Two Firms is Enough for Competition, but Three or More is Better

TI 2001-115/1
Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper
Two Firms is Enough for
Competition, but Three or
More is Better
Maarten C.W. Janssen
José Luis Moraga-González
Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, and Tinbergen
Institute
Tinbergen Institute
The Tinbergen Institute is the institute for economic research of the
Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam and
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
Tinbergen Institute Amsterdam
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The Netherlands
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Tinbergen Institute Rotterdam
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The Netherlands
Tel.:
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Fax:
+31.(0)10.4089031
Most TI discussion papers can be downloaded at
http://www.tinbergen.nl
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