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Literature Identified by the APA Division 17 Promotion of Non-Violence STG1
Compiled by Lawrence H. Gerstein, Ph.D. & Anneliese Singh, Ph.D.
As part of the Promotion of Nonviolence STG, there was a subgroup of graduate students that
identified literature on the promotion of nonviolence that counseling psychologists across a
variety of settings might find useful in their practice, research, and training.
Community Empowerment by Emily Mastroianni (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature
The counseling psychology articles on the topic of “community empowerment” include a wide
range of perspectives on how to engage communities in multiculturally sensitive and creative
ways. The literature reviewed included no empirical studies and was about half theory based and
half case studies or review of specific programs. One article used qualitative methodology.
Major themes included encouraging empowerment through group work, school counseling and
consultation, and by using traditional or local healing approaches. The literature reflects the
values of social justice and strengths based work that is valued in the counseling psychology
field.
The strength of this area of research is the diversity of perspectives written on the topic of
community empowerment. This literature utilized feminist, multicultural, social justice, and
empowerment theories. The weakness of this area is that little empirical research has been used
to test theoretical concepts and many of the case studies lack generalizability. Furthermore, a
greater amount of literature was found outside the counseling psychology field and thus,
counseling psychologists may benefit from learning from other disciplines such as social work,
public health, sociology, social psychology and community psychology.
Bowen, N. H., Bahrich, A. S., & Enns, C. Z. (1991). A feminist response to empowerment.
Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 228
Response to McWhirter’s article, “Empowerment in Counseling” (same issue).
Cahill, M., & Martland, S. (1996). Community career counselling for rural transitions. Canadian
Journal of Counselling, 30(3), 155-164.
Strategies adopted to address crises in rural communication often focus on the individual. An
alternative approach is proposed whereby the community is viewed as the client. Community
career counselling requires the commitment of community members to engage in exploring,
analyzing, deciding and acting on options. The counsellor's role as team member and facilitator
can bridge the gap between individual career counselling and economic development of the
community. Goal-setting, career exploration, and action-planning become the process and the
outcome measures.
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Note. The literature was obtained by Emily Mastroianni, Ashley Hutchison, John McConnell, Gunnar
Orn Ingolfsson, Cameron Kiely Froude, Emily Barnum, Nehad Sandozi, and Meredith Berry.
2
Clare, M. M. (2009). Decolonizing consultation: Advocacy as the strategy, diversity as context.
Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19, 8-25 DOI:
10.1080/10474410802494929
The following is a reflection on the clinical practice of consultation in the context of human
diversity with particular attention to developing theories falling under the headings of
decolonization and multicontextuality. Related to descriptions of these theoretical perspectives, I
make reference to the small yet promising literature of advocacy consultation as one
methodology that can support action toward realizing progress in the application of theory. My
perspective is necessarily limited to my experiences and understandings as (among other things)
an educated woman raised White in the southern United States by children of the Depression Era.
Given this limitation and because our collective discussion in these areas is new, I offer
introduction to the terms decolonization and multicontextuality as potentially useful to ongoing
development of consultation responsive to diversity in schools and communities.
Cox, R.S. & Espinoza, A (2005). Career-community development: A framework for career
counseling capacity building in rural communities. Journal of Employment Counseling, 42, 146158.
The authors propose a framework for career counseling in rural communities that addresses the
psychosocial and economic challenges of natural disasters and other catastrophic transitions. The
career-community development framework expands the notion of "client" to include a
community-as-client approach within a capacity building orientation to supporting workers in the
wake of large-scale disruptions. Drawing on a case study of 2 communities recovering from a
devastating forest fire, the authors outline an intervention approach that integrates elements from
psychological-trauma theory, career-community capacity building models, and libratory
educational practices. Implications of this framework for counselor training and practice are
discussed.
Fries, E. (2003). Steps towards empowerment for community healing.Intervention: International
Journal Of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work & Counselling In Areas Of Armed Conflict, 1(2),
40-46.
After surviving a recent massacre in the north of the Democratic Republic of Congo, a group of
22 staff members of a community health nursing programme requested the assistance of the
author. During a three-day meeting, the traumatic experiences of the participants were discussed.
Several steps, including performing a ritual ('burying the dead') and psycho-education on stress
and trauma, were developed using the resources of the group. In view of the high numbers of
traumatised communities, participants felt the need to pass on what they had learned. At a later
stage, they began to view these issues in the context of community health work and prepared to
change the mental health curriculum of their programme.
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Hampton, M., & Norman, C. (1997). Community-building in a peer support center. Journal Of
College Student Development, 38(4), 357-364.
For this qualitative study researchers investigated aspects of student development facilitated
through focusing on community-building in a peer counseling team of 6 female and 3 male
Caucasian Canadian college students (aged 21–43 yrs). The peer support team provided
empathic listening, referrals, and support to university students. Interview results yielded
material on the psychological sense of community and respect for diversity, the meaning
associated with "peer", tools for community-building, and the values underlying empowerment.
Through experiencing community with their peers, students reported enhanced ability and desire
to create community within and outside of the university.
Hays, D. G., Arredondo, P., Gladding, S. T., & Toporek, R. L. (2010). Integrating social justice
in group work: The next decade. Journal For Specialists In Group Work, 35(2), 177-206.
Group work can be an effective outlet for facilitating client empowerment at individual and
systemic levels. This article outlines strategies for increasing attention to social justice issues in
group work over the next decade within education, training, supervision, practice, and research.
Drawing from historical perspectives, current literature, and experience as social justice-minded
scholars, educators, and practitioners, the authors describe numerous and unique opportunities as
well as potential challenges for group workers engaging in social justice advocacy and practice.
Topics explored include consciousness raising, group empowerment,community organizing,
definitions of social justice, attribution theory, and sociopolitical identity development.
Katz, R. (1984). Empowerment and synergy: Expanding the community's healing resources.
Prevention In Human Services, 3(2-3), 201-226 doi:10.1300/J293v03n02_10
Suggests an alternative to the commonly held scarcity paradigm of thinking about valued human
resources, which assumes individuals must compete because resources are scarce. The
alternative—the synergy paradigm—is epitomized in the synergistic community, where valued
human resources are renewable and expanding and are distributed equitably to members so that
what is good for one is good for all, and the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Three field
studies among the pKung of Botswana, Figi Islanders, and persons associated with urban
community health centers in the US present cross-cultural evidence for the functioning of
empowerment within a synergistic paradigm. Empowerment is considered as access to and
control of valued resources; the specific valued resource focused upon is community healing.
The studies suggest that community healing resources can become renewable and expanding, as
can the process of empowerment that accesses them. Community members share these resources,
combining conflicting resources into unexpectedly effective treatment packages. Given present
inequities in resource distribution, transformative education is offered as one means to support a
shift in thinking toward synergy.
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Lee, C. C. (1991). Empowerment in counseling: A multicultural perspective. Journal of
Counseling and Development, 69, 229-230
Reply to McWhirter’s article “Empowerment in Counseling” (same issue).
Li, C. & Vasquez-Nuttall (2009). School consultants as agents of social justice for multicultural
children and families. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19, 26-44 DOI:
10.1080/10474410802462769
This article discusses some of the social justice issues that multicultural students and families
encounter that are directly relevant to school consultation practice. The issues include culturally
fair education, fair expectations of the child from the family and school, fair assessment,
evidence-based intervention, and evaluation of responsiveness to intervention for
culturally/linguistically diverse (CLD) students. A case study is provided that illustrates how an
ecological framework is useful in understanding the challenges multicultural children face and
what consultants can do to promote social justice. Consultants are encouraged to (a) diligently
increase their own multicultural competency; (b) actively consider the social, economic,
environmental, political, and cultural contexts of consultation; (c) be mindful of school-specific
social justice issues in consultation practice; (d) promote fair collaboration between the school
and CLD families; and (e) advocate for just treatment for CLD children.
McWhirter, E. H. (1991). Empowerment in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development,
69, 222-227.
This article examines the use of empowerment as a central component of counseling and as a
criterion for evaluating counseling interventions. Definitions of empowerment across several
perspectives are discussed and a definition of empowerment in the context of counseling is
proposed. Based on this definition, potentially empowering and disempowering aspects of
counseling are presented. Measurement and research issues and recommendations related to
empowerment are highlighted.
Pearrow, M. M. & Pollack, S. (2009). Youth empowerment in oppressive systems:
Opportunities for school consultants. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19,
45-60 DOI: 10.1080/10474410802494911
Empowerment of youth, particularly in urban settings, is critical to addressing issues of social
injustice. Programs that support the development of empowerment, or action taken by an
individual to facilitate his or her own ability to act in the face of oppression, have demonstrated
great promise in dimensions such as creating stronger group bonding and improved mental
health and school performance (Bemak, 2005; Bemak, Chi-Ying, & Siroskey-Sabdo, 2005;
Wallerstein, 2006). Yet, there are challenges inherent to implementing, supporting, and
sustaining empowerment programs in many school settings given the hierarchical structure and
contextual norms of these environments (Yowell & Gordon, 1996). This article reviews the Teen
Empowerment program and offers strategies for consultants as they support programs and
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encourage socially just practices in the school setting. The use of Participatory Action Research
methods, and its application to creating positive social change and the empowerment of
community members, is also reviewed.
Poonwassie, A., & Charter, A. (2001). An aboriginal worldview of helping: Empowering
approaches. Canadian Journal Of Counselling, 35(1), 63-73.
Euro-Canadian interventions have not successfully addressed the socio-economic problems
experienced in Aboriginal communities as a result of years of colonization. Leading up to the
new millennium, cultural forces have started to shift, and Euro-Canadian counsellors, therapists,
and other helpers began to respond more effectively to the needs of Aboriginal peoples. A
number of Aboriginal groups and communities took leadership by developing their own holistic
approaches to healing/wellness, based on their worldviews. A reflection on this process with an
awareness of Aboriginal worldviews and cultural imperatives offers possible approaches which
facilitate empowerment in working with Aboriginal communities and Aboriginal clients.
Prilleltensky, I., & Prilleltensky, O. (2006). Promoting well-being: Linking personal,
organizational, and community change. Hoboken, NJ US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
From the back cover: Promoting Well-Being builds on the authors' knowledge base to connect
treatment with prevention, counseling with advocacy, and personal change with community
change and social justice. This resource is unique in showing how these areas can work in unison
to enhance the well-being of individuals and the community alike. Addressing challenges such as
disability, injustice, arrogance, and complacency, and using visual tools, including charts and
diagrams, case studies, innovative exercises, and engaging prose, the authors provide readers
with important insight into how these domains interact as well as strategies for helping clients
harness the benefits of these interactions. Promoting Well-Being is an essential tool for
psychologists, counselors, social workers, human service professionals, public health
professionals, and students in these fields.
Roach, A. T. & Elliot, S. N. (2009). Consultation to support inclusive accountability and
standards-based reform: Facilitating access, equity, and empowerment. Journal of Educational
and Psychological Consultation, 19, 61-81 DOI: 10.1080/10474410802463320
Current federal legislation (i.e., No Child Left Behind (NCLB)) requires states to set rigorous
academic standards, ensure classroom instruction addresses these standards, and measure and
report students’ progress via large-scale assessments. NCLB assumes that inclusive
accountability systems and standards-based reform will result in improved educational quality
across states and school districts and increased access and opportunity for all students. In this
article, we focus on three potential areas of influence for consultants committed to pursuing
social justice in and through these policies: facilitating students’ access to the general
curriculum; promoting equity in educational outcomes; and empowering educators and families
to make appropriate decisions regarding participation in assessments. We also discuss challenges
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and lessons learned from providing systems-level consultation to support inclusive accountability
and standards-based reform in numerous states. We conclude by offering ideas for future
research and guidelines for providing consultation that facilitates social justice by creating
improved opportunities and outcomes for all students.
Speight, S. L. & Vera, E. M. (2009). The challenge of social justice for school psychology.
Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19, 82-92 doi:
10.1080/10474410802463338
This commentary suggests that a critical dialogue about the role of social justice within the
practice of school psychology is needed for the field to embrace and advance a social justice
agenda.
Toporek, R.L., Gerstein, L.H., Fouad, N.A., Roysircar-Sodowsky, G. & Israel, T. (Eds.). (2005).
Handbook for Social Justice in Counseling Psychology: Leadership, Vision, and Action. CA:
Sage Publications.
Wheatley, A., Christman, S. T., & Nicolas, G. (2012). Walking the talk: Reflections from a
Community-Focused Dialogue Series. Journal for Social Action In Counseling & Psychology,
4(1), 1-17.
This paper provides a historical background and review of the literature on intergroup dialogues,
with a focus on community-engaged dialogues. The authors illustrate the format, purpose, and
community factors involved in the Day of Dialogue (DOD), an intergroup community dialogue
series. An expansion of Zúñiga and Nagda's (2001) stages of intergroup dialogue is used to
critically examine dialogue issues and provide a structure for culturally appropriate, communityengaged implementation. Lessons learned from three years of DOD implementation are provided,
including the following themes: Balancing process and content, maintaining flexibility, defining
roles, identifying biases, identifying/engaging key players, allowing voices to be heard,
mindfulness toward environment/structure, and promoting movement towards action. Concrete
suggestions to guide future practice around creating effective, culturally appropriate, and
community-engaged dialogues, as well as effectively empowering communities and fostering
social change will be discussed.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature
The non-counseling psychology literature on “community empowerment” provided a wide array
of articles across many disciplines including social work, sociology, community psychology,
education, medicine, and school counseling. The articles were predominately theory based or
overviews of programs. Popular themes included school or youth focused violence prevention
programs, international projects, and community based programs aiming to end violence against
women.
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Counseling psychologists would benefit from doing more interdisciplinary work with these fields
and could offer expertise on strengths based approaches, program evaluation, prevention,
multiculturalism, and mental health issues. Overall, the topic of community empowerment is
very broad and offers plenty of opportunities for counseling psychologists to work with other
professionals to promote health, wellness, and violence prevention on a community level.
Anckermann, S., Dominguez, M., Soto, N., Kjaerulf, F., Berliner, P., & Naima Mikkelsen, E.
(2005). Psycho-social support to large numbers of traumatized people in post-conflict societies:
an approach to community development in Guatemala. Journal Of Community & Applied Social
Psychology, 15(2), 136-152. doi:1O.1002/casp.814
The main challenge for community development efforts in post-conflict societies with large
numbers of traumatized people is to create hope and reconciliation through community healing
and participatory democratic community development. The community development efforts
should aim at creating a set of values and practices conducive to peaceful co-existence through
non-violent conflict resolution, thereby reducing the alarming levels of violence in post-conflict
societies. This article describes a community development approach in Guatemala to supporting
people affected by organized violence and torture. Through a description of the theoretical and
practical work carried out in post-conflict Guatemala through the ODHAG-RCT programme, the
article focuses on the relation between the three main pillars of the community development
approach; healing, empowerment, and development. The community development approach uses
health as the entry strategy to its aim of social and political transformation. Traditionally, health
is not perceived as being linked with social and political transformation, but rather as the means
to increase the health condition of community members. However, this article will show how
community social psychology can be integrated in an understanding of political and economic
community development. Hence it is argued that the outcome of the community development
approach is measured through observations of the group as well as the political and economic
developments of the community, and not only through a decrease in health related symptoms.
Breton, M. (1989). Liberation theology, group work, and the right of the poor and oppressed to
participate in the life of the community. Social Work With Groups: A Journal Of Community And
Clinical Practice, 12(3), 5-18. doi:10.1300/J009v12n03_02
Discusses liberation theology, a theology that has developed in Latin America by clergy and laity
as a means for reaching the poor and oppressed people and for challenging the power of the
Roman Catholic hierarchy. Four challenges that face such theologians are also discussed.
Liberation theology offers ideas for social group workers in reaching out to the disenfranchised
and challenges those elements in our theoretical models that lean toward paternalism and limited
empowerment. Effective reaching out to the poor and oppressed involves a challenge to group
social workers to give up some professional control and power and develop new practice models.
Social work agencies would also need to give up some institutional control and power and
accommodate to new models.
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Conway, P., Cresswell, J., Harmon, D., Pospishil, C., Smith, K., Wages, J., & Weisz, L. (2010).
Using Empowerment Evaluation to Facilitate the Development of Intimate Partner and Sexual
Violence Prevention Programs.Journal Of Family Social Work, 13(4), 343-361.
doi:10.1080/10522158.2010.493736
This article addresses the question, “What factors contributed to successful completion of a
needs and resource assessment in local communities, using the empowerment evaluation
approach?” Case studies of three successful projects allow the exploration of organizational,
community, state, and national factors that contributed to a strong needs and resource assessment,
including original data collection, to guide the development of a plan to prevent intimate partner
and sexual violence. The overall project was guided by empowerment evaluation principles.
Each local community used additional conceptual frameworks, including grounded theory,
Kolberg's theory of moral development, gender-role attitudes as operationalized by the rape myth
acceptance and Olweis' systemic approach to bullying. Local programs focused on specific
populations and collected original data through a variety of methods. For instance, one local
agency utilized already existing surveys to assess bullying within their public school setting.
Another community assessed the attitudes of male sex offenders and other male community
members regarding gender-role attitudes, violence, and risk and protective factors for
perpetration. A third community administered a random phone survey, examining attitudes
toward rape, other violence against women, and gender roles. Each community integrated the
results of their original data collection into their needs and resource assessment. Preliminary
information regarding the communities' experience with the completion of needs and resource
assessments, using the empowerment evaluation framework, indicate that successful projects
used specific theories or frameworks to guide data collection. Positive collaboration with
evaluators and community prevention coalitions characterized each community's experience.
