CARDIFF SCHOOL OF SPORT
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
(HONOURS)
SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION
TITLE
THE EFFECT OF RULE CHANGES ON
ATTACKING PLAY TIME AND SUCCESS
RATE IN INTERNATIONAL WOMEN’S
HOCKEY
NAME
ANDREW RICHARDS
UNIVERSITY NUMBER
ST09001537
DISCIPLINE
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
THE EFFECT OF RULE CHANGES ON ATTACKING
PLAY TIME AND SUCCESS RATE IN
INTERNATIONAL WOMEN’S HOCKEY
Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
i
ABSTRACT
ii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1
Aims and Objectives
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
4
CHAPTER THREE: METHOD
10
Sample
Procedure
Pilot Study
Data Collection
Reliability
Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
17
Positive Outcome Phase
Negative Outcome Phase
Free Hit Phase
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
20
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION
26
REFERENCES
28
APPENDICIES
APPENDIX A: RELIABILTY KAPPA TABLE
Appendix B: SPSS Output
List of Tables
Table 1. Attacking play performance indicators.
13
Table 2 Operational definitions for free hits taken in the 25 yard
13
area to the time when the ball enters the circle.
Table 3 Operational definitions for possible successful outcomes
14
during attacking play in the 25 yard area.
Table 4 Operational definitions for possible unsuccessful outcomes
during attacking play in the 25 yard area.
15
List of Figures
Figure 1 The view of the coding system used
11
Figure 2 The positive outcomes in the 25 yard area for each year
17
Figure 3 The negative outcomes within the 25 yard area for each
18
year
Figure 4 The mean time from when a free hit is taken to entering
the circle from each game
19
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Lucy Holmes for supplying the video footage used in this
investigation and her continued support throughout the dissertation process.
I would also like to thank Cardiff Metropolitan University Performance Analysis
department for allowing me to use the specialist software required for this
investigation.
i
Abstract
In this study the effects of the free hit rule changes are examined to see what impact
they have had on attacking play in international women’s field hockey. It will focus on
whether the rule changes have increased the speed of the game while also
increasing the amount of short corners and goals. The information from this research
should give players and coaches an idea of what tactics are successful when
attacking with the current rules. The rules being investigated were introduced in 2009
by the International Hockey Federation (FIH). A free hit can now be taken with the
use of a “self pass” and procedures for taking a free hit in the 25 yard area have
been adapted. A total of fifteen (n=15) international women’s field hockey games
were observed and analysed in changes for the time from when a free hit was taken
to when the ball entered the circle. The outcome for each attack that reached the 25
yard area was also recorded with the use of Sportscode (Sportstec Limited,
Warriewood, Australia) to analyse how successful the teams were with the rules at
the time of play. Results indicate that the rule changes have significantly increased
the time for the ball to enter the circle from a free hit within the 25 yard area (1.71s in
2008 to 4.75s in 2009 and 4.15s in 2010), slowing the attack of the game. A ManWhitney U test showed a significant difference between 2008 compared to 2009 and
10 with a p value lower than0.05. The self pass does allow free hits to be taken
quickly to reduce the disruptions to the game but the restriction in the 25 yard area
slows attacking play. There was an increase in the number of shots and short
corners with the rule changes enforced. This lead to significantly increasing the
number of goals scored (16 in 2008 to 21 in 2009) throughout five games of the
tournament. Only a one goal increase was recorded in 2010 over the 16 observed in
2008.
ii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Most sports use controlled worldwide parameters to ensure players from all levels
can participate in a game with predetermined rules. This will allow an element of
competition as a winner is usually decided which differentiates one sport from
another. The process of changing a rule happens within the environment of
governing bodies. Currently there is very little knowledge in why rule changes are
made. Sports that we know today are the result of numerous years of development
and evolution. Kew (1986) suggested an approach as to how rules change within the
game play in invasion games. He starts off with the “basic challenge” where the aim
of the game is launched. The second is the “establishment” where rules are chosen
to make the game demanding and appealing. The third is the “consolidation” phase
which enables rules to ensure the continuous credibility of the sport.
Research conducted recognises the benefits of using notational analysis within the
context of changing the rules of a sport. By exploring these rule changes it allows
administrators to identify the effects the rule has had. It will allow them to see if a rule
has had an unforeseen, positive or negative effect to the game. It can also pick up
any areas of the sport that need changing where problems in the game could have
been recognised. It could be possible that a change in one area of a sport may lead
to changes elsewhere that were not foreseen (Hughes and Franks, 2008). Gardiner
et al. (1998) had the view that rule changes are influenced by external pressures
such as sponsors and media. Another point they made was that changes to the rules
of a sport commonly emerge from a desire to increase the appeal of the sport for
spectators and players to ensure its survival.
The International Hockey Federation (FIH) governs any rule changes in field hockey
which in the past have considerably changed the game. The official process of
changing the rules begins with the hockey rules board that organize any suggested
rule changes and then present these to the FIH. The board uses input from a
number of sources to consider changes to the rules. Some of these include video
analysis, trials of rules and comments from players, officials and media (FIH, 2011).
There have been a number of rule changes in hockey which have had diverse
effects to the game. Some changes include different procedures for penalty corners,
goal size and lifted ball restrictions. These changes could have been enforced to
improve some concerns such as umpiring, flow of the game, safety and publicity.
The movement from grass to synthetic pitches prompted a few adaptions to the
1
game in the 1980’s. In 1998 the FIH removed the offside rule from the game in a
plan to increase scoring opportunities. There are also constant modifications to the
penalty corner rules in order to minimise its importance and its readability. Since
2007 players running out on defensive penalty corners can now wear face masks for
added safety. Another safety measure introduced in 2006 included limiting the bow
of sticks in order to restrict the increasing use and power of drag flicks. Some other
adjustments included allowing players to use their stick above their shoulder on the
goal line (2003), making a manufactured foul an offence (2001) and removing the
limit of only one step when taking a penalty stroke.
