What happens when working
memory is overloaded?
The learning difficulties that pupils with poor working memory face arise
because they are unable to meet the memory demands of a learning
situation. This leads to memory overload and information – such as the
sentence they were going to write – is lost. This loss can be described
s‘
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b
d. Th s m
s h h h ld
cannot continue with the activity and complete it successfully unless he
or she is able to access again the critical task information that is needed.
If this information is not available then either the child will need to guess
(which can lead to errors) or give up.
Many structured activities place excessive demands on working memory
for many individuals, as they require the pupil to hold substantial
amounts of information, often while completing another mental activity.
They are often described as failing to check work for mistakes and
l ss
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order to check whether work is correct needs a comparison with the
original instruction, which is probably out of the question for a pupil with
poor working memory
This failure of working memory slows the rate at which pupils can
accumulate key knowledge and skills, especially vocabulary.
14
POINTS TO REMEMBER
•
P ls’ progress in reading maths and science is closely related to
their working memory capacities, across the full range of school
years.
•
Poor working memory performance does not appear to be due to
more general factors such as language difficulties or non-verbal
ability.
•
The poor rates of learning in pupils with low working memory
capacities are due, in large part, to memory overload.
•
The pupil may appear to be inattentive and highly distractible,
probably due to memory overload and forgetting.
In summary, any task that requires a pupil to hold information in their
heads and then use it to complete a task will place a demand on working
memory. This is especially true when asking a pupil to remember or
follow instructions or sequences. This will be mostly seen in reading,
writing, maths and transferring from one activity to another.
When demands are too high, the pupil may appear to be distractible and
lack concentration. Their behaviour may deteriorate or they may become
heavily reliant on their peers for support. There may be discrepancies in
their work depending on the setting, the time of day and the type of
support given.
15
What is the impact of a
poor working memory in
the classroom?
Working memory capacity is one of the most important cognitive
indicators linked to academic attainment in key areas of the curriculum
such as reading and maths.
It is the ability to hold and use information for a short period of time e.g.
manipulating numbers in mental maths tasks.
It depends upon
capacity
This is linked to age and increases until mid-teens
and begins to fall in mid-thirties
understanding
Having the ability to understand the language used
in order to respond to questions and formulate
answers
focus
The ability to focus on the task and not be
distracted
processing
In order to complete a task, information has to be
processed
Although working memory in childhood increases with age it can differ
substantially from pupil to pupil. Accordi
m s s
h s
l’s
relative capacity is established by the age of four and is unlikely to
change without intervention.
Learning activities in the classroom help the pupil to gradually
accumulate the knowledge and skills they need to become competent in
areas such as reading and maths over the years.
16
Poor working memory provides a relatively general constraint on
progress. Pupils with low working memory capacities become
overloaded by structured learning activities causing them to forget
crucial information.
Poor working memory performance does not appear to be linked to more
general factors such as low IQ or language difficulties.
If a pupil is already behind its peers in their primary years they are likely
to fall further behind in their secondary years. Poor working memory
affects all areas of learning from getting from A to B around school to the
ability to copy notes from the board or do simple calculations.
Activities that place minimal demands on working
memory should not be affected by high anxiety
levels but if anxiety and working memory loads
are high, performance will suffer
17
How can I identify difficulties and
assess working memory?
There are a number of ways to assess whether or not a student has an
issue with working memory:




Checklists
Digit memory assessment
Non word repetition assessment
Specific assessments that exist purely to test for working memory
difficulties.
However, before assessment is started, it is important to make sure that
the child is considered holistically. Many factors can impact negatively
upon memory e.g. tiredness and stress and it is important that these are
addressed before any assessment process is started.
Checklists
Initially, an informal checklist, such as the Cogmed one below, may be
used to identify whether the student has a specific set of behaviours that
would appear to be consistent with working memory difficulties. These
checklists can be tailored to be subject or age specific. At this stage,
demands on working memory should be reduced and the effectiveness
monitored.
More formal checklists exist, such as The Working Memory Rating Scale
available through Pearson. This is an assessment completed by a
member of staff who knows the pupil and makes judgements against a
series of statements relating to working memory based on observations.
The total score is then linked to a scale indicating the likelihood of
difficulties and the extent to which a difficulty could be severe in nature.