Culbert, V. (2005). Civil Society Development Versus the Peace Dividend: International Aid in
the Wanni. Disasters, 29(1), 38-57. doi:10.1111/j.0361-3666.2005.00273.x
Donors that provide aid to the Wanni region of Sri Lanka, which is controlled by the Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), are promoting initiatives that seek to advance the national peace
process. Under the rubric of post-conflict reconstruction, the actions of political forces and
structural factors have led to the prioritisation of two different approaches to peace-building:
community capacity-building projects; and support for the `peace dividend'. Both of these
approaches face challenges. Cooperation with civil society actors is extremely difficult due to
intimidation by the LTTE political authority and the authoritarian nature of its control. Peacebuilding successes with respect to the peace dividend are difficult to measure, and must be
balanced against the negative effects of misdirected funds. Aid organisations must be careful not
to consider the tasks of peace-building, humanitarian relief and community empowerment as
either interchangeable or as mutually reinforcing endeavours.
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de Rivera, J., & Laird, J. (1988). Peace fair or warfare: Educating the community. Journal Of
Social Issues, 44(2), 59-80. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1988.tb02063.x
Examined ways of encouraging people to accept responsibility for influencing governmental
foreign policy. An attempt to create an ideal educational experience—a peace fair—that would
provide the set of conditions that earlier research by the 1st author (1984) suggested were
essential for the acceptance of personal responsibility is described. Questionnaire data show that
the fair was successful in convincing individuals that they personally could do something to help
prevent nuclear war. However, it revealed a serious weakness in the current peace movement—
an inability to portray convincingly a course of national action that could promote peace and
justice.
Franzen, S., MORREL-SAMUELS, S., REISCHL, T. M., & ZIMMERMAN, M. A. (2009).
Using Process Evaluation to Strengthen Intergenerational Partnerships in the Youth
Empowerment Solutions Program. Journal Of Prevention & Intervention In The Community,
37(4), 289-301. doi:10.1080/10852350903196290
This study illustrates the utility of process evaluation methods for improving a new violence
prevention program, Youth Empowerment Solutions for Peaceful Communities (YES). The YES
program empowered young adolescents to plan and complete community improvement projects
with neighborhood adult advocates. The process evaluation methods included questionnaires and
focus groups with students and interviews with neighborhood advocates. Process evaluation
results guided program improvements for the second year. The process evaluation results after
the second program year suggested that the program improvements were associated with higher
student ratings of program staff and neighborhood advocates. The students and neighborhood
advocates reported increased positive experiences after the second program year, but continued
to note the challenges of working inter-generationally on community.
Garnets, L. D., & D'Augelli, A. R. (1994). Empowering lesbian and gay communities: A call for
collaboration with community psychology. American Journal Of Community Psychology, 22(4),
447-470. doi:10.1007/BF02506889
Discusses the history of empowerment efforts in lesbian and gay communities. Despite
considerable progress, lesbians and gay men remain marginalized in American society. Their
personal, family, and community development is hampered by social and institutional barriers to
empowerment. Three disempowering problems of contemporary lesbian and gay communities
are detailed: stresses related to coming out, heterosexism, and difficulties identifying with a
community. Four domains are suggested for future collaboration between community
psychologists and lesbian and gay communities: anti-lesbian/antigay prejudice, discrimination,
and violence; mental health and health enhancement, the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and civil rights.
Future collaborations must build on successful social change strategies already used by activists
in lesbian and gay communities
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Goodman, R. M., & Noonan, R. K. (2009). Empowerment Evaluation for Violence Prevention
Public Health Programs. Health Promotion Practice,1011S-18S.
doi:10.1177/1524839908317646
The formative evaluation consultation and systems technique (FORECAST) approach to
evaluating complex community programs is described as an empowerment evaluation strategy.
First, empowerment evaluation is defined and contrasted with more-traditional approaches, such
as experimental and quasi-experimental designs. Then FORECAST is described, illustrating how
it was applied in four community projects. One of the projects is used to demonstrate the
application of FORECAST evaluation in programs addressing the prevention of first-time male
perpetration of sexual violence.
Goodrow, B., & Meyers, P. L. (2000). The Del Rio Project: A Case for Community–Campus
Partnership. Education For Health: Change In Learning & Practice (Taylor & Francis Ltd),
13(2), 213-220.
Context: Interdisciplinary teams of graduate health professions students and faculty were
provided with experiential learning opportunities while assisting a small rural community
address critical health-related issues. Project objectives: To establish an effective partnership
with community leaders and area residents to assist in determining the feasibility of a new
primary care clinic and to remediate a water borne disease threat. To create interdisciplinary
clinical learning experiences and to develop future longitudinal learning opportunities,
emphasizing primary prevention. To create a community-campus partnership with control
originating in and sustained by the community. Partnership development: An interdisciplinary
team of health professions students and faculty worked with community leaders and residents to
develop leadership skills, enhance infrastructure and coordinate efforts to address health
concerns. A health marketing analysis and a series of year-long environmental assessments of
surface and ground water were completed. The community was assisted with reaching consensus
for future actions, emphasizing local control, enhanced county-based ownership, and
sustainability of intervention efforts. Outcomes and implications: The Del Rio and East
Tennessee State University partnership was instrumental in accomplishing its short-term
objectives with the remediation of two major health issues. The more important long-term
objectives of enhancing citizen leadership skills and developing a more action-oriented
community infrastructure were also met. Using an experiential learning model, students
practiced community organization skills, conflict resolution and problem-solving strategies. The
campus-community partnership illustrated the advantages of experiential, multidisciplinary
education and accentuated the positive aspects of collaborative planning and action. The
partnership continues to provide expanded learning opportunities for students and contributes to
the empowerment and self-sufficiency of the community. The ripple effects of the model have
become evident, with dramatic increases in university-wide efforts to increase partnership
opportunities and enhanced support for service learning throughout the region
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Griffith, D. M., Allen, J., Zimmerman, M. A., Morrel-Samuels, S., Reischl, T. M., Cohen, S. E.,
& Campbell, K. A. (2008). Organizational empowerment in community mobilization to address
youth violence. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine, 34(3, Suppl 1), S89-S99.
doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.12.015
Community mobilization efforts to address youth violence are often disconnected, uncoordinated,
and lacking adequate resources. An organizational empowerment theory for community
partnerships provides a useful framework for organizing and evaluating a coalition's community
mobilization efforts and benefits for individual organizations, partnerships, and communities.
Based on a qualitative analysis of steering committee interviews and other primary data, the
results of a case study suggest that the intra organizational infrastructure; inter organizational
membership practices and networking; and extra organizational research, training, and
organizing activities facilitate the community mobilization efforts of the Youth Violence
Prevention Center in Flint, Michigan. The organizational empowerment framework, and its focus
on organizational structures and processes, illustrates the importance of recognizing and
incorporating the organizational systems and structures that provide the foundation on which a
community mobilization effort may build. This framework also highlights how organizational
structures and processes are central components of multilevel strategies for organizing and
mobilizing community efforts to address youth violence.
Guy, B. (2005). Between power and hegemony; business communities in peace processes.
Review Of International Studies, 31(2), 325-348.
The support that businessmen and business organisations displayed for the peace processes in
Israel and Northern Ireland was open and vocal, underscoring the supposed linkage between
globalisation, peace and economic growth, and the supposed leadership role of business. The
purpose of this study is to examine the motivations of the business communities in Israel and
Northern Ireland in becoming involved in the peace processes, their organisation to promote
peace, decision-making processes at critical junctures, and their actual impact on the political
outcomes. Study of the business communities demonstrates that their empowerment enabled
them to exert political influence but fell short of hegemony that would enable them to set the
wider political agenda. The impact of both business communities, for different reasons, was
therefore limited.
Harvey, M. R., Mondesir, A. V., & Aldrich, H. (2007). Fostering resilience in traumatized
communities: A community empowerment model of intervention. Journal Of Aggression,
Maltreatment & Trauma, 14(1-2), 265-285. doi:10.1300/J146v14n01_14
This paper describes the history, composition, and community intervention activities of the
Community Crisis Response Team (CCRT) of the Victims of Violence Program and the
community empowerment model of intervention that guides its work. The paper uses a single
case study to illustrate the nature of community-wide trauma, the core attributes of ecologically
informed and effective community intervention, and the intervention design, implementation,
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and evaluation processes that are embedded in the community empowerment model. The paper
includes a description of the CCRT's approach to the conduct of traumatic stress debriefings and
a discussion of the practical and theoretical implications of the CCRT.
Hernandez, T. (1999). Community Building in South Florida to Promote School Safety.
Education & Urban Society, 31(3), 368.
Focuses on a study which examined the efforts of South Florida to address school safety in
troublesome schools. Background of the study; Information on the Coalition for Community
Empowerment initiative of the area; Details on juvenile delinquency in Broward County; How
the target population was served; Results of the study; Expansion of the program to other
districts.
Hipolito-Delgado, C. P., & Lee, C. C. (2007). Staying focused on what really matters: Further
thoughts on empowerment theory for professional school counselors. Professional School
Counseling, 10(4), 344-345.
Reply by the current authors to the comments made by C. Zalaquett and M. D'Andrea (see record
2007-07849-002), D. T. Sciarra and M. L. Whitson (see record 2007-07849-003), J. J. Schmidt
(see record 2007-07849-004) and M. Mitcham-Smith (see record 2007-07849-005) on the
original article (see record 2007-07849-001). In giving further thought to empowerment theory
and in reviewing the critiques of the respondents, there are several issues that strike us as
deserving additional consideration with respect to empowerment theory for professional school
counselors. We would like to give further attention to the importance of the empowerment
process for school counselors, the question of outcomes with respect to the empowerment
process for students, and the operationalization of empowerment theory in schools. Addressing
these issues should further assuage any concerns about the viability of empowerment theory as
an appropriate theoretical orientation to guide social advocacy in school counseling. We hope
that this intellectual exchange has been as thought provoking for the readers as it has for the
authors. Additionally, we hope to have convinced the school counseling profession of the need
for the empowerment of students from marginalized communities and, with the help of the
respondents, to have provided a viable theoretical orientation with practical applications to
facilitate this process.
Johnson, P. (2004). Black Radio Politically Defined: Communicating Community and Political
Empowerment Through Stevie Wonder's KJLH-FM, 1992-2002. Political Communication, 21(3),
353-367. doi:10.1080/10584600490481460
KJLH-FM's community service activities demonstrate that the station's mission is more than talk;
it is action. It acted upon residents' needs during the 1992 Los Angeles riots and has remained
responsive to its audience. "Front Page," KJLH-FM's flagship program, served as an alternative
voice in South Central Los Angeles and across the United States. KJLH-FM's response to the
1992 uprising was the reference point that the researcher used to identify themes and/or patterns
13
defining the station's community role, especially as it affected civic participation and political
mobilization. Beyond listeners' anxieties regarding the "violence" in the streets and their
criticism directed toward the "Los Angeles Police Department," community empowerment and
unity emerged among the top themes of the 1992 "Front Page" on-air transcripts. The KJLH-FM
case, in particular, presents a rare opportunity to study the community responsiveness of Los
Angeles' only independently Black-owned station within the context of a historical event as well
as examine its relationship with other U.S. Black/urban radio stations. A significant factor that
led to the station's grasp of community issues in 1992 was its location, or proximity to its
listeners. KJLH-FM also has a uniquely prominent position in its community, given its ability to
draw celebrities and politicians into major events and discussions.
Jones, J. L. (2005). Transboundary conservation: Development implications for communities in
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. International Journal Of Sustainable Development & World
Ecology, 12(3), 266-278.
Conservation is increasingly promoted as a sustainable development instrument in Southern
Africa, particularly for remote rural communities. Conservation and development schemes are
marketed as community-based projects providing local empowerment through the creation of
jobs and cash stemming from protected areas, as well as increased biodiversity protection by
local communities whose jobs are dependent on the resource. Transfrontier Conservation Areas
(TFCAs), mega Peace Parks that cross international borders, are one of the latest conservation
and development paradigms in Southern Africa. TFCAs have gained broad support, including
government recognition as a development tool. However, there has been minimal research on the
impact of TFCAs on local communities. This paper seeks to provide an empirical case study of a
South African community bordering the Lubombo TFCA (South Africa, Swaziland,
Mozambique). Results are presented that indicate the Mhangweni community in KwaZulu-Natal
could experience decreased access to social, natural, and economic resources as a result of the
Peace Park.
Kosciulek, J. F. (1999). The consumer-directed theory of empowerment. Rehabilitation
Counseling Bulletin, 42(3), 196-213.
Presents the Consumer-Directed Theory of Empowerment (CDTE) as a model for guiding the
development and evaluation of disability policy and rehabilitation services. Consumer direction
(CD) is a philosophy and orientation whereby informed consumers have control over the policies
and practices directly affecting their lives. The major tenet of the CDTE is that increased CD in
disability policy formulation and rehabilitation service delivery will lead to increased community
integration, empowerment, and quality of life among people with disabilities. Applications of the
CDTE include disability policymaking, service delivery and program evaluation, and
rehabilitation research.
14
La Roche, M., & Tawa, J. (2011). Taking back our streets: A clinical model for empowering
urban youths through participation in peace promotion.Peace And Conflict: Journal Of Peace
Psychology, 17(1), 4-21. doi:10.1080/10781911003769165
A three-stage empowerment model is developed based on the experience of a psychotherapy
group conducted with Black and Latino youth residents in an urban housing project with high
rates of community violence. The model aims to not only ameliorate mental health symptoms
related to exposure to community violence, but also enhance youths’ ability to transform their
sociocultural context through peace promotion. The three stages are (a) addressing chief
complaints and symptom reduction, (b) exploring narratives, and (c) fostering empowerment and
peace through community action. Conceptual and clinical strategies are described within each
stage, using case illustrations from the psychotherapy group.
Lee, A., Li, S. W., Au, B. Y., Yuen, W. K., Ho, M. M., Loong, M. C., & ... Ho, C. L. (2004).
Parent Training: Experience of the New Territories West School Health Promotion Project of
Hong Kong. Asia-Pacific Journal Of Public Health, 16(Suppl), S22-S26.
Parents' participation in school life is an important element of a health-promoting school. To
maximize the potential of parents as partners in health education and take on a leading role in
promoting health in the school, family and community, a parental health education programme
using the empowerment model had been launched in partnership between academic and health
sectors. A total of 28 parents selected from eight schools in the New Territories West region of
Hong Kong participated in the programme. Evaluation of the programme revealed that the
programme had matched well with the expectation of most participants. All respondents had
reported an increase in health awareness and knowledge, and confidence to promote health
concepts in familiar environments, such as the home and school. They also showed interest to
participate in further training in health related issues. Parental health education is recommended
to enhance active involvement for building a greater sense of belonging and to put through
individual empowerment to community empowerment. Parental involvement in school health
promotion would be an effective way to facilitate the paradigm shift.
Lee, J. B. (1999). Crossing bridges: Groupwork in Guyana. Groupwork: An Interdisciplinary
Journal For Working With Groups, 11(1), 6-23.
This article explores the theory and process utilised in practising groupwork in a country
different from the worker's country of origin. It is about constructing conceptual bridges to cross
cultural and racial divides. The author was invited to act as resource person and consultant to the
Guyanese social work community on the empowerment of women through groups in Guyana,
South America. A record of a group meeting with indigenous community leaders who wanted to
help abused women in their midst is included to demonstrate the integration of theory into
practice. Working with people in groups is a valued modality in this rapidly changing country
whose greatest resource is its people.
15
Martin, I. (2001). CONSTRUCTING A COMMUNITY RESPONSE TO VIOLENCE. Smith
College Studies In Social Work, 71(2), 347-355.
After the massacre at Columbine High School, community members across the country
convened to discuss how better to understand the warning signs, how to intervene at the right
time—how to protect our children. What role do institutions of higher education have during
such times of community crisis? What is the role of a school of social work? This paper is a case
study of action taken by one school for social work toward developing a community response to
violence through interdisciplinary outreach and the empowerment of local community members.
Mills, R. C., & Naim, A. (2007). Toward a peaceable paradigm: Seeking Innate wellness in
communities and impacts on urban violence and crime.National Civic Review, 96(4), 45-55.
doi:10.1002/ncr.194
The article discusses the peaceable empowerment paradigm and its difference from traditional
approaches to community change in the United States. It explores the development of
community empowerment and leadership programs in the country's urban areas which aim to
reduce crime and violence. Impacts of traditional activist modalities on communities are also
examined.
Mok, B. (2004). Self-help Group Participation and Empowerment in Hong Kong. Journal of
Sociology & Social Welfare, 31(3), 153-168.
This paper reports on the first comprehensive study of self-help groups in Hong Kong. Initial
findings from the quantitative and qualitative data suggest that self-help group participation has
an impact on intrapersonal, interpersonal and community/political empowerment. Based on
existing data, this study has resulted in the development of a hypothetical model encompassing
the interrelationships among self-help group participation, social support, social learning,
leadership and empowerment, for testing in future research.
Moyo, C., Francis, J., & Ndlovu, P. (2012). Community-Perceived State of Women
Empowerment in Some Rural Areas of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Gender & Behaviour,
10(1), 4418-4432.
Active involvement of grassroots community members in finding sustainable solutions to women
empowerment is crucial. However, it is necessary to build a common understanding, among local
interest groups, of the current state of women empowerment first. This study investigated the
perceived state of women empowerment in some rural areas of Makhado Municipality in South
Africa. A total of 5 924 people comprising children, youth, women, men and local leaders
voluntarily participated in the study. Data were collected from 41 villages in three Wards
through reflection circles in which questionnaires requiring responses on a Likert-type scale were
administered. Although the state of women empowerment in terms of access to resources,
awareness creation, participation and control was appreciable, considerable challenges still
16
existed. The results of this study underscored the need for mounting capacity enhancement
interventions to address the challenges confronting women empowerment in rural areas.
Novek, E. M. (1999). Communication and Community Empowerment.Peace Review, 11(1), 61.