In February 2009 the FIH introduced a mandatory experimental rule for elite hockey
competitions. The hockey rules board launched considerable changes on how a free
hit could be taken. The changes to the rules allowed players taking the free hit to
pass the ball to themselves. This made the game appear much quicker and more
fluent, although the rules state that “the ball should be played using two separate
motions before moving the ball to play on”. This rule is now enforced across all levels
of hockey and is more commonly known as the self pass. In addition no free hits are
allowed to be taken within five yards of the circle. A free hit awarded within five yards
of the circle to the attack is taken at the nearest point five yards from the circle (FIH
Rules of Hockey, 2011). Another change made was that all players must be at least
five yards away from any free hit awarded inside the 25 yard area. In other areas of
the pitch, if the defending team is within five yards from the attacker taking a “self
pass” they must allow the attacker to move five yards before engaging. A further
change could be the result of attempting to make the game safer for participants.
The ball may not travel directly into the circle from a free hit in the 25 yard area
without dribbling at least five yards or another player touches the ball first. This
change avoids the ball from being played hard and potentially dangerously into the
circle. These rule changes appear to have had mixed affects to how the game of
hockey is played. Some appear to make the game quicker whereas others slow the
game down. Players and spectators had different views on these changes but after
two years, the rules appear to have been accepted into the game by everyone
involved. Team tactics and principles of play may be changed as a result of the rule
changes, with old methods no longer being effective within the new rules.
2
Aims and Objectives
The main aims and objectives of this study are:
1. To collect reliable data from fifteen (n=15) international women’s field hockey
match’s and analyse the data.
2. To discover exactly what affect the rules have had when a team is attacking.
3. To find out if the rules have increased the speed of attacks.
4. To establish if the rules have affected the success rate of the teams by
causing more short corners, shots and goals
5. To compare these results to other researchers results.
3
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
There has only been one piece of research that has been conducted into the recent
rule changes in hockey which is by Tromp and Holmes (2011), however there has
also been very similar research carried out in rugby union by Hughes, O’Donoghue
and Williams (2005), where the effect of rule changes on match and ball in game
time was observed. In this case the rules were changed to increase safety, increase
competition and continuity. These reasons could possibly be similar to why the rules
in hockey were changed. The self pass rule change could be observed to have the
effect of speeding play up and therefore increasing competition generating more
interest in the sport. The rule where free hits within the 25 yard area must not go
directly into the circle could be helping with safety. This study will aim to find out
exactly what are the effects of the rule changes. Reasons for changing sport’s
particular rules have been defined by a number of researchers. A study on netball by
Hammond et al. (1999) recognized rule changes to be due to three main factors
which included player performance, commercial pressures and technological
advancements. The study concluded that rule changes should be thoroughly
analysed to gauge their effect. This study also aims to distinguish if the rule changes
in hockey have had the desired effect on the game.
There is also research on the effect of changing the rules in beach volley ball by
Ronglan and Grydeland (2006). The aim of this research was to find out the quality
and efficiency of game actions in the top international beach volley ball matches. The
methods used included watching footage of the games and match occurrences were
coded. A Mann-Whitney U (MWU) test was used to test any significant changes in
efficiency values on the game actions from samples before and after the rule
changes were made. These methods could be used in analysing hockey as
occurrences can be coded using performance analysis software and the MWU test
could be used to compare the samples collected. The results showed a considerable
reduction in serve efficiency and attack efficiency after the rule changes were made.
These changes forced the players to adopt new strategies and tactics in order to be
successful within the new rules. A limitation of this study is that some of the teams
observed were already using some of the new strategies that are affective with the
new rules as they were already being enforced in indoor volleyball. This caused less
significant results after the outdoor rules were changed.
4
Kew (1987) did research on rule changes in football, basketball and hockey. The
studies found that rules change regularly although little is known of the process
through which such changes are driven. These studies would be useful for players
and coaches to help them understand what is required from them to be effective
playing with the new rules in their sport. As the rule changes investigated in this
study are fairly new there hasn’t been much time for their effect to be fully
understood. This is why it has become apparent there is a need for research on this
area to appreciate what the rule changes have done to the game of hockey.
Hughes et al. (2005) believe that presently little formal notation is made in tracking
changes to a sport after a rule alterations. In the research papers that have used
notation to study the effects of rule changes, the measurements are made on the
intentional changes that the rule is designed to do. This includes the number of
passes in a game, the time that the ball is in play and the number of kicks in a game.
Some research has found that rule changes have had the effect of making the game
more interesting for the players and the spectators (Hughes et al., 2005). This was
the case for research conducted by Hughes (1995) on changes in scoring with
squash. It has been found that some areas of a sport may be inadvertently changed
with the instruction of a new sport. This was apparent with research by Dogart et al.
(1993) on Gaelic football where the intention to increase ball in play time also
created changes in the game that authorities may not have foreseen.
A study in rugby league conducted by Eaves et al. (2008) looked at the impact of the
rule changes on time variables during a professional match. There had been a
number of rule changes before this study but there had not been any assessment on
the effects of such changes on the patterns of play. Therefore the aim of the study
was to find out whether the rule changes dramatically influenced selected time
variables. The methods used in this study included the use of a specifically designed
hand notation system to code data on forty- eight videotaped games. Each phase of
play including individual rucks was recorded using a stop watch and transcribed onto
a time data notation sheet. The research found that the rule changes had increased
the speed of the ruck. The limitations of this study may have been the reliability of
the data coded. This could be the case as with such a large sample the operators
are at risk of getting fatigued and coding incorrectly. The sample could have been
5
smaller or the operator should have regular breaks which would ensure their full
attention is prolonged, but may mean the study takes a longer time to complete.
A study by Lozovina and Lozovina (2009) looked at how the attractiveness of the
game has been lost due to changes in water polo rules. He looked at the effects of
the rules changes on the game and how the audience would view the sport with the
rule changes instigated. Similarly to hockey there have been many rule changes
over the last fifty years in water polo. The aim of these changes was comparable to
the aim of many governing bodies of their sport, which was to accelerate play and
make it more attractive to viewers. Lozovina and Lozovina (2009) believe that the
rule changes are not attractive to an audience as they allow contact between players
which can mean there is wrestling in the water and in some cases for around thirty
seconds. This means scoring occurs less often as the attackers are effectively out of
play when the opportunities arise to score and so the exciting parts of the game- the
scoring is decreased. The research was conducted by reviewing the rule changes
throughout the past fifty years and by looking at recent literature on water polo.