It is useful as an initial investigation and it adds to evidence gained from
other sources.
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Working Memory Checklist (Cogmed)
An individual may be constrained by working memory capacity if he/she:
1.
Is easily distracted when working on or doing something that is not
highly interesting.
2.
Has trouble waiting his/her turn, for example in a conversation or
when waiting in line to get help.
3. Struggles with reading comprehension and has to read through texts
School based assessments
repeatedly to understand.
4.
Struggles with problem solving that requires holding information in
for example
mental
mathPortfolio)
calculations.
Digitmind,
Memory
(from the
Dyslexia
5.
inconsistent
in remembering
mathaged
facts.
This Is
is a
simple assessment
for primary
Pupils. It requires the child
to repeat strings of number of and increasing length. This measures
6. Struggles with completing tasks, especially multiple step tasks.
short term memory. The child is then required to repeat a given string of
7.
difficultyThis
remembering
instruction
given
in several
digitsHas
in reverse.
measures long
working
memory.
Results
are steps, for
example so
following
directions
assignments.
standardised
that it isrecipes,
possible
to see if or
theschool/work
child is performing
at
average levels. The Backward Digit Span (from the Dyslexia
8. Struggles to understand the context in a story or a conversation.
Screening Test – Secondary) performs the same test of working
memory
secondary
aged
pupils.and organising something that needs
9.
Hasfor
difficulties
when
planning
to be done in separate steps.
Phonological Working Memory Test (from the PhAB2)
10. Has difficulty staying focused during cognitive-demanding tasks, but
Again, for primary aged pupils, this test requires the child to repeat (not
attends well when cognitive demands are minimal.
read) a list of non-words of increasing length and complexity. It is also
standardised.
11.
Has difficulty integrating new information with prior knowledge.
12. When called on, forgets what he/she was planning to say.
Lengthy
assessments
13.
Has specialist
difficulty taking
notes and listening at the same time.
If the results of simpler tests and checklists, and the accommodations
that they inform, do not produce results, it may be necessary for more in
depth analysis to be undertaken.
19
AWMA (Automated Working Memory Assessment)
This is a completely computerised assessment that can be done at three
levels – a screener, a short form and a long form. It is suitable for pupils
and young people aged 4 to 22 years.
TOMAL (Test of Memory and Learning)
This is a broader assessment of memory and its impact on learning
20
What can I do to help?
It is very important to recognise working memory failures so that the
structure of learning activities can be modified. Identifying such failures
can be seen through such errors as
 Incomplete recall of a sentence or sequence of words
 Failure to follow instructions
 Place keeping errors
 Task abandonment
Remember that children are often acutely aware of their memory
difficulties – even from a young age.
Working memory demands can be reduced through using the following
strategies:
 Consider your teaching style and lesson planning
 Review previous lesson information
 Provide a visual model/example so that the pupil knows what is
required
 If a pupil forgets some or all of what they have to do be prepared to
modify how the learning activity is presented
 Ask your pupil to regularly repeat crucial information – this strategy of
rehearsal is crucial to support verbal short-term memory
 An adult or other pupil can act as a memory guide or listening buddy
 Chunk words and information into steps that they can do one at a
time
 Use language that is simple in both vocabulary and phrasing
 Shorten sentences
 Be prepared to repeat key facts
21
 Use memory prompts such as pictures, numbers or symbols to
represent the sequence of activities
 Where possible include movement and rhythm as a moving image is
more likely to be remembered
 Encourage the pupil to draw or map out their thoughts using diagrams
or flow charts
 Help them to make connections/links to what they already know
 Use aids such as digital recording devices and tablets to help your
pupil retain the essential information
 Teach the pupil to use useful tools such as a ruler/number line, table
square, calculator, hundred square accurately
 Play ‘
s’ m h
m s SNAP e.g. - a few scientific words to
match to their simplified definition played on a regular basis will help
them to recall that fact
 Make up a simple story that uses items/objects that need to be
remembered that can be visualised
 Encourage all children to ask focussed questions when they realise
they have forgotten what to do
Teach them to juggle!
Juggling uses both sides of the brain and can
improve memory and concentration.
22
Is there anything we can do to help
older students?
Older pupils tend to struggle with lecture-based presentations which
require them to attend, listen, understand new material and take notes.