Examines the communication strategies used in community building in the United States.
Development of activity programs for the youth; Information on the training conducted by the
Coastal City Capability Corps (CCCC); Background information on the CCCC.
Prater, J. S. (1987). Training Christian lay counselors in techniques of prevention and outreach.
Journal Of Psychology And Christianity, 6(2), 30-34.
Proposes a training program for lay counselors that embraces the assessment of environmental
stressors in emotional disorders, techniques of community outreach and empowerment, cultural
awareness and sensitivity, the use of existing church-based support systems, the development of
new support systems within the church, and integration with other church outreach ministries.
Reinelt, C. (1994). Fostering empowerment, building community: The challenge for state-funded
feminist organizations. Human Relations, 47(6), 685-705. doi:10.1177/001872679404700606
Using a case study methodology (the Texas Council on Family Violence), this paper explores
specific ways in which the battered women's movement in Texas was affected by state funding.
It is argued that state funding of this organization was a mixed blessing. It allowed movement
activists to stabilize the funding of their organization and to have a wider political and social
impact. At the same time, state funding expanded the organizational field based on available
resources, not common ideology. This expansion had the potential to threaten the ideological and
political cohesion of the movement. The effects of state funding were mitigated when the
movement's leadership engaged in feminist practices that challenged the bureaucratic and
hierarchical practices of the state's decision making structures by empowering movement
participants to work together collectively toward common goals.
Shalhoub-Kevorkian, N., & Erez, E. (2002). Integrating a victim voice in community policing: A
feminist critique. International Review Of Victimology, 9(2), 113-135.
The article addresses the role of victim's voice in community policing of violence against women.
Using Israel as a case study, with its minority Arab and majority Jewish communities, the
authors show the paradoxes of adhering to community policing tenets in a highly collectivist
community, and when divergence and conflict rather than congruence and consensus
characterize the relations between the police, the minority community and its victims. The article
juxtaposes and contrasts two databases relevant for understanding the role of victims in
community policing in violence against women. Police officers' views about and perceptions of
Arab female victims and their community are presented alongside the narratives of Arab female
victims about their abuse, and their interaction with and perceptions of the police. The article
concludes with discussing the risks and highlighting the advantages of community policing for
17
violence against women victims in terms of victims' safety and empowerment, and the potential
of community policing for improving the relation between minority communities and police.
Spergel, I. A., & Grossman, S. F. (1997). The Little Village Project: A Community Approach to
the Gang Problem. Social Work, 42(5), 456-472.
The article focuses on inter-organizational and community approach represents by the Little
Village Gang Violence Reduction Project in Chicago. Community organization and direct
services are not easily combined in the modern lexicon of social work methods. The current
rhetoric distinguishing community and personal empowerment from various treatment modalities,
however defined, may be insufficient for planning and dealing with the complex problems of
troubled and troublesome people in fragmented, impoverished and segregated communities.
Youth gang crime and delinquency are major social problems that are no longer confined to
inner city areas. Both are now present in small as well as medium-size cities, suburban areas and
rural areas.
Stevens, G., Seedat, M., Swart, T. M., & van der Walt, C. (2003). Promoting Methodological
Pluralism, Theoretical Diversity and Interdisciplinarity Through a Multi-Leveled Violence
Prevention Initiative in South Africa. Journal Of Prevention & Intervention In The
Community,25(1), 11-29. doi:10.1300/J005v25n01_02
Violence prevention within low-income, under-resourced communities presents significant
challenges to community development researcher-practitioners seeking to maximize partnerships,
resource utilization and overall program effectiveness. This article highlights a South African
research and service delivery organization's efforts to develop a violence prevention matrix,
premised upon an adaptation of the public health approach and the infusion of a critical,
community development praxis. It presents preliminary outcomes of a multi-level pilot
application of this matrix in a low-income neighborhood in South Africa, specifically focusing
on evaluating its capacity to foster methodological pluralism, theoretical diversity and
interdisciplinarity, together with promoting community empowerment and coalition-building
strategies.
Rees, S., & Pease, B. (2007). Domestic Violence in Refugee Families in Australia: Rethinking
Settlement Policy and Practice. Journal Of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 5(2), 1-19.
doi:10.1300/J500v05n02_01
It has been identified that immigrant and refugee women are particularly at risk in cases of
domestic violence. This article reveals the qualitative research findings from a study into the
significance of traumatic history, social and economic context, cultural differences and changed
gender identities on the perceptions and experiences of domestic violence in refugee families.
The study was undertaken with a sample of refugee men and women from Iraq, Ethiopia, Sudan,
Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia. Compounding contextual factors concerning structurally based
inequalities, culturally emerged challenges, social dissonance, psychological stress and
18
patriarchal foundations are revealed. Informed by an intersectional framework that recognizes
gender oppression as modified by intersections with other forms of inequality, the article argues
the case for community-managed projects involving multi-level empowerment-based
interventions to prevent domestic violence
Rule, A. C. & Kyle, P. B. (2009). Community-building in a diverse setting. Early Childhood
Education Journal, 36, 291-295 doi: 10.1007/s10643-008-0290-z
Research demonstrates that community-building in schools is an integral aspect of student
success. Based on a foundation of research findings related to the importance of implementing
community-building into all aspects of a school, community-building activities, including five
specific classroom strategies (parent visits class to tell about child, weekly newsletter with
interactive activities, bi-monthly open-house hour where children explain school work to parents,
Valentine letters filled with true compliments, and a cultural celebration unit focused on Africa),
were implemented in an urban magnet school. This school was moving toward racial integration
as well as implementation of a Montessori education program. As predicted from research
information, incorporating community- building strategies geared at creating a welcoming
climate, at improving faculty interaction, at fostering collaborative classrooms, and towards ongoing and open teacher/parent communication and collaboration resulted in positive outcomes in
what could have otherwise been a difficult, negative or unproductive situation.
Venning, P. (2010). Marrying Contested Approaches: Empowerment and the Imposition of
International Principles: Domestic Violence Case Resolution in Indonesia. Journal Of
Development Studies, 46(3), 397-416. doi:10.1080/00220380903002913
Resolution of domestic violence disputes in Indonesia illustrates the contradictions between two
international development trends - the increasing recognition of women's rights as human rights,
and the emergence of empowerment approaches to community development. Despite the focus
of legal empowerment programmes on increasing women's autonomy and finding creative
solutions to legal problems, there is increasing pressure on women victims of violence to use the
state criminal justice system to resolve domestic violence justified by international human rights
principles. This pressure impedes empowerment programmes and fails to appreciate the capacity
of local communities to apply and adapt international principles to their local context.
Zimmerman, M. A., Stewart, S. E., Morrel-Samuels, S., Franzen, S., & Reischl, T. M. (2011).
Youth Empowerment Solutions for Peaceful Communities: Combining Theory and Practice in a
Community-Level Violence Prevention Curriculum. Health Promotion Practice, 12(3), 425-439.
doi:10.1177/1524839909357316
This article describes the development and evaluation of an after-school curriculum designed to
prepare adolescents to prevent violence through community change. This curriculum, part of the
Youth Empowerment Solutions for Peaceful Communities (YES) program, is guided by
empowerment and ecological theories within a positive youth development context. YES is
19
designed to enhance the capacity of adolescents and adults to work together to plan and
implement community change projects. The youth curriculum is organized around six themed
units: (a) Youth as Leaders, (b) Learning about Our Community, (c) Improving Our Community,
(d) Building Intergenerational Partnerships, (e) Planning for Change, and (f) Action and
Reflection. The curriculum was developed through an iterative process. Initially, program staff
members documented their activities with youth. These outlines were formalized as curriculum
sessions. Each session was reviewed by the program and research staff and revised based on
underlying theory and practical application. The curriculum process evaluation includes staff and
youth feedback. This theoretically based, field-tested curriculum is designed to be easily adapted
and implemented in a diverse range of communities.
Conflict Resolution by Gunnar Örn Ingólfsson (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Gerstein, L.H., & Moeschberger, S. (2003). Building cultures of peace: An urgent task for
counseling professionals. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81, 115-120.
Gerstein, L.H., & Kirkpatrick, D. (2005). Counseling Psychology and Nonviolent Activism:
Independence for Tibet! In R.L. Toporek, L.H. Gerstein, N.A. Fouad, G. Roysircar-Sodowsky, &
T. Israel (Eds.), Handbook for Social Justice in Counseling Psychology: Leadership, Vision, and
Action (pp. 442-471). CA: Sage Publications.
Norsworthy, K.L., & Gerstein, L.H. (2003). Counseling and communities of peace. Guest editors
for a special issue of the International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 25 (4), 197324.
Norsworthy, K.L., & Gerstein, L.H. (2003). Counseling and building communities of peace: The
interconnections. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 25 (4), 197-203.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Benne, C. G., & Garrard, W. M. (2003). Collaborative Program Development and Evaluation: A
Case Study in Conflict Resolution Education. Journal Of Prevention & Intervention In The
Community, 26(2), 71-87.
This is a story of collaboration between program developers and an evaluator to support the
design of the Conflict Resolution in Schools Programs (CRiSP) community initiative. We
discuss a variety of evaluation techniques useful in program development to illustrate the
benefits of a collaborative approach. The formative stages of the initiative included needs
assessment and traditional literature review, followed by the design, implementation, and
monitoring of pilot programs. Biased on the questions that emerged in the formative research, we
launched a comprehensive meta-analysis of conflict resolution education programs to guide the
future efforts of the CRiSP initiative. We describe the stages of CRiSP research to date and
present highlights of the results from the first two years of formative work and evaluability
20
assessment. Preliminary results of the meta-analysis that describe the predominant characteristics
of thirty conflict management programs in primary and secondary schools are also included.
Erhürman, T. (2010). New Set of Negotiations in the Cyprus Problem: Federation for a Stable
Democracy. Ankara Bar Review, 3(1), 35-41.
The article analyzes how leaders of the Greek and Turkish communities, Dimitris Christofias and
Mehmet Ali Talat, created a framework for comprehensive negotiations that will solve the
disputes between the two communities in Cyprus. It details the type of federation that was
reflected on the negotiations and which preferences of the leaders are the most suitable to the
realities and facts of the country. The author presented several conditions to be achieved so that
the formula of federation will be successful, including the empowerment of constituent states in
making community and zone decisions, residual powers and sovereignty rights must be acquired
by constituent states and protection against suppression of the constituent state with the weaker
economy.
Shankar, J., & Gerstein, L.H. (2007). The Hindu-Muslim conflict: A pilot study of peacebuilding
in Gujarat, India. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 13, 365-379.
Culturally competent training (MFT literature) by Cameron Kiely Froude (University of
Connecticut)
Counseling Psychology Literature
Derald Wing Sue's (1996) model of multicultural counseling competencies, developed in the
early 1980s, provided the foundation on which counseling programs built culturally competent
curricula. According to Wing Sue's model, multicultural counseling consists of three areas: (1)
attitudes and beliefs (awareness of one's own assumptions, values, biases), (2) knowledge
(understanding the worldview of culturally diverse clients, and (3) skills (developing appropriate
intervention strategies and techniques. Since the time that Sue created his model counseling,
various accreditation bodies called for culturally competent training, including but not limited to
the American Psychological Association and the American Counseling Association. Licensing
agencies followed suit and now measure cultural competence during the licensure process.
Graduate training programs have an obligation to provide culturally conscious training to
graduate students.
The counseling psychology literature is varied in how it analyzes programs' approaches to
culturally conscious training. There is a host of theoretical literature discussing the importance of
multicultural training and its implications for clinical practice. Some studies discuss particular
programs transition to a culturally competent education model, describing the difficulties that
occurred in the process. Empirical studies generally discuss the perceptions of a particular
minority group (i.e. Asian-American, African Americans, GLBTQ, international students, etc.)
in counseling training programs. Overall, the literature lacks studies that use a rigorous
methodological design to assess culturally competent curricula in counseling psychology
programs.
21
Allison, K. W., Crawford, I., Echemendia, R., Robinson, L., & Knepp, D. (1994). Human
diversity and professional competence: Training in clinical and counseling psychology revisited.
American Psychologist, 49(9), 792-796. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.49.9.792
Asher, R. L. (2008). Has training in human sexuality changed over the past twenty years? A
survey of clinical psychology, counseling psychology, and doctor of social work programs. (69),
ProQuest Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=2008-99160-050&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Bates, C. M. (1990). The influence of ethics training, ego development, and ethical ideology on
counseling psychology graduate students' willingness to address unethical conduct. (51),
ProQuest Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1991-51064-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Beck, S. C. (2003). Multicultural counseling competence as a function of multicultural
counseling training in doctoral counseling psychology programs. (63), ProQuest Information &
Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=2003-95004-219&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Beer, A. M., Spanierman, L. B., Greene, J. C., & Todd, N. R. (2012). Counseling psychology
trainees' perceptions of training and commitments to social justice. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 59(1), 120-133. doi: 10.1037/a0026325
Belur, V. K. (2011). A phenomenological investigation into the experience of having an Asian
identity during U.S. counseling psychology professional-training. (72), ProQuest Information &
Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=2011-99200-199&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Bieschke, K. J. (2009). Counseling psychology model training values statement addressing
diversity. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(5), 641-643. doi: 10.1177/0011000009331930
22
Bieschke, K. J., & Mintz, L. B. (2012). Counseling psychology model training values statement
addressing diversity: History, current use, and future directions. Training and Education in
Professional Psychology, 6(4), 196-203. doi: 10.1037/a0030810
Ceru, D. J. (1979). The differential effects of psychotherapy practicum training upon the valueorientations of counseling psychology trainees. (39), ProQuest Information & Learning, US.
Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1980-70030-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Choi-Pearson, C. (1998). The multicultural climate: Reactions from counseling psychology
training directors, faculty, and racial/ethnic minority graduate students. (59), ProQuest
Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1998-95021-063&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Constantine, M. G. (1998). Developing competence in multicultural assessment: Implications for
counseling psychology training and practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 26(6), 922-929. doi:
10.1177/0011000098266003
Constantine, M. G., Ladany, N., Inman, A. G., & Ponterotto, J. G. (1996). Students' perceptions
of multicultural training in counseling psychology programs. Journal of Multicultural
Counseling and Development, 24(4), 241-253. doi: 10.1002/j.2161-1912.1996.tb00306.x
D'Haene, E. M. (1993). A survey of doctoral clinical and counseling psychology students'
comfort with AIDS and exposure to AIDS-related issues in training. (53), ProQuest Information
& Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1995-70393-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Gettis, A., & Long, L. D. (1976). Development of a systems approach for training in counseling
psychology. (36), ProQuest Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1977-32311-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
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Girdaukas, G. J. (1989). Counseling psychology: Student views of personal growth experiences
in training. (50), ProQuest Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1990-52626-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Grove McCrea, L., Bromley, J. L., McNally, C. J., Koetting O'Byrne, K., & Wade, K. A. (2004).
Houston 2001: A student perspective on issues of identity, training, social advocacy, and the
future of counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 32(1), 78-88. doi:
10.1177/0011000003260172
Grus, C. L. (2009). Implications of the counseling psychology model training values statement
addressing diversity for education and training in professional psychology. The Counseling
Psychologist, 37(5), 752-759. doi: 10.1177/0011000009334432
Harding, S. S. (1993). Moral sensitivity of training directors in counseling education, counseling
psychology, and clinical psychology training programs. (54), ProQuest Information & Learning,
US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=1995-71788-001&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Hills, H. I., & Strozier, A. L. (1992). Multicultural training in APA-approved counseling
psychology programs: A survey. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 23(1), 43-51.
doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.23.1.43
Hollingsworth, M. A., & Fassinger, R. E. (2002). The role of faculty mentors in the research
training of counseling psychology doctoral students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(3),
324-330. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.49.3.324
Johnson, M. E., & Rosich, R. M. (1997). Gerontological training in APA accredited clinical and
counseling psychology programs. Educational Gerontology, 23(1), 29-35. doi:
10.1080/0360127970230103
Jordan, K., & Stevens, P. (1999). Revising the ethics code of the IAMFC—a training exercise for
counseling psychology and counselor education students. The Family Journal, 7(2), 170-175.
doi: 10.1177/1066480799072011
Koyama, M. (2010). The collective voices of Asian international doctoral students in counseling
psychology in the U.S.: Recommendations for faculty and training programs. (71), ProQuest
24
Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=p
syh&AN=2010-99130-283&site=ehost-live&scope=site Available from EBSCOhost psyh
database.
Kunkel, M. A., & Meara, N. M. (1987). Selected characteristics of counseling psychology
applicants, training programs, and host departments as a function of administrative housing.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34(3), 333-336. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.34.3.333
Loewy, M. I., Juntunen, C. L., & Duan, C. (2009). Application of the counseling psychology
model training values statement addressing diversity to the admission process. The Counseling
Psychologist, 37(5), 705-720. doi: 10.1177/0011000009331942
Mack, M. L. (1994). Understanding spirituality in counseling psychology: Considerations for
research, training, and practice. Counseling and Values, 39(1), 15-31. doi: 10.1002/j.2161007X.1994.tb01004.x
McWhirter, J. J. (1987). Counseling psychology training directors: Responsibilities and benefits.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 18(6), 547-548. doi: 10.1037/07357028.18.6.547
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national survey of counseling psychology doctoral programs. (65), ProQuest Information &
Learning, US. Retrieved from
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database.
Mellinger, T. N., & Liu, W. M. (2006). Men's issues in doctoral training: A survey of counseling
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addressing diversity: Development and introduction to the major contribution. The Counseling
Psychologist, 37(5), 634-640. doi: 10.1177/0011000009331923
Mintz, L. B., Jackson, A. P., Neville, H. A., Illfelder-Kaye, J., Winterowd, C. L., & Loewy, M. I.