Lozovina and Lozovina (2009) suggest the rules should be changed further so that
the beauty and attractiveness returns to the game of water polo. Although this has
limited validity as the review of the rules is only based on personal opinions and not
on statistical evidence. Hughes et al., 2005 believes that the opinions of a spectator
can often be what draws an individual to a sport which in turn can lead to the
attraction of sponsors and finance. Commercial pressure from media suggested by
Hammond et al. (1999) could put pressure on governing bodies of a sport to adapt
the rules to create more public interest.
A study by Lames and Hansen (2001) looked at the designing of observational
systems to support top level teams in game sports. In this study proposed it will be
important to create an appropriate observational system which will gather all the data
needed to affectively assess the rule changes in hockey. Lames and Hansen
described the need of two steps in order to create a relevant analysis system. Firstly
there needs to be a detailed description of competition by a suitable observational
system. Secondly the information collected needs to be analysed in order to become
aware of areas for training.
6
Sunderland et al. (2006) looked at the patterns of play and goals scored in
international women’s field hockey. This study was completed before the rule
changes being investigated were applied but does show methods of how patterns of
play can be recorded. The aim of the study was to find how teams apply patterns of
play to be successful and score goals. The method included the use of an
observational notational analysis system while watching video footage. In total 70
women’s international field hockey games were observed and one phase focused on
was the passing into the circle phase. They found that even before the new free hit
rules were applied more balls were dribbled into the circle than were hit, pushed or
swept. This shows the importance of dribbling into the circle as well as passing into
the circle and suggests that dribbling into the circle should be encouraged in players.
Another finding was that most goals occur from the repossession in the attacking half
outside the circle from free hits and interceptions. This shows how critical it is for a
team to maintain possession when around their own circle. By gaining possession
when high up the pitch this results in more goals scored from open play. A limitation
of this study may include only using two seasons for the sample as the patterns of
play can vary throughout different seasons. A further limitation could also include the
use of only women’s hockey as the tactics and principles of play in men’s hockey
could be different.
Since the 1994 hockey World Cup there have been calls for rule changes in hockey
matches. An article written by McBryde (1998) contained a statement from a leading
sports columnist in 1994 who described hockey “as exciting as synchronised
swimming with chopsticks”. It was said that the low amount of shots and goals with
too many whistles was pretty boring stuff to watch. The rules were believed to be too
complex and confusing so infringements were slowing down play all the time. The
changes made over the forthcoming years aimed to combat some of these issues
found in hockey. There have been some large impact changes over the years in field
hockey which include size of the goals, the centre pass, the procedure for taking
penalty corners and the abolition of the off side rule in 1998. Wein (1998) looked at
the affects that the abolition of the offside rule would make to the game. He
suggested that the changes would mean all players have to improve their play
without possession of the ball. Large impact rule changes cause the game of hockey
to change in such a way that the players and the coaches have to adopt new playing
7
tactics to be affective and comply within the rules. Wein (1998) believed that with no
offside the defending will become more difficult as their tasks will have been modified
and improving the defenders skill level would be essential. He also said that the
physical demands will increase as there is more space available on the pitch to
attack into. A rule change will often change the demands of the athletes as they can
affect the flow and pace of the game. The assumptions made by Wein (1998) are
only made by his coaching experience and not on statistical evidence which would
be more valid to show the effects of the rule change.
Research completed by Tromp and Holmes (2011) look at similar principles that this
study is investigating. They looked at the effect of free hit rule changes in match
variables and patterns of play in hockey. Their aim was to test the intention of the
2008 rule changes and to assess if it had any impact on the patterns of play. The
method used included analysing twenty eight (n=28) international field hockey
games from the 08 and 09 champions trophy. Information from the games was
tagged in SportsCode elite which could then be arranged to be analysed in SPSS. A
Mass-Whitney test was used to analyse any differences between the 2008 and 2009
samples. This research found that the rule significantly decreased the average time
taken to engage in free hits. They also found that there was a change in the way the
circle was penetrated, with most occurring by dribbling. The limitations of this study
were that only one season had passed since the rule had been changed so the
effects were still in the early stages of development. Following research like this and
feedback from players and officials the mandatory experimental rule introduced in
2009 which affected the rules for taking a free hit have now been considered
successful. The self pass has encouraged more free flowing play and not allowing
the ball to be played directly into the circle avoids the ball being played hard,
indiscriminately and potentially dangerously into the circle (FIH, 2011). The hockey
rules board have now added these changes to become full rules of hockey for the
2011 season.
All of the research found allow for rules to be assessed which help establish how
they affected the sport, whether they were a benefit or disadvantage to the game.
This assists sport administrators such as the FIH to make the correct decision in how
their sport can develop over time. After two years of players experiencing these rules
the advantages should be exploited where possible. The research should find
8
exactly what advantages the rule changes have made and also what disadvantages
have been created for both the attacking and defending team. When this information
has been found the coaches can practice drills that make use of these rule changes
to their advantage to increase their chances of scoring. The most effective ways in
which the play can be defended against will become apparent after research. This
information is a substantial benefit to any team hoping to be more successful playing
with the new rules. The results could also be useful for the FIH as to whether the
rules have improved the game as a spectacle for others as this was a factor for other
rule changes found from literature.
9
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD
Sample
The data used for analysis of game performance have come from three international
hockey tournaments, each being one year apart. Five international games before the
rule changes were observed from the 2008 Samsung Women’s Hockey Champions
Trophy in Monchengladbach, Germany. Ten international games with the rule
changes enforced were observed from the 2009 and 2010 Women’s hockey
Champions Trophy. Five games from the 2009 tournament held in Sydney, Australia
and five games from the 2010 tournament held in Nottingham, England. These
competitions were chosen as they are an annual event for the FIH calendar, with the
top teams competing against each other at the highest level. With the rule changes
being introduced at the start of the 2009 season the 2008 tournament was played
under different rules as the 2009 and 2010 tournament. At this level the affects of the
rule changes should be clearly apparent as the teams will look to exploit all the most
effective ways of succeeding within the regulations. For the purpose of this study, all
games are noted from a video, but in a real-time environment with an operator
observing the game and coding any occurrences. Ethical approval was gained from
the Cardiff Metropolitan University Ethics committee prior to data collection.