They often find it hard to maintain concentration over longer lessons and
to organise large amounts of material from different sources in a
coherent manner.
 It is important to recognise working memory failures and ensure
that all staff working with a student who has a poor working
memory are aware of that fact
 Aim to reduce working memory loads by reducing the amount of
information to be remembered
 Use the same routines each day to reinforce learning
 Use visual aids or encourage pupil to draw pictures to help them to
recall an activity linking it to an emotion if possible
 Repeat important information or provide a peer buddy for
additional support
 Encourage the use of memory aids such as personalised
dictionaries, table mats, topic posters, memory cards, key rings,
number lines, Dictaphones and ICT
 Help the student to identify what helps them best to recall, retain
and process information.
- repeating information to themselves silently or out loud
- breaking down numbers or letters into chunks
- linking to known information
23
 Develop the student’s own strategies such as asking for help,
rehearsal, place keeping and note taking
 Encourage them to review notes before going to sleep
 The diary/homework organiser is an essential piece of equipment
at secondary level and students must take responsibility for it
themselves. Note the date given but also record when due in to
help reduce overload at the end of the lesson
 Students need to write exactly what is discussed / taught as it may
be a while before the homework task is looked at again and brief
notes may not be enough
 Adults or a peer buddy need to check that the task has been
understood and recorded correctly
 Encourage use of a highlighter to pick out key words or facts. The
f s s
h s s lly ‘ w s
’ s it
often contains a key fact
 Consider how technology such as iPads can be used to
photograph mind maps, homework tasks and group notes
Older students are more effective at using their
own strategies to overcome working memory
related problems.
24
Glossary
Autobiographical memory - The long term memory system supporting
memory for significant events across a lifetime
AWMA - The Automated Working Memory Assessment, a computerised
s b
y h
ss ss s
d d l’s
y
h s bcomponent of working memory
Central Executive - The sub-component of working memory that
controls attention and co-ordinates activity both within the working
memory system and between working memory and other cognitive
systems such as long-term memory
Chunking - The grouping together of individual items into an integrated
whole to enhance recall, typically using long-term memory
Episodic Memory - The long-term memory system supporting memory
for events in the relatively recent past, typically spanning minutes
through to days
Long-term Memory - Memory for experiences that occurred at a point in
time prior to the immediate past, and also for knowledge that has been
acquired over long periods of time. Long-term memory systems include
episodic memory, autobiographical memory, semantic memory and
procedural memory
Memory cards - Individualised memory prompts used in the classroom
25
Memory Guide - A child nominated to assist a fellow pupil with memoryrelated difficulties
Memory Span - A measure of the maximum amount of material that an
individual can successfully remember on a test of working memory
Procedural memory - Long term memory for skills such as cycling that
have been acquired through repeated practice and that can be executed
‘
m
lly’, w h
m
l ff
Rehearsal - The voluntary act of mentally repeating information,
typically with the aim of prolonging its storage in working memory.
Rehearsal is a particularly important strategy associated with verbal
short-term memory
Semantic memory - The long-term memory system supporting
knowledge such as facts and word meanings
STM - Short-term Memory. The ability to hold information in mind for
short periods of time
Verbal Short-term Memory - The sub-component of working memory
that stores verbal information
Visuo-spatial - Relating to abilities or information that can be expressed
in terms of physical characteristics relating to vision, space or movement
Visuo-spatial short-term memory - The sub-component of working
memory that stores information relating to vision, space or movement
26
Working Memory - The ability to hold and manipulate information in
mind for brief periods of time in the course of on-going mental activities,
consisting of a system of four sub-components, verbal short-term
memory, Visuo-spatial short-term memory, central executive and
episodic buffer
Working memory capacity - The limit on the amount of information that
can be held in working memory. Each sub-component of working
memory has its own limit
27
Where else can I look for
information?
Working Memory and Learning – A practical guide for teachers
By Susan E Gathercole and Tracy Packam Alloway
Sage
Ready Set Remember
By Beatrice Mense, Sue Debney and Tanya Druce
The Learning Brain: Memory and Brain Development in Children
by Torkel Klingberg and Neil Betteridge
Mind Maps For Kids: An Introduction
by Tony Buzan
Differentiation Through Learning Styles and Memory
by Marilee B. Sprenger
Understanding Working Memory
by Tracy Packiam Alloway
28