(2009). The need for a counseling psychology model training values statement addressing
diversity. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(5), 644-675. doi: 10.1177/0011000009331931
25
Mobley, M. (1998). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues in counseling psychology training:
Acceptance in the millennium? The Counseling Psychologist, 26(5), 786-796. doi:
10.1177/0011000098265006
Moradi, B., & Neimeyer, G. J. (2005). Diversity in the Ivory White Tower: A Longitudinal Look
at Faculty Race/Ethnicity in Counseling Psychology Academic Training Programs. The
Counseling Psychologist, 33(5), 655-675. doi: 10.1177/0011000005277823
Neimeyer, G. J., & Goodyear, R. K. (2005a). Empirical Reflections on Academic Training
Programs in Counseling Psychology: Contexts and Commitments. The Counseling Psychologist,
33(5), 605-609. doi: 10.1177/0011000005277816
Neimeyer, G. J., & Goodyear, R. K. (2005b). Partly Cloudy With a Chance of Rain: Academic
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10.1177/0011000005278597
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Training, and Practice: A Critical Review, Current Trends, and Future Directions. The
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training at Naropa University's contemplative counseling psychology program. Group, 34(4),
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Multicultural competence and social justice training in counseling psychology and counselor
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counseling psychology doctoral programs. (69), ProQuest Information & Learning, US.
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Non-Counseling Psychology Literature (from marriage & family therapy literature)
Culture is accounted for in diverse ways by MFT governing bodies, training institutions, and
research. The word “culture” is often used interchangeably with race and ethnicity or as a
separate entity in addition to race and ethnicity. A growing trend in the literature is the idea that
therapy is culturally bound. All therapy is inherently cultural because therapy relies on language
28
and discourse, products of a socially and culturally constructed society. The individuals who
engage in the cultural process of therapy are cultural beings. Therefore, our training approaches
for MFTs must reflect the culturally bound process of therapy.
Research on culturally competent MFT training centers on several themes: (1) personal
awareness about social standpoint, (2) sensitivity to clients’ social standpoints, and (3) situating
clients’ intrapsychic experiences in sociopolitical contexts. In order for students to learn these
critical skills for multicultural counseling, training programs must engage students in
conversations about their and others social positioning and privilege. Faculty must create an
environment where students develop contextual awareness through experiential learning
approaches and reflection on personal experiences. Lastly, clinical supervision should include
the supervisor working with the student to understand him/herself in relationship to the client and
supervisor. A staple of supervision is the exploration of the cultural context in the relationship
between therapist and supervisor.
Aducci, C., & Baptist, J. A. (2011). A Collaborative-Affirmative Approach to Supervisory
Practice. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 23(2), 88-102.
Aguirre, C. (2004). One Latina's path through marriage and family therapy training. Journal of
Feminist Family Therapy, 16(1), 1-17.
Almeida, R. V., Vecchio, K. D.-D., & Parker, L. (2007). Transformative family therapy:
Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. (2004). Marriage and family therapy
core competencies Retrieved September 8, 2012, from
http://www.aamft.org/imis15/Documents/MFT_Core_Competencie.pdf
Ayo, Y. (2010). Addressing issues of race and culture in supervision. Mirrors and Reflections:
Processes of Systemic Supervision, 225-248.
Barber, C. E., & Lyness, K. P. (2001). Gerontology Training in Marriage and Family Therapy
Accredited Training Programs: Prevalence of Aging Issues and Later-Life Family Concerns.
[Article]. Gerontology & Geriatrics Education, 22(1), 1-12.
Barretti, L. M., & Beitin, B. K. (2010). Creating Internships in Marriage and Family Therapy: A
Collaboration Between a Training Program and an Offender Reentry Facility. [Article].
Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 32(1), 39-51. doi: 10.1007/s10591009-9109-3
29
Beitin, B., Duckett, R., & Fackina, P. (2008). Discussions of Diversity in a Classroom: A
Phenomenological Study of Students in an MFT Training Program. Contemporary Family
Therapy, 30(4), 251-268.
Bernstein, A. C. (2000). STRAIGHT THERAPISTS WORKING WITH LESBIANS AND
GAYS IN FAMILY THERAPY. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 26(4), 443454.
Bischoff, R. J., Springer, P. R., Reisbig, A. M. J., Lyons, S., & Likcani, A. (2012). Training for
Collaboration: Collaborative Practice Skills for Mental Health Professionals. Journal of Marital
and Family Therapy, 38(s1), 199-210.
Blasko, K. A., Winek, J. L., & Bieschke, K. J. (2007). Therapists’ prototypical assessment of
domestic violence situations. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 33(2), 258-269.
Boughner, S. R., Hayes, S. F., Bubenzer, D. L., & West, J. D. (1994). USE OF
STANDARDIZED ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS BY MARITAL AND FAMILY
THERAPISTS: A SURVEY. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 20(1), 69-75.
Brosi, M. W., & Rolling, E. S. (2007). The Effect of Value Conflicts on Therapists', Work with
Abusive Clients: Implications for the Integration of Feminist Tenets. [Article]. Journal of
Feminist Family Therapy, 19(2), 63-89.
Brucker, P. S., Faulkner, R. A., Baptist, J., Grames, H., Beckham, L. G., Walsh, S., & Willert, A.
(2005). The Internship Training Experiences in Medical Family Therapy of Doctoral-Level
Marriage and Family Therapy Students. [Article]. American Journal of Family Therapy, 33(2),
131-146. doi: 10.1080/01926180590915518
Caldwell, K., & Claxton, C. (2010). Teaching Family Systems Theory: A DevelopmentalConstructivist Perspective. [Article]. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal,
32(1), 3-21. doi: 10.1007/s10591-009-9106-6
Cascardi, M., Langhinrichsen, J., & Vivian, D. (1992). Marital aggression: Impact, injury, and
health correlates for husbands and wives. Archives of Internal Medicine, 152(6), 1178.
Ceballos, P. L., Parikh, S., & Post, P. B. (2012). Examining Social Justice Attitudes Among Play
Therapists: Implications for Multicultural Supervision and Training.
Chambers, E., & Fischer, J. M. (2002). Multicultural Awareness, Knowledge and Skills:
Directions for Adult Education Training Programs. Journal of Adult Education.
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Charles, L. L., Thomas, D., & Thornton, M. L. (2005). Overcoming bias toward same-sex
couples: A case study from inside an MFT ethics classroom. Journal of Marital and Family
Therapy, 31(3), 239-249.
Charlés, L. L., Thomas, D., & Thornton, M. L. (2005). OVERCOMING BIAS TOWARD
SAME-SEX COUPLES: A CASE STUDY FROM INSIDE AN MFT ETHICS CLASSROOM.
[Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 31(3), 239-249.
Christiansen, A. T., Thomas, V., Kafescioglu, N., Karakurt, G., Lowe, W., Smith, W., &
Wittenborn, A. (2011). Multicultural supervision: Lessons learned about an ongoing struggle.
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 37(1), 109-119.
Crane, D. R., Wampler, K. S., Sprenkle, D. H., Sandberg, J. G., & Hovestadt, A. J. (2002). THE
SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONER MODEL IN MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THERAPY
DOCTORAL PROGRAMS: CURRENT STATUS. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family
Therapy, 28(1), 75-83.
Culver, R. E. (2011). Program evaluation: Marriage and family therapy program' multicultural
competency training. Kansas State University.
Dahl, C. M., Jensen, M. L., & McCampbell, J. L. (2010). A BUTTERFLY EFFECT: THE
IMPACT OF MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THERAPY TRAINING ON STUDENTS'
SPOUSES. [Article]. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 38(1), 3-14.
Dankoski, M. E. (2003). Themes and Threads: A Personal Reflection on Intersections Between
Women's Studies and Marriage and Family Therapy. [Article]. Journal of Feminist Family
Therapy, 15(1), 37-51. doi: 10. 1300/J086v15n01_03
Dankoski, M. E., & Pais, S. (2007). What's Love Got to Do With It? Couples, Illness, and MFT.
[Article]. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 6(1/2), 31-43.
DeRoma, V. M., Hickey, D. A., & Stanek, K. M. (2007). Methods of Supervision in Marriage
and Family Therapist Training: A Brief Report. [Article]. North American Journal of Psychology,
9(3), 415-422.
Esmiol, E. E., Knudson-Martin, C., & Delgado, S. (2012). Developing a Contextual
Consciousness: Learning to Address Gender, Societal Power, and Culture in Clinical Practice.
[Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 38(4), 573-588. doi: 10.1111/j.17520606.2011.00232.x
31
Esmiol, E. E., Knudson‐ Martin, C., & Delgado, S. (2011). Developing a Contextual
Consciousness: Learning to Address Gender, Societal Power, and Culture in Clinical Practice.
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy.
Estrada, A. U. (2011). The Intersection of Catholic Social Teaching, Internationalization, and
Marriage and Family Therapy: Lessons from the Borderlands. [Article]. Catholic Education: A
Journal of Inquiry & Practice, 14(4), 441-462.
Fagan, R. (2002). What I Learned in School Today: Reflections on My Training in Marriage and
Family Therapy, Editorial, Family Journal, pp. 262-268. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a
ph&AN=6943207&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Forstater, A., Levinson, M., Bellot, J. L., Hess, M., Spandorfer, J., Truluck, C., & Vause-Earland,
T. (2012). Patient Safety Symposium: Teamwork to Promote a Culture of Safety.
Franzen, C. W. (2010). A qualitative exploration of the use of a community based cultural
immersion experience and ethnographic techniques with MFT MA students as part of
multicultural training. University of Connecticut.
Froerer, A. S., Lucas, B. M., & Brown, T. B. (2012). Current Practices of Intimate Partner
Violence Assessment Among Marriage and Family Therapy Trainees at a University Clinic.
Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 11(1), 16-32.
Gehart, D. R., & Lucas, B. M. (2007). Client Advocacy in Marriage and Family Therapy: A
Qualitative Case Study. [Article]. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 18(1), 39-56.
Grams, W. A., Carlson, T. S., & McGeorge, C. R. (2007). Integrating spirituality into family
therapy training: An exploration of faculty members’ beliefs. Contemporary Family Therapy,
29(3), 147-161.
Gridley, H. (1993). Feminism and the Professional Supervision of Psychologists. University of
Melbourne.
Guanipa, C., & Woolley, S. R. (2000). Gender Biases and Therapists' Conceptualization of
Couple Difficulties. [Article]. American Journal of Family Therapy, 28(2), 181-191. doi:
10.1080/019261800261743
Hage, S. M., Hopson, A., Siegel, M., Payton, G., & DeFanti, E. (2006). Multicultural training in
spirituality: An interdisciplinary review. Counseling and Values, 50(3), 217-234.
32
Halevy, J. (2007). Shame as a Barrier to Cultural Sensitivity and Competent Practice. [Article].
Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 19(1), 17-39.
Hamilton, S., Moore, A. M., Crane, D. R., & Payne, S. H. (2011). Psychotherapy dropouts:
Differences by modality, license, and DSM-IV diagnosis. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family
Therapy, 37(3), 333-343. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-0606.2010.00204.x
Hendrix, C. C., Fournier, D. G., & Briggs, K. (2001). Impact of Co-Therapy Teams on Client
Outcomes and Therapist Training in Marriage and Family Therapy. [Article]. Contemporary
Family Therapy: An International Journal, 23(1), 63-82.
Hernández, P. (2004). The cultural context model in supervision. Journal of Feminist Family
Therapy, 15(4), 1-18.
Hernández, P., & McDowell, T. (2010). Intersectionality, power, and relational safety in context:
Key concepts in clinical supervision. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 4(1),
29.
Hernández, P., Siegel, A., & Almeida, R. (2009). The Cultural Context Model: How Does it
Facilitate Couples’ Therapeutic Change? Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 35(1), 97-110.
Hildebrand, J., & Markovic, D. (2007). Systemic Therapists' Experience of Powerlessness.
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, The, 28(4), 191.
Hodgson, J. L., Johnson, L. N., Ketring, S. A., Wampler, R. S., & Lamson, A. L. (2005).
INTEGRATING RESEARCH AND CLINICAL TRAINING IN MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
THERAPY TRAINING PROGRAMS. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 31(1),
75-88.
Hooks, B. (2000). Feminist theory: From margin to center: Pluto Press.
Inman, A. G., Meza, M. M., Brown, A. L., & Hargrove, B. K. (2004). STUDENT -- FACULTY
PERCEPTIONS OF MULTICULTURAL TRAINING IN ACCUREDITED MARRIAGE AND
FAMILY THERAPY PROGRAMS IN RELATION TO STUDENTS' SELF-REPORTED
COMPETENCE. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 30(3), 373-388.
Inman, A. G., Meza, M. M., Brown, A. L., & Hargrove, B. K. (2004). Student-faculty
perceptions of multicultural training in accredited marriage and family therapy programs in
33
relation to student self-reported competence. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 30(3), 373388.
Johnson, L. A., & Caldwell, B. E. (2011). Race, Gender, and Therapist Confidence: Effects on
Satisfaction With the Therapeutic Relationship in MFT. [Article]. American Journal of Family
Therapy, 39(4), 307-324. doi: 10.1080/01926187.2010.532012
Jory, B. (2004). The intimate justice scale: An instrument to screen for psychological abuse and
physical violence in clinical practice. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 30(1), 29-44.
Karam, E. A., & Sprenkle, D. H. (2010). The Research-Informed Clinician: A Guide to Training
the Next-Generation MFT. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 36(3), 307-319. doi:
10.1111/j.1752-0606.2009.00141.x
Karam, E. A., & Sprenkle, D. H. (2010). The Research‐ Informed Clinician: A Guide to Training
the Next‐ Generation MFT. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 36(3), 307-319.
Keeling, M. L., Butler, J., Green, N., Kraus, V., & Palit, M. (2010). The gender discourse in
therapy Questionnaire: A tool for training in feminist-informed therapy. Journal of Feminist
Family Therapy, 22(2), 153-169.
Keeling, M. L., & Piercy, F. P. (2007). A careful balance: Multinational perspectives on culture,
gender, and power in marriage and family therapy practice. Journal of Marital and Family
Therapy, 33(4), 443-463.
Keiley, M. K., Dolbin, M., Hill, J., Karuppaswamy, N., Ting, L., Natrajan, R., . . . Robinson, P.
(2002). THE CULTURAL GENOGRAM: EXPERIENCE FROM WITHIN A MARRIAGE
AND FAMILY THERAPY TRAINING PROGRAM. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family
Therapy, 28(2), 165-178.
Kimberly, R., & Flemke, M. F. T. (2001). The Marginalization of Intimate Friendship Between
Women Within the Context of Therapy. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 13(1), 75-91.
Laszloffy, T., & Habekost, J. (2010). Using Experiential Tasks to Enhance Cultural Sensitivity
Among MFT Trainees. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 36(3), 333-346.
Lee, M. M., & Vennum, A. V. (2010). Using Critical Incident Journaling to Encourage Cultural
Awareness in Doctoral Marriage and Family Therapy Students. [Article]. Journal of Family
Psychotherapy, 21(4), 238-252. doi: 10.1080/08975353.2010.529008
34
Leitch, M. L., & Thomas, V. (1999). THE AAMFT-HEAD START TRAINING
PARTNERSHIP PROJECT: ENHANCING MFT CAPACITIES BEYOND THE FAMILY
SYSTEM. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 25(2), 141-154.
Leslie, L. A., & Clossick, M. L. (1996). Sexism in family therapy: Does training in gender make
a difference? Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 22(2), 253-269.
Lim, S.-L., & Hernández, P. (2007). The WebQuest: An Illustration of Instructional Technology
Implementation in MFT Training. [Article]. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International
Journal, 29(3), 163-175. doi: 10.1007/s10591-007-9038-y
Long, J. K., & Serovich, J. M. (2003). INCORPORATING SEXUAL ORIENTATION INTO
MFT TRAINING PROGRAMS: INFUSION AND INCLUSION. [Article]. Journal of Marital
& Family Therapy, 29(1), 59-67.
MacKinnon, C. J., Bhatia, M., Sunderani, S., Affleck, W., & Smith, N. G. (2011). Opening the
dialogue: Implications of feminist supervision theory with male supervisees. Professional
Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(2), 130.
Matta, D. S., & Carmen, K.-M. (2006). Father Responsivity: Couple Processes and the
Coconstruction of Fatherhood. [Article]. Family Process, 45(1), 19-37. doi: 10.1111/j.15455300.2006.00078.x
McCandless, R., & Eatough, V. (2011). “Her Energy Kind of Went Into a Different Place”: A
Qualitative Study Examining Supervisors’ Experience of Promoting Reflexive Learning in
Students. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy.
McDowell, T. (2004). Exploring the racial experience of therapists in training: A critical race
theory perspective. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 32(4), 305-324.
McDowell, T., Fang, S. R., Brownlee, K., Young, C. G., & Khanna, A. (2002). Transforming an
MFT program: A model for enhancing diversity. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 28(2),
179-191.
McDowell, T., & Jeris, L. (2004). TALKING ABOUT RACE USING CRITICAL RACE
THEORY: RECENT TRENDS IN THE JOURNAL OF MARITAL AND FAMILY THERAPY.
[Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 30(1), 81-94.
McDowell, T., & Shelton, D. (2002). Valuing ideas of social justice in MFT curricula.
Contemporary Family Therapy, 24(2), 313-331.
35
McDowell, T., Shi-Ruei, F., Brownlee, K., Young, C. G., & Khanna, A. (2002).
TRANSFORMING AN MFT PROGRAM: A MODEL FOR ENHANCING DIVERSITY.
[Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 28(2), 179-191.
McDowell, T., Shi-Ruei, F., Khanna, A., Sherman, B., Brownlee, K., & Young, C. G. (2003).
MAKING SPACE FOR RACIAL DIALOGUE: OUR EXPERIENCE IN A MARRIAGE AND
FAMILY THERAPY TRAINING PROGRAM. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy,
29(2), 179-194.