Procedure
Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted to finalise the procedures for the data collection. The
pilot study highlighted a few issues with the proposed method.

What should happen when possession is gained by the attackers in the 25
yard area? This was resolved by including it in the outcome of attacking play
in the 25 yard area.

Should the time from when a sideline or a long corner in the 25 yard area be
taken as well as free hits? The decision was to include all these actions as the
recent rule changes also apply to these instances so should have an affect
also.

What should happen if time is recorded when a free hit is taken but then the
ball doesn’t enter the circle? The decision was to not record these times when
this action happens.
10

Should a foul be recorded when the defenders have possession of the ball in
their own 25 yard area? The choice was to not record this as it is not an
outcome of an attack which will already have been recorded.
Data collection
Sportscode (Sportstec Limited, Warriewood, Australia) has been used to create a
suitable coding system to analyse the matches. The tagging window has been
developed with all the possible outcomes to give an indication of how successful
each teams attacking is. The system used for this study aims to identify the outcome
of all attacking play and the time from when free hits are taken in the 25 yard area to
the time when the ball enters the circle. The possible outcomes have their own text
label buttons created and split into positive and negative categories which can be
visible in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The view of the coding system used.
This type of button allows for a description of an event and only needs to be
activated when required. All of the successful outcomes have activation links to the
positive code button and the unsuccessful outcomes have activation links to the
negative code button. The positive and negative buttons need to have a lag time of
two seconds so that they will switch off on their own accord. A free hit code button
has been created to record the time from when a free hit is taken in the 25 yard area
to the time when the ball enters the circle. This type of button will need activating and
deactivating at the relevant time with no lead or lag time. The view of the observer is
11
shown in a screen shot in Figure 1. The footage was recorded from an elevated
position in the middle of the pitch so that it was easily visible to see all occurrences
of the game. The sound of the game can also be used to aid with the recognition of
the umpires decisions. Once the coding has begun the data should appear on the
timeline attached to the video at the bottom of the page. From here if necessary the
coding can be adapted or even deleted to correct mistakes.
Sportscode (Sportstec Limited, Warriewood, Australia) will be used as it is capable of
facilitating a number of requirements with a relatively friendly user environment. The
programme is not specifically designed for a single use as it been used in a range of
previous studies such as research in an article by Pérez-Turpin (2009) looking at
gross movement patterns in beach volleyball. It has a number of useful features that
will help with the coding process. It has capabilities of fast forwarding the footage
which will mean not so much time is required and it’s also possible to re-start and
pause the footage in case of any problems that become apparent. In this study the
only relevant occurrences in the game are when there is a significant entry into the
25 yard area. In this case it can be possible for the observer to fast forward the game
when the play is not in the area being coded and then slowed down when tagging is
required to speed up the data collection.
The direct effect of the rule changes will be tested by comparing the time from when
a free hit is taken to the time the ball enters the circle. The indirect effects will be
measured by comparing the amount of successful and unsuccessful outcomes from
entering the opponent’s 25 yard area from two samples one year apart (before and
after the new rules were introduced).
12
For each of the fifteen matches that are observed significant circle penetrations are
observed and analysed. Significant circle penetrations are defined as: “any entry
into the attacking 25 yard area that leads to a successful or unsuccessful outcome”.
Table 1. Attacking play performance indicators.
Successful outcomes
Any entry into the attacking 25 yard area that leads to a
positive outcome.
Unsuccessful outcomes
Entry into the attacking 25 yard area that leads to a
negative outcome.
Table 2. Operational definitions for free hits taken in the 25 yard area to the time
when the ball enters the circle.
Action
Definition of action
A free hit:
Any foul given to the attacking team inside the
defenders 25 yard area. This includes long corners and
sidelines. Time starts when the player makes contact
with the ball. Taken by hitting, slapping, pushing or
dribbling the ball (09, 10 Season).
Ball enters the circle
Time is stopped when the ball crosses over the line of
the circle.
This does not include:

Any entry into that has illegally been played directly into the circle from a free
hit in contravention of the new rule.

If the ball goes outside the 25 yard area before entering the circle then that
time is not included.
13
Table 3: Operational definitions for possible outcomes during attacking play in the 25
yard area.
Successful Outcomes
Possible action
Definition of action
Shot at goal
The action of an attacker attempting to score by playing
the ball towards the goal from within the circle.
Goal
When the ball is played within the circle by an attacker
and fully crosses the goal line and under the cross bar.
Penalty corner
Attacking team inject the ball from the back line to
outside the circle with only five defenders including the
keeper in the goal.
Penalty flick
The ball is placed on the penalty spot and an attacker
attempts to flick it into the goal
Long corner
The ball is placed on the mark five meters from the
corner of the field on the sideline nearest to where the
ball crossed the back line.
Free hit
A stationary ball close to where the offence occurred.
Taken by hitting, slapping, pushing or dribbling the ball
(09, 10 Season).
Sideline
Possession is retained by the attacking team as the
opponents have caused the ball to travel over the side
lines of the pitch. Play is restarted from a stationary ball
on the sideline where it travelled out.
This includes: When possession is gained by the attackers in the 25 yard area.
This excludes: The ball penetrating the 25 yard area and then played back out with
the attacking team still in possession.
14
Table 4. Operational definitions for possible unsuccessful outcomes
14
during attacking play in the 25 yard area.
Possible action
Definition of action
Tackle
Any action from a defending team to stop an opponent
from retaining possession of the ball. The player legally
takes the ball off the opponent.
Interception
Possession is regained by the opponent when the ball is
lost while passing.
Foul
When the attacker causes an infringement which results
in the umpire giving the opposition a free hit.
Backline out
Possession is lost as the attackers have caused the ball
to travel over the back line. Play is restarted with a
sixteen yard hit.
Sideline out
Possession is lost as the attackers have caused the ball
to travel over the side line. Play is restarted from a
stationary ball on the sideline where the ball travelled
out.