McGoldrick, M., Almeida, R., Preto, N. G., Bibb, A., Sutton, C., Hudak, J., & Hines, P. M.
(1999). Efforts to incorporate social justice perspectives into a family training program. Journal
of Marital and Family Therapy, 25, 191-210.
McGoldrick, M., & Hardy, K. V. (2008). Re-visioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender
in clinical practice: The Guilford Press.
Miller, J. K. (2010). Competency-Based Training: Objective Structured Clinical Exercises
(OSCE) in Marriage and Family Therapy. [Article]. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 36(3),
320-332. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-0606.2009.00143.x
Miller, M. M., Korinek, A., & Ivey, D. C. (2004). Spirituality in MFT Training: Development of
the Spiritual Issues in Supervision Scale. [Article]. Contemporary Family Therapy: An
International Journal, 26(1), 71-81.
Mittal, M., & Wieling, E. (2006). TRAINING EXPERIENCES OF INTERNATIONAL
DOCTORAL STUDENTS IN MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THERAPY. [Article]. Journal of
Marital & Family Therapy, 32(3), 369-383.
Morris, J., & Lee, Y.-T. (2004). Issues of Language and Culture in Family Therapy Training.
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36
Nixon, D. H., Marcelle-Coney, D., Torres-Greggory, M., Huntley, E., Jacques, C., Pasquet, M.,
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37
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38
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39
Zimmerman, K. J. (2012). Clients in Sexually Open Relationships: Considerations for Therapists.
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Forgiveness by John McConnell (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature
Overall, forgiveness is an underrepresented topic in counseling psychology literature and
Counseling Psychologists make up a small proportion of research on forgiveness. More
specifically, in relation to forgiveness as it directly applies to nonviolence, counseling
psychology is less represented compared to other subspecialties of psychology. Counseling
psychologists and psychologists publishing in counseling psychology journals have
published (1) outcome studies (or a review thereof) designed to promote interpersonal
forgiveness, (2) papers and studies focused on elucidating forgiveness and reconciliation
following intergroup conflicts, and (3) papers describing forgiveness in the non-western world.
The majority of the counseling psychology literature is theoretical or positional in nature and a
small minority of it is empirical.
First, providing additional support to findings in non-counseling literature, counseling
psychology studies have shown that interventions to promote interpersonal forgiveness do in fact
increase the likelihood of forgiveness and that empathy is a mediator of interpersonal
forgiveness. A meta-analysis supports forgiveness as an intervention. Second, counseling
psychologists and counselors have published papers describing forgiveness in the context of
three well-known intergroup conflicts in Northern Ireland, Uganda, and South Africa. These
papers highlight the complexity of using forgiveness as an intervention during and after largescale intergroup conflict and call for increased attention of counseling psychology to forgiveness
in intergroup and international conflicts. Finally, two papers have clarified the forgiveness
construct in the Hmong culture and more broadly in collectivistic cultures.
Blocher, W. G., & Wade, N. G. (2010). Sustained Effectiveness of Two Brief Group
Interventions: Comparing an Explicit Forgiveness-Promoting Treatment with a Process-Oriented
Treatment. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 32(1), 58-74.
The present study is a two-year follow-up to an outcome study conducted by Wade and Meyer
(2009) in 2004-05, in which participants were randomly assigned to an explicit forgiveness
treatment, a processed-oriented treatment, and a wait list. The effectiveness of both treatments
was maintained after two years. Participants' revenge ideation and psychological symptoms
remained the same as when treatment terminated, but negative reactions to their offenders had
40
continued to abate. Positive regard toward the offender was the same pre- and post-treatment but
was reduced during the two-year period between termination and follow-up. No statistically
significant differences in the outcome measures were found between the two treatment groups.
However, in qualitative analyses of open-ended responses about their experiences with the
treatments, participants seemed to favor the forgiveness-promoting one. Most participants,
regardless of condition, identified group therapeutic factors as major contributors to their
positive group experiences.
Kagee, A., Naidoo, A. V., & Van Wyk, S. (2003). Building communities of peace: The South
African experience. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 25, 225-233.
While political conflicts in many countries have resulted in large-scale destruction and loss of
life, South Africa has been successful in avoiding a violent conflict following the demise of
apartheid. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) has been seen as an important
mechanism contributing to South Africa’s successful management of its political challenges. Yet,
the legacy of apartheid continues beyond the work of the TRC, and several social problems such
as poverty, unemployment, crime, and substance abuse continue to affect many South African
communities. Psychology is uniquely poised to assist in addressing these social problems and in
contributing to the development of a community of peace. Academic psychology departments
have responded by implementing an undergraduate programme aimed at training professional
counsellors to respond to community needs in post-apartheid South Africa. This paper surveys
the present political landscape in South Africa, examines the work of the TRC as a psychological
change catalyst and peace building mechanism, and calls attention to the role of psychology in
contributing to national development.
Anan, J. R., Amuge, A. P., & Angwaro, S. T. (2003). Counseling for peace in the midst of war:
Counselors from Northern Uganda share their views. International Journal for the Advancement
of Counseling, 25, 235-245.
This paper describes the way that counselors in northern Uganda are working to promote healing
and build peace in a region plagued by war since 1986. In this area where the entire community
is affected by the armed conflict, the counselors work as part of a community program. This
paper attempts to describe (1) the background and nature of the northern Uganda conflict, (2)
how counseling was established as part of a network of community helpers, (3) the complexity of
counseling in the context of conflict, (4) how counseling is contributing to building long-term
peace in the area, and (5) the challenges faced by counselors and their implications for others
working in areas of armed conflict. * Mentions self-forgiveness and reconciliation as well.
Moeschberger, S. L., Dixon, D. N., Niens, U, & Cairns, E. (2005). Forgiveness in Northern
Ireland: A model for peace in the midst of the “troubles.” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace
Psychology, 11, 199-214.
41
For the past 10 years, a robust body of empirical and theoretical literature has been devoted to
forgiveness within interpersonal relationships. However, only a few studies have empirically
examined forgiveness in intergroup settings. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine
empirically the interpersonal determinants of intergroup forgiveness within Northern Ireland.
University students (N = 297) were given questionnaires that measured religiosity, empathy,
contact with the “other community”, hope, disposition to forgive, and forgiveness of the “other
community”. Structural Equation Modeling was used to determine a theoretical model that best
fit the data. Results provided empirical support for the use of interpersonal factors in examining
societal forgiveness in Northern Ireland. Implications for future research and societal
interventions are discussed.
Baskin, T. W., & Enright, R. D. (2004). Intervention studies on forgiveness: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Counseling and Development, 82, 79-90.
A meta-analysis of 9 studies. Showed efficacy for forgiveness as an intervention.
Sandage, S. J., & Worthington, E. L. Jr. (2010). Comparison of two group interventions to
promote forgiveness: Empathy as a mediator of change. Journal of Mental Health
Counseling, 32, 35-57.
A forgiveness intervention showing empathy mediated forgiveness regardless of condition.
Sandage, S. J., Hill, P. C., Vang, H. C. (2003). Toward a multicultural positive psychology:
Indigenous forgiveness and Hmong culture. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 564-592.
An exploration of the Hmong’s concept of forgiveness.
Hook, J. N., Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Utsey, S. O. (2009). Collectivism, forgiveness, and social
harmony. The Counseling Psychologist, 37, 821-847.
Existing models of forgiveness and the strategies to promote forgiveness that draw from them are
predominantly individualistic. As the United States becomes more diverse and counseling
psychology becomes a more global field, counseling psychologists are increasingly likely to
encounter clients who have a collectivistic worldview. The authors propose a theoretical model
that clarifies the relationship between collectivism and forgiveness. The importance of
maintaining social harmony in collectivistic cultures is central to this relationship. The model has
two propositions. First, collectivistic forgiveness occurs within the broad context of social
harmony, reconciliation, and relational repair. Second, collectivistic forgiveness is understood as
primarily a decision to forgive but is motivated largely to promote and maintain group harmony
rather than inner peace (as is more often the case in individualistically motivated forgiveness).
Finally, the authors suggest a research agenda to study collectivistic forgiveness and provide
guidelines for addressing forgiveness with collectivistic clients.
42
Worthington, E. L., Jr. (in press, due July 16, 2013). Moving forward: Six steps to forgiving
yourself and breaking free from the past. Colorado Springs, CO: WaterBrook/Multnomah.
Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2006). Forgiveness and reconciliation: Theory and application. New
York, NY: Brunner/Routledge.
Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2005). The power of forgiveness. Philadelphia, PA: Templeton
Foundation Press.
Worthington, E. L., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Handbook of forgiveness. New York, NY: BrunnerRoutledge.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature
Overall, forgiveness as it directly applies to nonviolence is a newly developing subtopic in the
forgiveness literature. Non-counseling Psychologists have published (1) studies exploring
forgiveness in couples and school-children, (2) studies focused on elucidating forgiveness and
reconciliation following intergroup conflicts, (3) a paper describing forgiveness in the nonwestern world, and (4) a paper introducing a peacemaking psychometric. The majority of the
literature is empirical.
First, forgiveness appears to relate to less bullying in school children and better conflict
resolution between couples. Second, whereas two studies in Rwanda showed that forgiveness
and reconciliation following genocide was associated with positive associations with offenders
and better mental health, a study in Northern Ireland found that outgroup trust and contact,
perspective-taking, and attitude were predictors of intergroup forgiveness. Third, a paper
describes the indigenous Mäori of New Zealand’s concept of intergroup forgiveness. Finally, a
study introduces the Peacemaking inventory, which includes a forgiveness subscale.
Staub, E., Pearlman, L., Gubin, A., & Hagengimana, A. (2005). HEALING,
RECONCILIATION, FORGIVING AND THE PREVENTION OF VIOLENCE AFTER
GENOCIDE OR MASS KILLING: AN INTERVENTION AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL
EVALUATION IN RWANDA. Journal Of Social & Clinical Psychology, 24(3), 297-334.
This article describes a theory–based intervention in Rwanda to promote healing and
reconciliation, and an experimental evaluation of its effects. The concept of reconciliation and
conditions required for reconciliation after genocide or other intense intergroup violence are
discussed, with a focus on healing. A training of facilitators who worked for local organizations
that worked with groups of people in the community is described. The training consisted of
psycho–educational lectures with extensive large group and small group discussion, as well as
engagement by participants with their painful experiences during the genocide, with empathic
support. The effects of the training were evaluated not on the participants, but on members of
newly set up community groups they subsequently worked with. Two types of control groups
43
were created: treatment controls, groups led by facilitators we did not train, using their traditional
procedures, and a no treatment control group. We controlled for other variations in the type of
groups the facilitators worked with (e.g. community building versus healing) by including them
in all treatment conditions. Traumatic experiences, trauma symptoms, and orientation by
participants to members of the other group were evaluated. The intervention was associated with
reduced trauma symptoms and a more positive orientation toward members of the other group,
both over time (from before the treatment to two months afterwards) and in comparison to
control groups. Our observations suggest the importance and special meaning for people of
understanding the origins of violence.
Mukashema, I., & Mullet, E. (2010). Reconciliation sentiment among victims of genocide in
Rwanda. Conceptualizations, and relationships with mental health. Social Indicators Research,
99, 25-39.
In two studies that were conducted in Rwanda, we have examined the conceptualizations held by
people who have experienced genocide with regard to reconciliation sentiment and quantitatively
assessed the relationship between reconciliation sentiment and mental health. It was found that
the participants have articulated conceptualizations regarding the nature of reconciliation
sentiment. These conceptualizations are consistent with the way the genocide victims personally
experienced reconciliation. More importantly, one type of reconciliation sentiment (the one
corresponding to a renewed capacity to live together, hear each other, work together, and to forge
compromises on a daily basis) was associated with mental health.
Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., Voci, A., Hamberger, J., & Niens, U. (2006). Intergroup contact,
forgiveness, and experience of “the troubles” in Northern Ireland. Journal of Social Issues, 62,
99-120.
Two studies used random sample surveys to test the “contact hypothesis” on intergroup attitudes
of Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. In Study 1, archival data from two different
surveys in 1989 (N = 310 Catholics, 422 Protes- tants) and 1991 (N = 319 Catholics, 478
Protestants) showed that contact was positively related to attitudes toward denominational
mixing. Study 2 (N = 391 Catholics, 647 Protestants) explored predictors of intergroup
forgiveness, and also showed that intergroup contact was positively related to outgroup attitudes,
perspective-taking, and trust (even among those who had a worse experience of sectarian
conflict). These studies indicate that research in peace psychology can provide a deeper
understanding of the conflict in Northern Ireland and, in due course, contribute to its resolution.
Braithwaite, J., & Ahmed, E. (2005). Forgiveness, shaming, shame and bullying. The Australian
and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 38, 298-323.
This study predicts self-initiated bullying from three variables: shaming, forgiveness and shame.
Data were collected from 1875 Bangladeshi school children (60% girls; mean grade = 8.28)
using the Bengali version of the Life at School Survey. Results demonstrated that reintegrative
44
shaming and forgiveness were related to less bullying. High shame acknowledgment (accepting
responsibility, making amends) and low shame displacement into anger or blaming others were
also associated with less bullying. Liking school protected children who experienced (a) less
reintegrative shaming, and (b) more stigmatising shaming at home. Equally, more reintegrative
shaming and less stigmatising shaming protected children against bullying when liking for
school was absent.The forgiveness main effect on bullying (22.4% reduction) was much bigger
than the main effect of reintegrative shaming (I 1.3% reduction).These results are consistent with
the view that forgiveness is a more powerful restorative practice than reintegrative shaming.
Fincham, F. D., Beach, S. R. H., Davila, J. (2004). Forgiveness and conflict resolution in
marriage. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 72-81.
Two studies examined whether forgiveness in married couples is associated with better conflict
resolution. Study 1 examined couples in their 3rd year of marriage and identified 2 forgiveness
dimensions (retaliation and benevolence). Husbands’ retaliatory motivation was a significant
predictor of poorer wife-reported conflict resolution, whereas wives’ benevo- lence motivation
predicted husbands’ reports of better conflict resolution. Examining longer term marriages,
Study 2 identified three forgiveness dimensions (retaliation, avoidance and benevolence).
Whereas wives’ benevolence again predicted better conflict resolution, hus- bands’ avoidance
predicted wives’ reports of poorer conflict resolution. All findings were independent of both
spouses’ marital satisfaction. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of
forgiveness for marital conflict and its implications for spouse goals. Future research directions
on forgiveness are outlined.
Brown, S., Riemer, K. S., Dueck, A. C., Gorsuch, R., Strong, R., & Sidesinger, T. (2005). A
particular peace: Psychometric properties of the just peacemaking inventory.
The development of a peacemaking measure, which includes a forgiveness subscale.
Rata, A., Liu, J. H., Hanke, K. (2008). Te ara hohou rongo (the path to peace): Mäori
conceptualisations of inter-group forgiveness. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 37, 18- 30.
An exploration of the indigenous people of New Zealand’s concept of forgiveness.
Health and health disparity, health care injustice/justice by Emily Mastroianni (Ball State
University)
Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Buki, L. P. (2007). Reducing health disparities: The perfect fit for counseling psychology. The
Counseling Psychologist, 35(5), 706-715. doi:10.1177/0011000007303632
This reaction to the Major Contribution by K. Herman et al (see record 2007-12967-001), C.
Tucker et al (see record 2007-12967-002), and C. Tucker et al (see record 2007-12967-003)
presents a conceptualization of health disparities as another form of oppression of marginalized
populations in our society. Consistent with this view, health disparities are then situated within a
45
larger, national context, showing that counseling psychologists' involvement is an integral part of
a multidisciplinary national effort. Examples of roles that counseling psychologists can take,
beyond those related to patient-provider interactions, are presented in the context of cancer
health disparities in Latina women. These roles include acting as staff trainer and consultant,
patient and community health empowerment coach, patient advocate, and public policy analyst,
as well as the traditional roles of health counselor, psychotherapist, and researcher. Finally, the
author issues a call for action for counseling psychologists, for whom the amelioration of
disparities is a perfect fit.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Dreeben, O. (2001). Health Status of African Americans. Journal Of Health & Social Policy,
14(1), 1-17.
The health status of African Americans identifies a higher prevalence of cardiovascular diseases,
cancer, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and sexually transmitted infections when compared with
Whites. However, more research is needed to identify socioeconomic variables and to establish
needed health programs. The vestiges of early 20th century traditions of substandard housing and
inadequate nutrition for African Americans are still apparent in many communities today. Most
health care professionals are not educated and trained to be culturally sensitive. The struggle
against the prevalence of diseases in African Americans must incorporate cultural sensitivity,
community organization and empowerment. The need for a universal system of health insurance
coverage is of utmost importance. The elimination of health disparities among African
Americans requires a national effort, the involvement of public and private sectors, individuals
and communities.
Nagai, M., Abraham, S., Okamoto, M., Kita, E., & Aoyama, A. (2007). Reconstruction of health
service systems in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka. Health Policy, 83(1), 84-93.
Public health problems in armed conflicts have been well documented, however, effective
national health policies and international assistance strategies in transition periods from conflict
to peace have not been well established. After the long lasted conflicts in Sri Lanka, the
Government and the rebel LTTE signed a cease-fire agreement in February 2002. As the peace
negotiation has been disrupted since April 2003, a long-term prospect for peace is yet uncertain
at present. The objective of this research is to detect unmet needs in health services in Northern
Province in Sri Lanka, and to recommend fair and effective health strategies for post-conflict
reconstruction. First, we compared a 20-year trend of health services and health status between
the post-conflict Northern Province and other areas not directly affected by conflict in Sri Lanka
by analyzing data published by Sri Lankan government and other agencies. Then, we conducted
open-ended self-administered questionnaires to health care providers and inhabitants in Northern
Province, and key informant interviews in Northern Province and other areas. The major health
problems in Northern Province were high maternal mortality, significant shortage of human
resources for health (HRH), and inadequate water and sanitation systems. Poor access to health
46
facilities, lack of basic health knowledge, insufficient health awareness programs for inhabitants,
and mental health problems among communities were pointed by the questionnaire respondents.
Shortage of HRH and people's negligence for health were perceived as the major obstacles to
improving the current health situation in Northern Province. The key informant interviews
revealed that Sri Lankan HRH outside Northern Province had only limited information about the
health issues in Northern Province. It is required to develop and allocate HRH strategically for
the effective reconstruction of health service systems in Northern Province. The empowerment
of inhabitants and communities through health awareness programs and the development of a
systematic mental health strategy at the state level are also important. It is necessary to provide
with the objective information of gaps in health indicators by region for promoting mutual
understanding between Tamil and Sinhalese. International assistance should be provided not only
for the post-conflict area but also for other underprivileged areas to avoid unnecessary grievance.
Meditation by Gunnar Örn Ingólfsson (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature
The review of meditation and counseling revealed that there is a little systematic research on the
effects of meditation within the field of counseling. There does not seem to be a common
operational definition. A popular alternative to meditation is mindfulness meditation. Meditation
is commonly related to spirituality and spiritual growth with some research on self-care in
training programs. Further research is needed on the impact of meditation as self-care for
counselors and counselors in training as well as the purpose and effectiveness of using
meditation in settings that are not obviously related to anxiety reduction.
Scholarly articles
Brown, A. P., Marquis, A., Guiffrida, D. A. (2012). Mindulness-based interventions in
counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 91, 96-104.
Mindfulness is a relatively new construct in counseling that is rapidly gaining interest as it is
applied to people struggling with a myriad of problems. Research has consistently demonstrated
that counseling interventions using mindfulness improve well-being and reduce psychopathology.
This article provides a detailed definition of mindfulness, including a discussion of the
mechanisms underlying mindfulness practice; explores the implementation of mindfulness as a
counseling intervention; and examines literature supporting its effectiveness.
Leppma, M. (2012). Loving-kindness meditation and counseling. Journal of Mental Health
Counseling, 34, 197-205.
Loving-kindness meditation (LKM) is a type of mindfulness-based meditation that emphasizes
caring and connection with others. LKM incorporates nonjudgmental awareness of the present
moment, which enhances attention, presence, acceptance, and self-regulation; it also entails
directing caring feelings toward oneself and then others and emphasizes both self-care and
47
interconnectedness. Thus, LKM is suitable for helping clients forge healthy connections with
themselves and others. This article examines the use and implications of LKM in counseling.
Havermans, R. C. (2011). Mindfulnessmeditatiebehandelingen toepassen in de GGZ: Moeten we
wachten op empirische rechtvaardiging?. Psychologie & Gezondheid, 39(2), 111-114.
doi:10.1007/s12483-011-0023-7
Young, M. E., de Armas DeLorenzi, L., & Cunningham, L. (2011). Using meditation in
addiction counseling. Journal Of Addictions & Offender Counseling, 32(1-2), 58-71.
doi:10.1002/j.2161-1874.2011.tb00207.x
Meditation has been studied as a way of reducing stress in counseling clients since the 1960s
Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, and new wave behavior therapies incorporate
meditation techniques in their programs. This article identifies meditation's curative factors and
limitations when using meditation in addiction settings.
Tucker, C., Sloan, S. K., Vance, M., & Brownson, C. (2008). Integrated care in college health: A
case study. Journal Of College Counseling, 11(2), 173-183. doi:10.1002/j.21611882.2008.tb00033.x
This case study describes 1 international student's treatment experience with an integrated health
program on a college campus. This program uses a multidisciplinary, mind-body approach,
which incorporates individual counseling, primary care, psychiatric consultation, a mindfulnessbased cognitive therapy class, and a meditation group.
Kurash, C., & Schaul, J. (2006). Integrating Mindfulness Meditation Within a University
Counseling Center Setting. Journal Of College Student Psychotherapy, 20(3), 53-67.
doi:10.1300/J035v20n03_05
This paper documents the development of a mindfulness meditation component within a
University Counseling Center setting. The specific focus is upon the inclusion of meditation as it
pertains to both organizational structure and psychotherapy training. The integration of a
meditation practice into any organization is a slow process that poses complex questions. We
argue that the benefits provide a counterpoint to the complexities inherent when incorporating
such training into an organization's structure and a psychology internship program.
Murphy, M. C. (2006). Taming the anxious mind: An 8-week mindfulness meditation group at a
university counseling center. Journal Of College Student Psychotherapy, 21(2), 5-13.
doi:10.1300/J035v21n02_03
This article describes an eight-week mindfulness meditation-based group that took place at a
university counseling center. The group is patterned after the Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction (MBSR) program developed by Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn at the Stress Reduction Clinic at
the University of Massachusetts Medical Center. Group members are taught various mindfulness
48
meditation techniques and are encouraged to practice them daily. The group has met with much
success and it is highly valued by group members.
Christopher, J., Christopher, S. E., Dunnagan, T., & Schure, M. (2006). Teaching Self-Care
Through Mindfulness Practices: The Application of Yoga, Meditation, and Qigong to Counselor
Training. Journal Of Humanistic Psychology, 46(4), 494-509. doi:10.1177/0022167806290215
Faculty in counseling training programs often give voice to the importance of self-care for
students during the training period and into practice after training is completed. However, few
programs specifically address this issue in their curricula. To address this perceived need, a
course was developed to provide students with (a) personal growth opportunities through selfcare practices and (b) professional growth through mindfulness practices in counseling that can
help prevent burnout. A focus group assessed course impact on students who reported significant
changes in their personal lives, stress levels, and clinical training.
Note; article is on counselor training yet not in a counseling journal or by counseling
professionals.
Murgatroyd, W. (2001). The Buddhist spiritual path: A counselor's reflection on meditation,
spirituality, and the nature of life. Counseling And Values, 45(2), 94-102. doi:10.1002/j.2161007X.2001.tb00188.x
The author describes her spiritual path from the perspective of a person who was raised in a
Buddhist tradition and trained in a Western mental health profession. A foundation for the
Buddhist concept of mental health is presented, and the relationship among counseling, Western
developmental theory, and the development of a spiritual path is discussed. Strategies are
presented for assisting clients with their search for spiritual development.
Schlecht, D. (2000). Returning to the feminine ground. Counseling And Values, 44(2), 118-123.
doi:10.1002/j.2161-007X.2000.tb00162.x
Describes a case study of an adult male client who experienced spontaneous spiritual imagery
while participating in a visualization meditation during a counseling session. His principal
presenting concern was a lifelong pattern of conflicted and sometimes destructive intimate
relationships with women. The symbolism of the imagery is discussed in light A. Deikman's
(1997) concepts of receptive and instrumental consciousness.
Halbrook, B. (1995). Integrating contemplative psychotherapy and counseling: Combining East
and West. TCA Journal, 23(1), 21-27.
Outlines the tenets of contemplative psychotherapy, a discipline grounded in Eastern meditation
principles, and makes suggestions for blending nontraditional techniques into counselor
preparation and practice. Distinctions and parallels are made between Eastern meditation and
Western psychotherapy, especially in terms of existential issues. Meditation is a technique for
clearing the mind, and the goal is acceptance of all parts of self. It is suggested that Gestalt
49
therapy can be used to combine both Eastern and Western techniques for clients. Contemplative
techniques can also be applied to counselors so that they can recognize their own thoughts as
they occur but not ruminate on them.
Sutorius, D. (1995). The transforming force of laughter, with the focus on the laughing
meditation. Patient Education And Counseling, 26(1-3), 367-371. doi:10.1016/07383991(95)00760-W
Discusses the psychotherapeutic value and transforming force of laughter. The technique of
laughing meditation, a structured exercise of 15 min with 3 stages: stretching, laughing, and
silence, is described. The laughing meditation can be used as a supplement to other therapy and
in coping strategies.
Brown, L. L., & Robinson, S. E. (1993). The relationship between meditation and/or exercise
and three measures of self-actualization. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 15(1), 85-93.
Examined the relationship between regular meditation and/or physical exercise and 3 dimensions
of self-actualization in 103 advanced graduate counseling students (aged 23–62 yrs) who had
completed at least 1 semester of practicum. The 3 dimensions of self-actualization were innerdirectedness, living in the present (time competence), and lowered anxiety. Ss who meditated or
who both meditated and exercised had significantly greater inner-directedness than did those
who only exercised or who did neither. Significantly lower anxiety was found for those Ss who
both exercised and meditated. Findings are discussed with respect to A. H. Maslow's (1971)
theory of self-actualization.
Laselle, K. M., & Russell, T. T. (1993). To what extent are school counselors using meditation
and relaxation techniques?. School Counselor, 40(3), 178-183.
Investigated the extent to which meditation and relaxation techniques (MRTs) were being used
for counseling groups of adolescents with behavior problems. Data were gathered from 57 school
counselors (SCLs) via a postal survey. Fewer than 40% of the SCLs used MRTs. Three-fourths
of the SCLs did not use MRTs in their group counseling, and only half would consider learning
the techniques for use in group counseling. Some SCLs indicated specific MRTs that they used,
including biofeedback, imagery, progressive relaxation, deep breathing visualization,
transcendental meditation, self-hypnosis, yoga, and music therapy.
Schopen, A., & Freeman, B. (1992). Meditation: The forgotten Western tradition. Counseling
And Values, 36(2), 123-134. doi:10.1002/j.2161-007X.1991.tb00969.x
Discusses aspects of the history of the demise of meditation in the West and its recent
reemergence as an Eastern system. Roots of Western meditation are traced to early Christianity,
and its demise around the 17th century can be attributed to (1) an increase in religious
emotionalism and (2) the beginning of the scientific revolution. The differences between Eastern
and Western meditation involve freedom from thought vs concentration on an idea, respectively.
50
The psychology of meditation, research in the field, and applications of meditation to counseling
are discussed. Such applications involve the use of meditation for self-regulation to combat stress,
anger, or anxiety.
O'Connell, D. F. (1991). The use of transcendental meditation in relapse prevention counseling.
Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 8(1), 53-68. doi:10.1300/J020V08N01_04
Explores the use of transcendental meditation (TM) as an adjunctive treatment of chronic relapse
through the case report of a 32-yr-old White male relapse prone patient. The S was involved in a
2-yr continuing care program following inpatient care for cocaine dependency. The S maintained
daily practice of TM for approximately 30 mo and had been completely abstinent from all mood
altering chemicals for that same time period. TM is described as a well researched cost effective
program with social, physical, psychological, and spiritual benefits that can represent a holistic
treatment for a holistic disease. Its easy access, availability, and ongoing nature make it highly
attractive as a daily program for relapse prevention.
Brandon, D. (1990). Green crocodiles. British Journal Of Guidance & Counselling, 18(3), 261268. doi:10.1080/03069889000760251
The essence of spiritual counseling lies in the formal or informal teaching of meditation, in
which there is a turning away from the delusions of any psychological or material achievement.
These delusions, deeply embedded in psychotherapy and counseling, are essentially destructive.
Real counseling lies in giving up ambitions and ideologies, not in acquiring more. Meditation
can help its practitioners to live more fully in the present time.
Vassallo, J. N. (1984). Psychological perspectives of Buddhism: Implications for counseling.
Counseling And Values, 28(4), 179-191. doi:10.1002/j.2161-007X.1984.tb00668.x
Contends that the Buddhist will attempt to understand an individual's problems in terms of 2
basic human dilemmas—clinging and ignorance. The counseling process is concerned with
enabling one to accept reality as it is, but immediate problems interfere with the greater goal of
understanding the true nature of reality. Meditation techniques that can be applied to one who
seeks help are discussed. It is suggested that both the counselor and client must be treading the
path that leads to transpersonal actualization. As Ss progress in their ability to maintain energy
and concentration to achieve their desired levels of attainment, the importance of individualism
will become secondary to the knowledge of the path through direct experience.
Books
Kristeller, J. (2011). Spirituality and meditation. In , Spiritually oriented interventions for
counseling and psychotherapy (pp. 197-227). Washington, DC US: American Psychological
Association. doi:10.1037/12313-008
Abstract: (from the chapter) The roots and techniques of meditation practice come from spiritual
and religious traditions. Almost all religious traditions have incorporated elements of meditative
51
or contemplative practice. Although most of the contemporary focus on the psychology of
meditative practice has been on Hindu-based mantra meditations and on the multitude of
Buddhist Zen, vipassana, and Tibetan practices, there is increasing recognition of the underlying
similarities in process and experience of other traditions, including Christian contemplative
prayer, Jewish Hasidic prayers, and Sufi mystical traditions (Goleman, 1988; Shafii, 1988).
Common elements of meditative practice, such as repetition and detached awareness, appear to
cultivate or facilitate spiritual experience across traditions, although the role that these practices
play within given traditions varies tremendously. The conceptual and empirical literature on
meditation continues to grow but remains problematic. In particular, a split continues between
viewing meditation as somewhat esoteric, mysterious, and grounded in Eastern religious practice,
and viewing meditation as being acceptable only when wholly secularized. As understanding of
the role of spiritual and religious values in mental health grows, appreciation is developing for
how meditation practice might help individuals engage spiritual resources more fully, in addition
to improving emotional or behavioral regulation. Furthermore, appreciation is growing for
Western meditative and contemplative traditions and the degree to which all contemplative
practices incorporate similar, if not universal, processes. This chapter first provides a brief
overview of how meditation has been understood as a therapeutic tool within a range of
theoretical perspectives and within both a secular and a spiritually enhancing context. The
essential elements of meditation practice are then considered, across a wide range of therapeutic
applications, from emotional regulation and health care issues to treatment of addictions and
cultivation of caring and compassion for others, with a particular focus on how each may link
back into spiritual goals. Finally, clinical issues in bringing meditation practice into therapy are
considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) – uses 115 citations
Valente, V. G., & Marotta, A. (2011). Prescribing yoga to supplement and support
psychotherapy. In , Spiritually oriented interventions for counseling and psychotherapy (pp. 251276). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12313-010
Abstract: (from the chapter) This chapter explores various methods for incorporating yoga into a
psychotherapy treatment regimen to help psychotherapists achieve short-term symptom relief for
their clients as well as long-term solutions for mental health and balance. The philosophical
underpinnings of yoga, as they relate to the therapeutic process, are briefly described before
current research on the psychological effects of yoga is addressed. Methods for using yoga
classes in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy to enrich the therapeutic process and
facilitate growth (e.g., enhanced self-awareness, self-understanding, self-acceptance), along with
guidelines for its introduction to clients, are outlined. Next, the methods of Iyengar yoga,
kundalini yoga meditation, and Sudarshan Kriya yoga are explored as potential techniques
psychotherapists can learn to use during and in between psychotherapy sessions to help clients
reduce anxiety and depression and address other psychological and psychiatric disorders. Finally,
this chapter examines the utility of yoga for psychotherapists seeking professional development
52
and burnout prevention strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights
reserved) – 45 citations used in source
Hirsch, M. S. (2008). Healing the body and mind: An overview of biopsychosocial foundations
and applications. In U. P. Gielen, J. G. Draguns, J. M. Fish (Eds.) , Principles of multicultural
counseling and therapy (pp. 115-134). New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Abstract: (from the chapter) As a result of the impersonal nature of health care, many individuals
have become dissatisfied with the current state of affairs in Western medicine. Data indicate that
some of these disgruntled patients are choosing alternative, or complementary, therapies in
addition to, if not in place of traditional, or Western, medicine. Subsequently, within the last 30
years, the (Western) scientific appreciation of the bi-directional relationship between our minds
and our bodies has been renewed and has seen enormous growth. The aim of this chapter is to
provide an overview, based upon our current understanding of the mind-body connection, of how
the disciplines of biology, psychology, and sociology intersect in the use of several healing
applications. Indeed, there are many applications that have been shown to have positive
influences on the mind and body. This chapter will focus on just a few (the manipulation of
expectancies, the role of social support and interpersonal relationships, mindfulness meditation,
and emotional disclosure through writing) whose efficacy has been demonstrated and replicated
under controlled experimental conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights
reserved) – uses 65 citations
Rubin, J. B. (2008). Deepening listening: The marriage of Buddha and Freud. In U. P. Gielen, J.
G. Draguns, J. M. Fish (Eds.) , Principles of multicultural counseling and therapy (pp. 373-389).
New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter the authors draws on the best of the Western
psychotherapeutic and Eastern meditative traditions to delineate the two ingredients of optimal
listening. The attempt is made to illuminate how therapists could use meditation to cultivate
"evenly hovering attention" and deepen their ability to understand themselves and their clients. It
is also suggested how to deepen one's practice of meditation. Then, it is examined how a
Western psychotherapeutic understanding of the language and logic of the unconscious
complements and enriches meditative attention. Although the focus is on perspectives and
insights gleaned from classical and post-Freudian psychoanalysis, the remarks are applicable,
with the appropriate changes, to other schools of psychotherapeutic thought, including Rogerian
therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) – uses 34 citations
Horneffer, K. (2006). Embracing Emotional Pain As a Means of Spiritual Growth: Tools from
the East. In K. B. Helmeke, C. Sori (Eds.) , The therapist's notebook for integrating spirituality
in counseling: Homework, handouts and activities for use in psychotherapy (pp. 267-285). New
York, NY US: Haworth Press.