This excludes: When the attacking team cause a foul when the defending team are
in possession if the ball in their own 25 yard area.
15
Reliability
Intra operator reliability assessment was conducted for all the variables. Kappa score
was used as a reliability study to compare observations of a single performance. The
same game was observed twice by the same operator to test this methods reliability.
The same conditions were enforced with a short enough interval to avoid changes
due to operator training or maturation and long enough to avoid agreement due to
recall. Kappa has been used as it determines the fraction of observations that the
observer agrees on. It is also adjusted for the expected fraction of observations
where they could be expected to agree by guessing (O’Donoghue et al., 2005). An
Intra Kappa value between 0.6 and 0.8 is considered a good strength of agreement
whereas the Intra value between 0.4 and 0.6 has a moderate strength (O’Donoghue
et al., 2005). A fair classification of agreement is between 0.2 and 0.4 (O’Donoghue
et al., 2005).
The kappa score of 0.6 shows that according to (O’Donoghue et al., 2005) there is a
good strength of agreement. A timed kappa was also created to compare the amount
of time the observer agrees on. The timed kappa score was also at 0.6 showing
another good strength of agreement. This means that the methods follow a relatively
good strength of reliability allowing the research to gather high-quality data.
Data Analysis
The data gathered from the games tagged in Sportscode were exported as an
instance frequency report and edit list to Microsoft excel. This then allowed the data
to be arranged in an appropriate format that can be used for further analysis in SPSS
(V.20). A Mann-Witney U-test was used to test whether there were significant
differences in the samples from 2008 to 2009 and 2010 after the change of rules.
The reason for using this test was the research design, comparing independent
groups and not the same teams, at different points of time (Rothstein, 1985).
Significance level was set at p < 0.05 and non significant was set at p > 0.05.
16
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
Positive Outcome Phase
The majority of positive outcomes for all three years were long corners. There was
no significant difference (p>0.05) between the number of positive outcomes
throughout the three tournaments. The 2009 tournament created the most amounts
of positive outcomes throughout the five games with a total of 333 while 2008
totalled 312 but 2010 decreasing to 293. There was an increase in shots on goal
which has lead to an increase of goals. There was a significant difference found in
the number of goals scored between 2008 and 2009 (p<0.05). The number of goals
increased from 16 to 21 throughout five games of the tournament. Although in 2010
there was not a significant difference from 2008 (p>0.05) There was only one more
goal observed in the five games in 2010 compared to 2008.
Contribution of positive outcomes %
100%
90%
20%
80%
70%
60%
16%
11%
13%
13%
12%
11%
14%
11%
Shot at Goal
50%
24%
26%
Penalty Corner
30%
40%
30%
Sideline
5%
6%
29%
30%
Long Corner
Goal
6%
Free Hit
20%
10%
25%
0%
2008
2009
2010
Figure 2. The positive outcomes in the 25 yard area for each year.
No significant difference was found between the number of penalty corners in either
of the 2009 or 2010 tournaments compared to 2008 (p>0.05), although there was an
increase of 2 in 2009 and an increase of 8 in 2010. The number of sidelines gained
reduced throughout the three years as 2008 created 63, 2009 52 and 2010 lowered
to 37. Figure 1 shows how the proportion of penalty corners increased over the three
years from 24% in 2008 to 30% in 2010.
17
Negative Outcome Phase
The majority of negative outcomes in 2008 where passes being intercepted (Figure
2), but in 2010 it was being tackled. There was a significant difference (p<0.05)
found for the number of tackles made in the 2008 and 2010 tournaments. Out of all
the negative outcomes in 2010 33% were from being tackled compared to 2008
where it was 19%. There was also a significant difference (p<0.05) found between
the number of interceptions made in the 2009 and 2010 compared to 2008. Before
the rule changes were implemented 30% of all negative outcomes were passes
being intercepted. The first year when the rule changes were enforced there was a
drop to only 16% of all negative outcomes being intercepted and 18% the following
year. In the 2009 tournament the most common negative outcome was the ball going
over the backline with 33% compared to the other years with only 21%. There was a
slight increase in the number of fouls when the new rules were introduced with a rise
of 1% throughout both years but was not a significant difference (p>0.05). Overall
there was no significant difference (p>0.05) found for the total number of negative
outcomes throughout all years. The total amount of negative outcomes in 2008 were
416, 2009 446 and eventually lowering to 382 in 2010.
Contribution of negative outcomes (%)
100%
90%
19%
22%
33%
80%
11%
70%
11%
7%
60%
30%
16%
18%
50%
21%
40%
30%
Tackled
Sideline out
Intercepted
Foul
21%
20%
Ball Over Backline
20%
30%
10%
0%
21%
21%
2008
2009
2010
Figure 3. The negative outcomes within the 25 yard area for each year.
18
The Free Hit Phase
A significant difference was found in the time taken for the ball to enter the circle
from a free hit within the 25 yard area (p<0.05). There was a mean time increase
from 1.71s to 4.75s in seasons 2008 and 2009, respectively. There was also a
significant difference found in the mean time for the ball to enter the circle in the
2010 season compared to the 2008 season. There was an increase in time from
1.71s to 4.15s. Figure 3 shows the mean duration for a free hit to enter the circle
from each game. Time taken to enter the circle can visibly be seen to have increased
when the rule changes were implemented. The 2009 tournament was found to have
the longest mean game time for a free hit to enter the circle with 5.68s (figure 3)
where as in 2008 the longest time was only 2.65s. The quickest times recorded were
0.68s in the 2008 tournament while 2009 the quickest time was 3.57s.
6
5
Time (sec)
4
2008
3
2009
2010
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
Game
Figure 4. The mean time from when a free hit is taken to entering the circle from
each game (s).