53
Abstract: (from the chapter) Although it is commonly acknowledged that difficult experiences
bring about positive growth and change, it can be challenging as psychotherapists to offer clients
the assurance and tools necessary to embrace painful emotions. Several spiritual practices from
the East, including mindfulness meditation, hatha yoga, and tonglen meditation, offer conceptual
ideas and concrete methods that can assist in this process. The current chapter offers in-session
activities and homework assignments that can be integrated into psychotherapy with clients
holding diverse religious beliefs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
– 31 citations in source
Pankhania, J. (2005). Yoga and Its Practice in Psychological Healing. In R. Moodley, W. West
(Eds.) , Integrating traditional healing practices into counseling and psychotherapy (pp. 246256). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.
Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, I will endeavor to outline the historical background
of yoga, identify the main sources of yoga, and offer an introduction to yoga and meditation.
Yoga covers a vast field of philosophy, psychology, and practice, and in the section on the limbs
and branches of yoga, I will outline Patanjalis eight limbs or steps of yoga and the main branches
of yoga. Millions of people throughout the world currently practice yoga on a regular basis. This
vigorous growth and blossoming of yoga across the globe raises the question, "What are people
who practice yoga seeking through yoga?" The section on research into yoga will explore this
question. Modern psychology has emerged as a distinct science in the last hundred years,
whereas the systematic study of psychology in India has been evolving over a few thousand
years. Yoga psychotherapy is more ancient than any other form of psychotherapy. In the section
on yoga psychology, the yogic principles of psychotherapy will be explored within the context of
yogic meaning and purpose of life. This leads to the central question of this chapter, that is, to
what extent can Western-trained psychotherapists really utilize yogic principles and practice for
their work with people who are seeking psychological healing? (PsycINFO Database Record (c)
2012 APA, all rights reserved) – 25 citations in source
Dissertations
Kong, S. Y. (2008). Meditation as a coping tool for stress and well being among clinical and
counseling psychology graduate students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69,
Abstract: Entering graduate school may be an extremely stressful time for students and is often
viewed as a transitional period of students' lives, one from student to professional adult. Often
times, students are trying to balance personal and academic demands. The stressors could lead
students to feel symptoms of depression, anxiety, and lowered self-esteem. This study examined
whether meditation practitioners had lower perceived stress levels and better physical health and
emotional well-being than non-meditators among Clinical and Counseling Psychology graduate
students. Participants included 227 students in a Clinical or Counseling Psychology doctoral
program. Of the 227 participants, one-third (n = 75) identified as a meditation practitioner.
Perceived stress level was measured with the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and physical and
54
emotional well-being were measured with the Medical Outcome Short Form (36) Health Survey
(SF-36). To establish which coping methods participants used, the Brief COPE was used.
Additionally, an adapted meditation questionnaire, and constructed stress questionnaire, and
demographics questionnaire were used as measurements. Results did not indicate any significant
differences between meditators and non-meditators for perceived stress levels, nor were there
any significant differences between meditators and non-meditators for physical and emotional
well-being. No data supported any significant differences between meditation frequency and
experience when measuring for perceived stress level and physical and emotional well-being.
Although, no significant results were found, results confirmed previous findings about stress and
coping methods. Three recommendations for future research include (1) have a larger sample
size for meditation practitioners when examining meditation frequency and experience, (2)
compare physical health and emotional well being between Clinical and Counseling Psychology
graduate students to the general population of meditation practitioners, and (3) have a larger
sample size of meditators who do not utilize social support when comparing to non-meditators
who use social support as coping tool to appropriately examine whether meditation or social is a
more effective coping method. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Glaser, T. (2007). Learning to look deeply: How mindfulness meditation can help counselors
overcome bias in the counseling process. Dissertation Abstracts International, 67,
Abstract: This dissertation comprised a unique experiment examining the effects of a
mindfulness intervention on stereotyping and empathy in a sample of university undergraduates.
Participants were randomly assigned either to a 20-minute mindfulness meditation condition or
to a 20-minute control condition. Post-intervention, participants watched a scripted videotaped
counseling session between an elderly female client and a female counselor. The videotape was
balanced for elderly stereotype-consistent, neutral, and elderly stereotype-inconsistent
information. Individuals were asked to fill out measures on state mindfulness, memory, empathic
identification with the client, attributions regarding the client's problems, an open-ended
description of the client, and three individual client-orientation measures. Main hypotheses for
this study related to group differences and individual differences in state mindfulness.
Hypotheses regarding group differences were that the experimental group would demonstrate
more state mindfulness, more accurately remember information about the client, remember more
stereotype-inconsistent information about the client, show greater levels of empathic
identification with the client, attribute the client's problems more to external forces, and show a
more positive orientation toward the client than individuals assigned to the control condition.
Hypotheses related to state mindfulness were that individuals with higher (versus lower) levels
of state mindfulness would reflect the experimental group differences mentioned above. Results
showed a main effect for group in state mindfulness, such that individuals assigned to the
experimental (versus control) group demonstrated higher levels of state mindfulness. No other
main effects were found for group on any of the outcome variables. State mindfulness was
positively correlated with empathic identification and behavioral intention. Supplemental
55
analyses showed that positive mood, experience with complementary and alternative medicine,
trait mindfulness, and trait empathy moderated the effects of the intervention on some outcome
variables. All moderator variables were significantly related to outcomes for individuals in the
control group but not for those in the experimental group. Correlations between other trait and
state measures and outcomes revealed that positive mood was most consistently related to
outcomes. Implications of these results in terms of the impact of mindfulness training on the
counselor-client relationship are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights
reserved)
Anyanwu, L. (1999, January). Meta-analysis of meditation outcomes in counseling and
psychotherapy. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A, 59,
Abstract: Meditation inclues a variety of techniques that share a common conscious effort to
focus attention in a non-analytic way. In terms of its goals, meditation is a state of completely
focused attention devoid of external thoughts--a state of heighted choice-less awareness. This
study was designed to: (1) Identify and critically review professional literature on the
effectiveness of meditation; (2) Provide an overall measure of effectiveness through the
statistical meta-analysis technique; (3) Provide a classification of findings through the voting
method; and (4) summarize and integrate highlights and major findings for the purpose of
generating implications for future research and practice in counseling and psychotherapy.
Related goals of this study to: (1) Educate and clarify whether meditation deserves a wider
acceptance and application in the pursuit of holistic well being, which is the ultimate goal of
counseling and psychotherapy; and (2) To assess whether meditation addresses the holistic
nature of the human person as mind, body and spirit and would, as such, be a needed
complement to counseling and psychotherapy. Effectiveness of meditation has been studied on
blood pressure/hypertension, EEG, respiratory systems, muscle tension, pain,
perceptual/cognitive abilities and motor skills, self-actualization, anxiety, stress, and chemical
dependency. Effectiveness of meditation has also been measured across gender, age and cultural
background and has been found to transcend race, culture and belief systems. This research
review offers support for on going calls, encouragement and challenges to counseling and
psychotherapy to examine, develop and integrate meditation theories and goals as part of a
comprehensive theory of and approach to counseling and psychotherapy. The need for
integration is to respond and address clients' emerging world view and movement towards more
holistic well-being--of body, mind and spirit. When meditation becomes fully integrated, it could
also complement therapeutic eclecticism as currently practiced in counseling and psychotherapy.
Several implications for research were generated. Research is needed to replicate previous
studies using stronger scientific rigor to control identified methodological weakness in past
studies. Studies are needed to measure the energy generated by meditation and to assess intuition
and other levels of consciousness attainable via meditation. Research is also needed to tailor
meditation to specific treatment goals or problems, as well as aspects of cost effectiveness.
Longitudinal studies of most aspects of meditation are needed, as well. Central among
56
implications for practice were these: Meditation might be useful in all modes of counseling, such
as, individual and group counseling, as well as specialized practice, such as, marriage counseling
and employee assistance counseling. Additionally, meditation might be useful in most settings,
such as, universities, prisons, rehabilitation centers, and corporations. Meditation teachers might
be more effective if they have direct and extensive personal experience in meditation, however
there are a number of problems, such as over-meditation, that require attention from both
meditation teachers and students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Lawrance, W. (1993). Psychotherapeutic factors of naturally occurring long-term meditation.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54,
No abstract provided.
Lourdes, P. V. (1978, September). Implications of the Transcendental Meditation Program for
counseling: The possibility of a paradigm shift. Dissertation Abstracts International, 39, 1343.
No abstract provided.
Dick, L. D. (1974, February). A study of meditation in the service of counseling. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 34,
Keywords: meditation, experience of well-being as revealed in perception of locus of control of
reinforcement & time competence & self suppport orientation, college student counselees
No abstract provided.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature (not reviewed)
Neuropsychology and violence by Nehad Sandozi (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature (not reviewed)
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Hanson, J. L., Adluru, N., Chung, M. K., Alexander, A. L., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S.D. (in
press). Early neglect is associated with alterations in white matter integrity and cognitive
functioning. Child Development.
Rosenkranz, M., Davidson, R., MacCoon, D., Sheridan, J., Kalin, N., & Lutz, A. (in press). A
comparison of mindfulness-based stress reduction and an active control in modulation of
neurogenic inflammation. Brain, behavior, and immunity.
Davidson, R. J. & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Social influences on neuroplasticity: Stress and
interventions to promote well-being. Nature Neuroscience, 15(5), 689-95. NIHMSID: 366958
Experiential factors shape the neural circuits underlying social and emotional behavior from the
prenatal period to the end of life. These factors include both incidental influences, such as early
57
adversity, and intentional influences that can be produced in humans through specific
interventions designed to promote prosocial behavior and well-being. Here we review important
extant evidence in animal models and humans. Although the precise mechanisms of plasticity are
still not fully understood, moderate to severe stress appears to increase the growth of several
sectors of the amygdala, whereas the effects in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex tend to be
opposite. Structural and functional changes in the brain have been observed with cognitive
therapy and certain forms of meditation and lead to the suggestion that well-being and other
prosocial characteristics might be enhanced through training.
Hanson, J., Chung, M., Avants, B., Rudolph, K., Shirtcliff, E., Gee, J., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak,
S. (2012). Structural variations in prefrontal cortex mediate the relationship between early
childhood stress and spatial working memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(23), 7917-25.
PMCID: PMC3375595
A large corpus of research indicates exposure to stress impairs cognitive abilities, specifically
executive functioning dependent on the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We collected structural MRI
scans (n=61), well-validated assessments of executive functioning, and detailed interviews
assessing stress exposure in humans, to examine whether cumulative life stress affected brain
morphometry and one type of executive functioning, spatial working memory, during
adolescence—a critical time of brain development and reorganization. Analysis of variations in
brain structure revealed that cumulative life stress and spatial working memory were related to
smaller volumes in the PFC, specifically prefrontal gray and white matter between the anterior
cingulate and the frontal poles. Mediation analyses revealed that individual differences in
prefrontal volumes accounted for the association between cumulative life stress and spatial
working memory. These results suggest that structural changes in the PFC may serve as a
mediating mechanism through which greater cumulative life stress engenders decrements in
cognitive functioning.
Davidson, R. J. (2010). Empirical explorations of mindfulness: Conceptual and methodological
conundrums. Emotion, 10(1), 8-11.
This commentary reflects on the articles in this Special Issue. The appearance of this group of
articles underscores the important idea that a major target of mindfulness practice is on emotion.
Transformation in trait affect is a key goal of all contemplative traditions. This commentary
addresses several key methodological and conceptual issues in the empirical study of
mindfulness. The many ways in which the term "mindfulness" is used in the articles in this
Special Issue are noted, and they include its reference to states, traits, and independent variables
that are manipulated in an experimental context. How the term "mindfulness" is conceptualized
and operationalized is crucial, and for progress to be made it is essential that we qualify the use
of this term by reference to how it is being operationalized in each context. Other methodological
issues are considered, such as the duration of training and how it should be measured, and the
nature of control and comparison groups in studies of mindfulness-based interventions. Finally,
58
the commentary ends with a consideration of the targets within emotion processing that are likely
to be impacted by mindfulness. This collection of articles underscores the substantial progress
that has occurred in the empirical study of mindfulness and it is a harbinger of a very promising
future in this area.
Perlman, D. M., Salomons, T. V., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2010). Differential effects on pain
intensity and unpleasantness of two meditation practices. Emotion, 10(1), 65–71. PMCID:
PMC2859822
Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that can be regulated by many different
cognitive mechanisms. We compared the regulatory qualities of two different meditation
practices during noxious thermal stimuli: Focused Attention, directed at a fixation cross away
from the stimulation, which could regulate negative affect through a sensory gating mechanism;
and Open Monitoring, which could regulate negative affect through a mechanism of
nonjudgmental, nonreactive awareness of sensory experience. Here, we report behavioral data
from a comparison between novice and long-term meditation practitioners (long-term meditators,
LTMs) using these techniques. LTMs, compared to novices, had a significant reduction of selfreported unpleasantness, but not intensity, of painful stimuli while practicing Open Monitoring.
No significant effects were found for FA. This finding illuminates the possible regulatory
mechanism of meditation-based clinical interventions like Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
(MBSR). Implications are discussed in the broader context of training-induced changes in trait
emotion regulation.
Bauer, P. M., Hanson, J. L., Pierson, R. K., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2009). Cerebellar
volume and cognitive functioning in children who experienced early deprivation. Biological
Psychiatry, 66(12), 1100-1106. PMCID: PMC2878609
BACKGROUND: The cerebellum is a brain region recognized primarily in the coordination of
movement and related accessory motor functions. In addition, emerging evidence implicates the
cerebellum in cognitive processes and suggests that this brain region might be subject to
experience-dependent changes in structure. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the
role of early environmental deprivation in the maturation of the cerebellum and aspects of
cognitive development.
METHODS: Structural magnetic resonance imaging volumes of 12 cerebellar sub-regions from
31 previously neglected and 30 typically developing children were compared with subjects'
corresponding neuropsychological test scores.
RESULTS: Neglected children had smaller volume of the superior-posterior cerebellar lobes.
Moreover, superior-posterior lobe volume was found to mediate neuropsychological test
performance differences between groups, with larger volumes yielding better outcomes on tests
of memory and planning.
CONCLUSIONS: These data support the importance of experience-dependent changes in
cerebellar structure and highlight the role of the cerebellum in higher cognitive functions.
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Light, S. N., Coan, J. A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Frye, C., Goldsmith, H. H., & Davidson, R. J. (2009).
Empathy is associated with dynamic change in prefrontal brain electrical activity during positive
emotion in children. Child Development, 80(4), 1210-1231. PMCID: PMC2717040
Empathy is the combined ability to interpret the emotional states of others and experience
resultant, related emotions. The relation between prefrontal electroencephalographic asymmetry
and emotion in children is well known. The association between positive emotion (assessed via
parent report), empathy (measured via observation), and second-by-second brain electrical
activity (recorded during a pleasurable task) was investigated using a sample of one hundred
twenty-eight 6- to 10-year-old children. Contentment related to increasing left frontopolar
activation (p < .05). Empathic concern and positive empathy related to increasing right
frontopolar activation (ps < .05). A second form of positive empathy related to increasing left
dorsolateral activation (p < .05). This suggests that positive affect and (negative and positive)
empathy both relate to changes in prefrontal activity during a pleasurable task.
Shackman, A. J., McMenamin, B. W., Maxwell, J. S., Greischar, L. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2009).
Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortical activity and behavioral inhibition. Psychological Science,
20(12), 1500-1506. PMCID: PMC2858783
Individuals show marked variation in their responses to threat. Such individual differences in
behavioral inhibition play a profound role in mental and physical well-being. Behavioral
inhibition is thought to reflect variation in the sensitivity of a distributed neural system
responsible for generating anxiety and organizing defensive responses to threat and punishment.
Although progress has been made in identifying the key constituents of this behavioral inhibition
system in humans, the involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) remains unclear.
Here, we acquired self-reported Behavioral Inhibition System Sensitivity scores and highresolution electroencephalography from a large sample (n= 51). Using the enhanced spatial
resolution afforded by source modeling techniques, we show that individuals with greater tonic
(resting) activity in right-posterior DLPFC rate themselves as more behaviorally inhibited. This
observation provides novel support for recent conceptualizations of behavioral inhibition and
clues to the mechanisms that might underlie variation in threat-induced negative affect.
Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., Ricard, M., & Wallace, B. A. (2005). Buddhist and psychological
perspectives on emotions and well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 59-63.
Davidson, R. J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M. A., Muller, D., Santorelli, S. F.,
Urbanowski, F., Harrington, A., Bonus, K., & Sheridan, J. F. (2003). Alterations in brain and
immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 564-570.
BACKGROUND: The underlying changes in biological processes that are associated with
reported changes in mental and physical health in response to meditation have not been
systematically explored. We performed a randomized, controlled study on the effects on brain
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and immune function of a well-known and widely used 8-week clinical training program in
mindfulness meditation applied in a work environment with healthy employees.
METHODS: We measured brain electrical activity before and immediately after, and then 4
months after an 8-week training program in mindfulness meditation. Twenty-five subjects were
tested in the meditation group. A wait-list control group (N = 16) was tested at the same points
in time as the meditators. At the end of the 8-week period, subjects in both groups were
vaccinated with influenza vaccine.
RESULTS: We report for the first time significant increases in left-sided anterior activation, a
pattern previously associated with positive affect, in the meditators compared with the
nonmeditators. We also found significant increases in antibody titers to influenza vaccine among
subjects in the meditation compared with those in the wait-list control group. Finally, the
magnitude of increase in left-sided activation predicted the magnitude of antibody titer rise to
the vaccine.
CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that a short program in mindfulness meditation
produces demonstrable effects on brain and immune function. These findings suggest that
meditation may change brain and immune function in positive ways and underscore the need for
additional research.