19
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
When the self pass rule was introduced by the FIH the aim was to speed up the
game by allowing the game to be free flowing with shorter interruptions in the form of
the procedure of taking free hits. It was hoped that this would create more scoring
opportunities and attract more people to the sport. From the results of this study the
research has found that the mean time for the ball to enter the circle from a free hit
has more than doubled from 1.71s in the 2008 tournament to 4.75s in 2009 and
4.15s in 2010. After statistical analysis was used this highlighted a significant
difference between the tournaments. Tromp and Holmes (2011) research agrees
with this result as they also found that the time for the ball to enter the circle was
significantly longer after the introduction of the self pass rule. The restriction of not
being able to play the ball straight into the circle without moving five yards within the
25 yard area aimed to increase safety by preventing balls being hit dangerously
straight into the circle. This has slowed down the attacking possibilities and given an
advantage to the defending team as they know there is no immediate danger of the
ball being played into the circle. This would confirm to one of the aims set by the FIH
to increase safety.
Whereas before the rule changes the ball was often hit directly
into the circle in an attempt to pass to a team mate now the players are forced to
move 5 yards before going into the circle. This is done by either dribbling or passing
five yards which has been found to be much slower than the direct ball straight into
the circle, although the self-pass rule allows the attackers to engage the ball quickly
causing dramatic pressure on the defenders.
The effects of the rule changes opens up a completely new area of the sport that can
be investigated by the players and coaches to find the most effective and successful
ways of competing with these rules. It forces the players to find alternative strategies
to get the ball into the circle and get a shot on goal. Innovative set plays can be
designed to make the most of the self pass rule by emphasising the possibility to
take the free hit straight away but within the restriction of the five yard rule. They may
also want to play the ball out of the 25 yard area before attempting to directly put it
into the circle or could switch it around the circle to create a different point of attack
and find the gaps. The quickest time for the ball to enter the circle before the rule
changes in 2008 was 0.68s where the ball was often hit straight in. While in 2009
and 2010 the quickest times were around 2.00s where the ball could have been
dribbled or passed to a team mate outside the circle to gain entry within the rules.
20
This caused a delay for the ball to enter the circle and allow for any shots on goal.
Teams may want to change their tactics to decrease the amount of time the ball
takes to enter the circle so that the opposition have less time to react.
Following the introduction of these rules in 2009 the outcome of each attack has
been affected by influencing different possibilities of play. The rules have had mixed
effects on the outcome of attacks as some areas have dramatically changed
whereas others have stayed the same. A clear influence of the rules has been the
increase of shots on goal as there was an increase in 2009 and 2010 over 2008.
This has then lead to an increase in the number of goals as there was a significant
difference between 2008 and 2009. There was an increase of 5 goals over the five
games in the 2009 tournament with the rule changes applied. This clearly shows the
team were able to exploit the advantages of these rules by gaining more chances to
shoot at goal and to score. There has also been a shift in the contribution of sidelines
in the game. In the 2008 tournament sidelines contributed to 20% of the outcomes of
a game whereas the following years it dropped to 16% and 13% in 2009 and 2010
respectively. A large shift of the positive outcome contribution moved over to long
corners. This also shows an influx of attacking opportunities as more of the play is
reaching the opponents backline, whereas before the rule changes most of the play
was around the circle causing a number of sideline hits to be awarded. This did not
promote very interesting viewing as much of the action was nowhere near the goal
which was the case in 2008. Although moving to the more recent years the increase
of shots resulted in more long corners allowing for more exciting performance that
have attracted more viewers.
Similar to research by Tromp and Holmes (2011) free hits were common
occurrences in all years for the attacking phase. This highlighted the importance of
having well worked set piece routines in the attacking 25 yard area. Coaches should
have specific time in training to work on these areas to ensure they are in line with
the rule changes and include the self pass. With parts of training focusing on this
area it should increase the number of successful outcomes and lead to more shots
and goals. This is clearly occurring as the results have shown an increase in goals in
both tournaments with the rule changes enforced.
Initially after the rules were
enforced there was an increase of free hits given to the attackers. This was a
common problem as the defenders made a number of errors when attempting to
21
tackle the attackers taking the free hit. With the new rules allowing the attackers to
take the free hit quickly the defenders would frequently not retreat far enough before
engaging the attacker. They could also be seen to be causing a blatant obstruction
as they don’t attempt to get out of the way. As Tromp and Holmes (2011) predicted
the number of fouls made by defenders has stabilised in the 2010 tournament as
they players have become fully aware of the new rules. As the data shows there was
actually a fall in the number of free hits awarded to the attackers from 89 in 2008 and
to 74 in 2010. The total number of positive outcomes had initially increased from 312
in 2008 to 333 in 2009, which shows the overall effect of the rules on the outcome of
attacking play. With so many positive outcome there were many stoppages caused
by defending teams putting the ball off the sideline and over the back line. This
chanced in 2010 once the players and coaches had experienced the rules further.
They were able to keep the ball in play more and get more significant outcomes such
as penalty corners, shots and goals.
Clear differences have been highlighted in the distribution of negative outcomes
throughout the three tournaments observed. The number of interceptions has been
highlighted as in 2008 it made up 30% of the negative outcomes throughout the five
games observed. A much lower proportion was observed in the following two years
as it only made up 16% in 2009 and 18% in 2010 of all negative outcomes. This
clearly shows that the teams were attempting different methods of attacking in 2008
which included passing the ball more often as this was the only option from free hits.
There were many more optimistic passes being made that were made with a “hit and
hope” attitude. This is visible from the results with 123 interceptions in the 2008
tournament and only 71 in 2009 and 67 in 2010. These types of passes were often
picked up by the defenders as with little options available to the attackers they were
easy to read. This presented basket ball type hockey where the play would move
from end to end frequently without any great opportunities for goals. Despite
presenting basketball type hockey which went from end to end, there were very little
opportunities for goals as the ball was picked up by the defending side before it
could even enter the circle. The FIH aimed to changes this with the hope of
promoting free flowing hockey that would give the attackers more options and
display a more interesting game. A significant difference was found in the number of
tackles being made from the 2008 and 2010 tournament. From most outcomes being
22
intercepted in 2008 a shift to the majority of outcomes being tackled in 2010. This is
a result of the rule changes as it allows the players to dribble the ball straight from
free hits and so they are more inclined to take free hits quickly and drive at the
opponents. Whereas players are no longer allowed to hit the ball directly into the
circle they are forced to make a pass or dribble the ball five yards. This has meant
that dribbling has become a vital skill for the attackers as they need to be able to get
passed the defenders and get opportunities on goal. This has developed the
attacking play to be entertaining to watch as players sticks skills can be
demonstrated creating another exciting element to watch. Passing has also become
important as players need to be able to pass quicker as they can’t go directly into the
circle. This creates another exciting element as passes would be completed quicker
with a higher pace to get around defenders as opposed to the “hit and hope”
approach of before. The opportunity to take free hits quickly has highlighted the
importance of players being aerobically fit. The players are now required to have
high work rates with not only attackers starting the attack quickly but also the
defenders getting back five yards and then engaging with no time for rest. This is
one more area that should be focused on to ensure the development of the team’s
aerobic capacity to be able to keep up with the speed of play.
Another aim of the rule changes was to give the game less interruptions but they
initially caused the game to have more fouls in the 25 yard area. Where in 2008
there were 82 fouls recorded by the attackers but in 2009 there was a rise to 92
fouls. This may have been because the players were still getting used to the rule
changes and what they were allowed to do within the rules. While in the 2010
tournament there was a decrease to only 80 fouls recorded throughout the five
games. After the players experiencing the rules for a few years they eventually have
got used to what they are allowed to do and the most successful ways of doing it.
This could also explain why they majority of negative outcomes in 2009 were from
the ball going over the backline. By stopping the ball being put straight into the circle
from a free hit the play was often passed round to the edges of the circle where it is
very difficult to penetrate. With the rules being fairly new in 2009 the principles of
play used were experimental and so were not always successful meaning there were
a high number of balls being played off the backline. The number of negative
outcomes firstly increased in the 2009 tournament with 446 over 416 in the previous
23
year without the free hit rule changes applied. This suggests that the teams are
trialling the use of new methods of attack as many of the teams were not always
effective causing a high number of turnovers. Eventually in the 2010 tournament the
number of negative outcomes decreased to 382 showing the teams had worked on
attacking principles that are effective. By the 2010 tournament the new rules had
been more established which caused fewer stoppages and allowed the game to flow
more which was one of the aims of the FIH.
The recent rule changes have created new opportunities for the players to exploit
where necessary. With the restriction of not being able to put the ball directly into the
circle from a free hit in the 25 yard area the players are able to switch the attack to a
different point. This may cause the opposition the find themselves in the wrong
positions and allow the attackers entry into the circle for an opportunity on goal. In
the 2008 tournament the defenders were often seen creating a wall with their sticks
directly in front of a free hit within the 25 yard area. This was often effective as the
ball was regularly hit straight into the circle at the opposition’s sticks. Whereas with
the current rules the wall is no longer necessary as this is not an option within the
rules. Other practices have been utilised within the rules which involve the ball
moving five yards by hitting to a team mate who deflects into the circle. One of the
intentions of this rule was to increase safety of the game by not allowing the players
to play the ball dangerously directly into the circle. This was often happening in the
2008 tournament where the ball was hit straight into the circle in an attempt the pass
to a team mate. A hit or slap could possibly be played dangerously into the circle but
a push pass could be seen to be a safe option. The rule could be developed to only
include passes that could be seen to be dangerous such as a hit and a slap. Push
passes could be allowed as it is difficult to generate a dangerous amount of power
from this technique. With this change the rule wouldn’t have as much of an impact
onto the game as it currently does. Possibly with a push pass being allowed to be
used to go straight into the circle it wouldn’t slow the game down so much as this
research has found is the current effect. The players would then have the opportunity
to play the ball safely into the circle which may allow for more shots on goal and
promote more interesting viewing for the audience.
24
From the current performance of players it is evident that they are sometimes
choosing the wrong method of attacking the opponents. With the high number of
turnovers especially from tackles in the 2010 tournament the players need to
recognise when to drive forward with the ball. Although going forward should only be
done at suitable situations. Wein (1998) think that it is vital that the players know
when and where to run when attacking. With this in mind the players should take
more care of possession which could lead to an increase in shots on goal. A variety
of patterns of play could be experimented to find successful ways of keeping
possession which also attack the opposition. Principles such as player movement
are important to create confusion and to destroy the balance of the defence (Anders
and Myers, 1990). With an increase of movement from team mates it will create
space which the ball can be safely moved into the progress up the pitch. Jagday
(1996) believed that the awareness of the role of space is vital in attack. By making
use of the space it allows play to be away from opposition and gives more time on
the ball to make the correct decision on what to do next. Taverner (2005) describes
scanning to be important to be aware of the surroundings before receiving the ball so
that the next action is correct. With more possession the team are able to control the
game by not allowing the opposition to dictate any play. By pre-scanning it will make
the players aware of their surroundings which should cause fewer turnovers in the
means of a tackle or interception. This is evident in the results from this study as in
the 2010 tournament 33% of negative outcomes were the result of being tackled.
With the ability to take free hits quickly players should be able to move up the pitch
promptly without giving the opposition any chance of positioning themselves
correctly. Jagday (2010) believes most goals are scored by counter attacks and so
the team need to be able to push forward effectively and quickly to score. This is
evidently occurring in current matches as there has been an increase in the number
of shots and goals compared to games before the free hit rule changes. This study
only observed 16 goals in 2008 with an increase to 21 in 2009 and 17 in 2010.
Within the coaching process model (Franks et al., 1983) it is required to record
objectively, analyse, implement and evaluate behaviour so that an observable
change in performance is accomplished. From the findings of this study coaches
would be encouraged to focus on play that leads to quick responses in the 25 yard
area that opens gaps in the opposition.
25
26
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
Conclusion
The results of this study show that the recent rule changes have had an impact on
the attacking play time and success rate. The intention of the FIH to increase the
flow of the game may have been met in other areas of the pitch but not in speeding
up the entry into the circle from free hits within the 25 yard area. With this play
roughly doubling in time from the year that didn’t have the rule changes
implemented. In other areas it has had a positive effect with an increase in the
number of shots and goals than previous years. The methods used for getting into
the circle have changed because of the changes in free hit procedures. This has
caused the outcome of attacks to have considerably changed from previous years.
With the players not being able to directly put the ball into the circle from free hits
they have been forced to use different routines to gain entry for an opportunity on
goal. This has often meant teams transfer the point of attack by either dribbling or
passing the ball to a different area. This has had the effect of an increase in the
amount of tackling as players attempt to dribble the ball into the circle. The change
of rules have also seen the effect of increasing the amount of shots, penalty corners
and shots on goal which have given the game a much more appealing appearance
to the audience. This was another aim of the FIH to develop the game into a more
attractive sport for people to get follow and get involved in.
This research could be developed further by recording other aspects of the game to
cover all the phases involved in a match. For example the repossession phase
could be recorded to see how and where teams turnover the ball to start their
attacks. The time from when an umpire awards a free hit within the 25 yard area to
when it is taken could be observed to see exactly if the rule changes have affected
the stoppages in the game. The methods of entering the circle could be directly
recorded to see how teams have changed their strategies to gaining entry into the
circle. The areas most used for attacking could be looked at to see where the
successful attacks area completed. Another area of research that could be
conducted in the effect of the rule changes could be time motion analysis. With the
rule changes allowing players to option to take free hits quickly work rate analysis
may be necessary to work out if the game has changed in intensity. With fewer
stoppages in the form of free hits the whole team may need to have an increase in
aerobic capacity to be able to compete successfully.
26
This research shows how performance analysis can be used to observe if the
intentions of the FIH have been achieved with the procedures of taking free hits and
safety adjustments on International level women’s field hockey. With the two years of
the rules being implemented it has given this research a good base to find the exact
effects, although to combat limitations of this research continued investigations could
be made in more recent games and larger samples. Allowing any more significant
variables to become apparent then may enable coaches to adapt tactical and
technical aspects and training routines. Other limitations of this study include only
timing one area of the game, while the rule changes could have had an effect on
other areas such as the time it takes for a player to engage in a free hit from when
the umpire gave the decision.
27
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29
APPENDICIES
APPENDIX A
RELIABILITY
KAPPA TABLE
Reliability table showing the Kappa results from the two observations.
A
B
A
3
B
5
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
6
C
7
D
9
E
11
F
15
G
17
H
18
I
21
J
20
Total
8
P0
0.652
PC
0.116
K
0.606
6
7
9
11
15
17
18
20
21
Total
Col
Total
Exp
Agree
3
8
0.182
11
6
0.5
7
7
0.371
9
9
0.614
11
11
0.917
15
15
1.705
17
17
2.189
18
18
2.455
21
20
3.182
20
21
3.182
0
132
15.3
APPENDIX B
SPSS OUTPUT
Negative group 1= 08 2=09
Ranks
Group
Performance indicator
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
5.00
25.00
2
5
6.00
30.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Performance
indicator
Mann-Whitney U
10.000
Wilcoxon W
25.000
Z
-.522
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.602
.690b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Group
Negative group 1= 08 2=10
Ranks
Group
Performance indicator
N
Mean Rank
1
5
6.00
30.00
2
5
5.00
25.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Performance
indicator
Mann-Whitney U
10.000
Wilcoxon W
25.000
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Sum of Ranks
-.522
.602
.690b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Group
b. Not corrected for ties.
Positive Group 1=08 group 2=09
Ranks
Group
Performance indicator
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
6
6.17
37.00
2
6
6.83
41.00
Total
12
Test Statisticsa
Performance
indicator
Mann-Whitney U
16.000
Wilcoxon W
37.000
Z
-.320
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.749
.818b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Group
b. Not corrected for ties.
Positive group 1=08 2=10
Ranks
Group
Performance indicator
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
6
6.33
38.00
2
6
6.67
40.00
Total
12
Test Statisticsa
Performance
indicator
Mann-Whitney U
17.000
Wilcoxon W
38.000
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
-.160
.873
.937b
a. Grouping Variable: Group
b. Not corrected for ties.
Free hit times group 1=08 2=09
Ranks
Group
Time
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
3.00
15.00
2
5
8.00
40.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Time
Mann-Whitney U
.000
Wilcoxon W
15.000
Z
-2.611
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.009
.008b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Group
b. Not corrected for ties.
Output for compare means
Report
Time
Group
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Median
1
1.7140
5
.80733
1.5400
2
4.7520
5
.84514
4.7800
Total
3.2330
10
1.78069
3.1100
Free hit times group 1=08 2=10
Ranks
Group
Time
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
3.00
15.00
2
5
8.00
40.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Time
Mann-Whitney U
.000
Wilcoxon W
15.000
Z
-2.611
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.009
.008b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Group
b. Not corrected for ties.
Output for compare means
Report
Time
Group
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Median
1
1.7140
5
.80733
1.5400
2
4.1500
5
.45656
4.0400
Total
2.9320
10
1.42502
3.1700
Goals Group 1=08 2=09
Ranks
Groups
Goals
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
3.40
17.00
2
5
7.60
38.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Goals
Mann-Whitney U
2.000
Wilcoxon W
17.000
Z
-2.425
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.015
.032b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Groups
b. Not corrected for ties.
Number of goals Groups 1=08 2=10
Ranks
Groups
Goals
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
5.00
25.00
2
5
6.00
30.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Goals
Mann-Whitney U
10.000
Wilcoxon W
25.000
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Groups
-.655
.513
.690b
b. Not corrected for ties.
Penalty corners 1=08 2=09
Ranks
Groups
Penalty
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
5.50
27.50
2
5
5.50
27.50
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Penalty
Mann-Whitney U
12.500
Wilcoxon W
27.500
Z
.000
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
1.000
1.000b
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Groups
b. Not corrected for ties.
Penalty corners 1=08 2=10
Ranks
Groups
Penalty
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
5.00
25.00
2
5
6.00
30.00
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Penalty
Mann-Whitney U
10.000
Wilcoxon W
25.000
Z
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
-.539
.590
.690b
a. Grouping Variable: Groups
b. Not corrected for ties.
Tackled 1=08 2=10
Ranks
Group
Tackled
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
1
5
3.50
17.50
2
5
7.50
37.50
Total
10
Test Statisticsa
Tackled
Mann-Whitney U
2.500
Wilcoxon W
17.500
Z
-2.102
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)]
a. Grouping Variable: Group
b. Not corrected for ties.
.036
.032b