Skowron, E. A., Kozlowski, J. M., & Pincus, A. L. (2010). Differentiation, self–other
representations, and rupture–repair processes: Predicting child maltreatment risk. Journal Of
Counseling Psychology, 57(3), 304-316. doi:10.1037/a0020030
This set of studies was designed to examine the relational underpinnings of child abuse potential
in a sample of 51 urban families. In Study 1, lower maternal differentiation of self-most notably,
greater emotional reactivity and greater emotional cutoff-along with self-attacking introjects,
together distinguished mothers at higher risk (vs. lower risk) for child maltreatment (CM). In
Study 2, patterns of interactive rupture and repair were examined in a subsample of n = 15
families and found to vary as a function of risk for CM. Specifically, SASB coding (Benjamin,
1996, 2003) of mother-children interactions during two moderately stressful lab tasks revealed
higher rates of interactive mismatch and mother-initiated ruptures, and fewer successful repairs
in families at higher-risk-for-CM, relative to families at lower-risk. Implications for counseling
and directions for further translational research are discussed.
Wang, Y., & Heppner, P. (2011). A qualitative study of childhood sexual abuse survivors in
Taiwan: Toward a transactional and ecological model of coping. Journal Of Counseling
Psychology, 58(3), 393-409. doi:10.1037/a0023522
In this study, we aimed to explore the experiences of 10 female Taiwanese childhood sexual
abuse (CSA) survivors (age range = 20–39 years) to broaden our understanding of the post-abuse
coping process in a Chinese sociocultural context. This investigation was grounded on a feminist
paradigm, and the consensual qualitative research method (Hill et al., 2005; Hill, Thompson, &
Williams, 1997) was utilized as the strategy of inquiry. The transactional and ecological model
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of coping that emerged from the data describes the dynamic interplay among (a) intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and sociocultural factors and (b) the coping process and outcomes of CSA
survivors. Implications for research on CSA recovery and culturally appropriate interventions in
a collectivistic sociocultural context are discussed.
Hund, A. R., & Espelage, D. L. (2005). Childhood Sexual Abuse, Disordered Eating,
Alexithymia, and General Distress: A Mediation Model. Journal Of Counseling Psychology,
52(4), 559-573. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.559
This study evaluated structural equation models of the associations among family functioning,
childhood abuse, depression, anxiety, alexithymia, and eating disorder symptomatology in a
sample of 412 European American and 192 African American female undergraduates.
Additionally, the specific roles of anxiety, depression, and alexithymia as mediators were
assessed. Each of these variables was a significant mediator of the association between childhood
abuse and disordered eating. Finally, a test of invariance between the African American and
European American subsamples was significant, highlighting the need for additional crosscultural eating disorder research.
Stout, M., & Mintz, L. B. (1996). Differences among nonclinical college women with alcoholic
mothers, alcoholic fathers, and nonalcoholic parents. Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 43(4),
466-472. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.43.4.466
To further examine the uniformity myth as it pertains to adult children of alcoholics (ACAs) and
to elucidate potential within-ACA difference variables, differences among 90 nonclinical 17–24yr-old college females with alcoholic fathers (F-ACAs), alcoholic mothers (M-ACAs), and no
alcoholic parents (non-ACAs) were explored. These groups were compared in terms of eating
disorder symptomatology, interpersonal difficulties, and reports of abuse. F-ACAs reported
significantly more distress arising from interpersonal problems than did non-ACAs. Non-ACAs
reported significantly fewer threats of parent-perpetrated abuse than either ACA group, whereas
F-ACAs reported significantly more father-perpetrated threats of abuse than either non-ACAs or
M-ACAs. F-ACAs also reported a significantly higher prevalence of father-perpetrated physical
abuse than did M-ACAs. Suggestions for future research are made, and counseling implications
are discussed.
Goff, D. C. (2011). Antipsychotics and the shrinking brain. Psychiatric Times.
http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1854683
Post-traumatic growth by Ashley Hutchison (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature
Counseling psychologists have suggested that post-traumatic growth is an important construct to
consider when working with clients affected by traumatic life experiences. Within the counseling
and counseling psychology literature, multiple authors have written both theoretical and
empirical articles that focus on post-traumatic growth. For example, several authors have
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conducted studies that focused on the validation and development of The Posttraumatic Growth
Inventory (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1999). In addition, other researchers have investigated posttraumatic growth in client-centered group treatment, in the context of religious or spiritual selfgrowth, and among survivors of childhood sexual assault, cancer patients, and college students.
Interestingly, investigators have also researched the applicability of post-traumatic growth with
individuals who work with trauma. This type of post-traumatic growth has been called vicarious
post-traumatic growth, which is conversely related to the concept of vicarious traumatization of
service providers.
Other authors have published theoretical or conceptual writings on post-traumatic growth. These
authors have focused on how clinicians can incorporate positive psychology into traumatreatment, recommendations of pathways to client post-traumatic growth, theoretical and
methodological issues in studying post-traumatic growth, and incorporating post-traumatic
growth at a systems level.
Although counseling psychologists have incorporated posttraumatic growth in trauma-informed
work to some extent, additional research is needed to fully understand the relationship between
posttraumatic growth, trauma, and its place in counseling psychology. Given counseling
psychology’s commitment to strengths and prevention, increasing the field’s focus on this
important construct is highly relevant and a critical future direction of prevention-oriented work.
Counseling Today article. http://ct.counseling.org/2012/02/the-transformative-power-of-trauma/
Anderson, W.P., Jr., & Lopez-Baez, S. I. (2008). Measuring growth with the posttraumatic
growth inventory. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 40, 215-227.
The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; R. G. Tedeschi & L. G. Calhoun, 1996) was used to
measure the growth of university students (N = 347). Results were compared with those of
trauma studies and indicate that the PTGI is a general measure of growth suitable for future
nontrauma studies. Results reflect a minimal relationship between growth and stress.
Anderson, W.P., & Lopez-Baez, S.I. (2011). Measuring personal growth attributed to a semester
of college life using the posttraumatic growth inventory. Counseling and Values, 56, 73-82.
In this descriptive exploratory study, the Posttraumatic Growth inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi &
Calhoun, 1996) was used to measure levels of personal growth attributed by college students (N
= 117) to a semester of university life In retrospective self-reports. Results reflect attributions of
substantial total growth in the range reported in the posttraumatic studies and attributions of
substantial growth to a variety of specific experiences. The results suggest that personal growth
as defined by the PTGI is not necessarily adversarial and that personal growth can be
intentionally facilitated by educational activities.
Hoffman, M.A., & Kruzcek, T. (2011). A bioecological model of mass trauma: Individual,
community, and societal effects. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 1087-1127.
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Biopsychosocial consequences of catastrophic events create an ongoing need for research that
examines the effects of mass traumas, developing psychosocial interventions, and advocacy to
address the needs of affected individuals, systems, and communities. Because it is neither
possible nor necessarily desirable to intervene with all touched by disasters at an individual level,
a systems approach that allows conceptualization and response at the individual, family,
community, and societal levels seems optimal. Many of the models commonly used in
counseling psychology to explain coping with difficult events focus on individual effects and do
not adequately capture the complex, multisystemic effects of large-scale catastrophic events and
disasters. A bioecological model of mass trauma, which provides a conceptual framework for
understanding the effects, intervening in the aftermath, addressing prevention, and researching
aspects of large-scale disasters, catastrophes, and mass traumas, is presented. Relevant literature
and illustrative examples from three categories of mass traumas or catastrophic events (disasters,
war, and terrorism or violence) that currently contribute to a persistent atmosphere of stress for
many are reviewed using the bioecological model. Recommendations for future research are
provided.
Hooper, L. M., Marotta, S. A., & DePuy, V. (2009). A confirmatory factor analytic study of the
Posttraumatic Growth Inventory among a sample of racially diverse college students. Journal of
Mental Health, 18, 335-343.
Aims: The primary aim of the study was to confirm the five-factor structure of Tedeschi and
Calhoun's (1996) Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI). A secondary aim of this study was to
explore the potential usefulness of the PTGI among populations that experience parentificationcommon form of childhood neglect and adversity. Method: The PTGI was administered to a
sample of 143 college students with a history of various levels of parentification. Results: The
resulting data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis. The goodness-of-fit indices for the
five-factor model indicated a moderate fit with the current sample. However, a five-factor, 18item model produced a more optimal fit than Tedeschi and Calhoun's five-factor, 21-item PTGI.
Conclusions: The study's findings suggest that the PTGI appears to be a useful assessment
inventory for mental health practitioners in measuring globally the resources an individual might
have following the adversity of parentification.
Hutchinson, J., & Lema, J.C. (2009). Ordinary and extraordinary narratives of heroism and
resistance: Uncovering resilience, competence, and growth. Counselling Psychology Review, 24,
9-15.
Current approaches to work with trauma often emphasise diagnosis, symptoms and exposurebased treatments. This paper, based within a narrative framework and drawing on recent research
in positive psychology, focuses on how we can collaborate with clients to move from traumasaturated stories that limit possibility and meaning for the future, to stories that are possibilityrich, meaningful and ordinarily and extra-ordinarily heroic. We identify some principles,
assumptions and ideas that guide our interventions: labelling people, for example, as 'abused' or
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suffering from PTSD can sometimes constrain progress; people find small ways to resist even the
most violent of situations; inviting fun, laughter and other positive emotions into therapy can
help build resilience; having our ear attuned to noticing strength and small acts of coping and
progressing builds success; and the importance of giving good attention to the client's theory of
change. We end with some questions about different pathways to resilience, recovery and posttraumatic growth.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Davis, C. C. (2004). Theoretical and methodological issues in the
assessment and interpretation of posttraumatic growth. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 60-64.
Although the idea of growth following adversity is not new to humanistically oriented
counseling psychologists. Few researchers gave much attention to such a notion until the late
1980s. Since then, investigators Richard G. Tedeschi and Lawrence G. Calhoun have been at the
forefront of efforts to document the evidence of post-traumatic growth, and to suggest the
processes by which distressing negative events may become catalysis for personal development,
values reorganization. With the recent focus on optimal human functioning, resilience, and wellbeing, research on post-traumatic growth has become popular.
Payne, A. Liebling-Kalifani, H., & Stephen, J. (2007). Client-centered group therapy for
survivors of interpersonal trauma: A pilot investigation. Counselling & Psychotherapy Research,
7, 100-105.
Group therapy for trauma survivors provides an opportunity to share experiences with others in a
supportive environment. Client-centred groups have received very little attention as a way of
working with traumatised people. Such groups promise to promote psychological growth
following trauma. In this paper we present pilot data from a client-centred group of six survivors
of interpersonal violence who were experiencing complex posttraumatic stress reactions. Results
suggested that those who perceived the presence of empathic listening within the group therapy
sessions benefited from the group, showing greater positive changes. Clinical implications for
working with trauma survivors, methodological considerations and directions for future research
are discussed.
Sheikh, A.I. (2008). Postraumatic growth in trauma survivors: Implications for practice.
Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 21, 85-97.
The study of positive sequelae to trauma is increasingly a focus of attention in the trauma
research literature. This paper describes the construct of posttraumatic growth, a phenomenon
that involves positive changes and benefits gained through coping with traumatic experiences.
Variables associated with posttraumatic growth are summarized. Specific interventions for
counselling psychology practice are described.
Sheikh, A.I., & Marotta, S.A. (2008). Best practices for counseling in cardiac rehabilitation
settings. Journal of Counseling and Development, 86, 111-120.
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Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States and can affect individuals of all
ages, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. This article reviews the research on
psychosocial interventions in cardiac rehabilitation programs and discusses the evolving set of
best practices for counselors working in a new setting with people who have experienced the
trauma of cardiac disease. Recommendations for best practices for counselors who work in this
emerging area are provided, including recommendations for facilitating posttraumatic growth.
Hoffman, A. (2013). Introduction to Special Issue: Positive adaptation: Conceptualizing
posttraumatic positive adjustment. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 26, 1-7.
The contributions to this Special Issue focus on three conceptualizations of positive adjustment
following a trauma: posttraumatic growth, meaning making, and spiritual transformation. The
authors explore these concepts among varying populations and provide implications for
counseling practice and research.
Park, C.L., & Gutierrez, I.A. (2013). Global and situational meanings in the context of trauma:
Relations with psychological well-being. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 26, 8-25.
Using the meaning making model as our framework, we examined relations among global and
appraised meaning and well-being in a sample of 189 college students who had experienced a
highly stressful event in the past 5 years. Results suggested that elements of both global meaning
(especially self-esteem beliefs) and situational meaning (especially appraisals of the event as
violating one's goals) were independently related to a range of well-being outcomes, including
depression, anxiety, stress, subjective happiness, and life satisfaction. However, relations varied
by specific aspect of well-being. Neither control nor religious beliefs were consistently related to
well-being. These results demonstrate the importance of both global and situational meanings in
adjusting to life stress. Counselors should attend to both global and situational meanings in the
context of helping clients deal with stressful experiences; such attention may focus on bolstering
adaptive global beliefs such as self-esteem while also reappraising situational meanings,
particularly of the event as violating important global beliefs and goals.
Perera, S., & Frazier, P.A. (2013). Changes in religiosity and spirituality following potentially
traumatic events. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 26, 26-38.
The purpose of our study was to investigate spiritual and religious changes in the context of life
adversities. Specifically, we compared university students (n = 122) who had recently
experienced a potentially traumatic event (PTE) and a matched comparison group (n = 122) who
had not experienced a recent PTE, in terms of: (1) the amount of actual and self-perceived
positive and negative change in religiosity and spirituality; (2) the relations between perceived
and actual positive and negative spiritual change; and (3) the relation between change in
religiosity and spirituality and change in distress. Although there were small actual and perceived
changes in religiosity and spirituality within each group, there were no between-group
differences in terms of religious and spiritual change. Thus, changes over time in these life
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domains are not unique to PTE exposure. As expected, the relations between actual and
perceived changes were small, highlighting that perceived and actual change are different
constructs. Finally, differences between the two groups in the relations between religious and
spiritual change and distress suggested that changes in these life domains may reflect coping
efforts in the PTE group. We discuss the counseling and research implications of these results.
Vilenica, S., Shakespeare-Finch, J., & Obst, P. (2013). Exploring the process of meaning making
in healing and growth after childhood sexual assault: A case study approach. Counselling
Psychology Quarterly, 26, 39-54.
Childhood sexual assault (CSA) is one of the most devastating of all traumatic experiences, with
population studies documenting survivors experiencing higher levels of pathology than survivors
of other traumatic experiences. Yet, recent research has demonstrated that far from being
permanently crippled by their experiences, many adult survivors of CSA manage to heal and
move forward in their lives to experience a rich and fulfilling existence. In this article, two case
studies are presented to provide a detailed account of how people who have experienced CSA
may find a pathway to healing. Our data demonstrate that meaning making, spiritual or otherwise,
is a pivotal part of acceptance of CSA and ensuing growth. The case studies amplify the unique
journeys of two women along with underlying similarities in their pathways to healing. Clinical
implications of the research are discussed and specific strategies for encouraging healing and
growth are outlined.
Tallman, B.A. (2013). Anticipated posttraumatic growth from cancer: The roles of adaptive and
maladaptive coping strategies. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 26, 72-88.
Research suggests that individuals with chronic health conditions experience posttraumatic
growth (PTG), such as in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. How PTG is perceived at early
time points following stressful events and whether PTG reflects a coping process remains
uncertain. The current longitudinal study examined cancer patients’ perceptions of anticipated
posttraumatic growth (APTG), dispositional and situational coping, and perceived PTG at three
time points spanning pre-treatment to nine months later. Participants were 49 mixed-cancer
patients. At pre-treatment, participants completed a modified PTG Inventory to assess APTG.
Results revealed that patients reported higher levels of APTG compared to reports of PTG in the
literature, with patients “over-anticipating” PTG for all scales. Coping via dispositional planning
moderated the relation between PTG and APTG. These results provide evidence for APTG as a
coping process and as an important precursor for later PTG. I discuss these findings in terms of
relevant theory and practice implications.
Barrington, A.J., & Sharkespeare-Finch, J. (2013). Working with refugee survivors of torture and
trauma: An opportunity for vicarious post-traumatic growth. Counselling Psychology Quarterly,
26, 89-105.
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Clinical work with people who have survived trauma carries a risk of vicarious traumatisation for
the service provider, as well as the potential for vicarious post-traumatic growth (VPTG).
Despite a growing interest in this area, the effects of working with survivors of refugee-related
trauma have remained relatively unexplored. In this study, we examined the lived experiences of
people working on a daily basis with survivors of torture and trauma who had sought refuge in
Australia. Seventeen clinical, administrative and managerial staff from a not-for-profit
organisation participated in a semi-structured interview that was later analysed using interpretive
phenomenological analysis. Analysis of the data demonstrated that the entire sample reported
symptoms of vicarious trauma (e.g. strong emotional reactions, intrusive images and shattering
of existing beliefs) as well as VPTG (e.g. forming new relationships, increased selfunderstanding and gaining a greater appreciation of life). Moreover, effortful meaning-making
processes appeared to facilitate positive changes. Reduction in the risks associated with this work,
the enhancement of clinician well-being, and improvement of therapeutic outcomes for clientele
are responsibilities shared by the organisation and clinicians. Without negating the distress of
trauma work, clinicians are encouraged to more deeply consider the unique positive outcomes
that supporting survivors can provide.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature
Empirical investigations and theoretical discussions of post-traumatic growth are more extensive
and more fully developed in fields outside of counseling psychology. Clinical psychologists, in
particular, have extensively researched and incorporated post-traumatic growth into clinical
work. Many of their studies have demonstrated that posttraumatic growth is often a more
commonly outcome of trauma than clinicians previously believed. In particular, clinical
psychologists have outlined the five major domains of posttraumatic growth and discussed this
construct in relation to adult development. Authors have discussed the following issues in
relation to posttraumatic growth: specific processes involved in posttraumatic growth, clinical
implications, cultural factors, and assessment methods and tools.
However, there is inconsistency in the use of terms similar to posttraumatic growth, such as
resilience. In reviewing the literature, it was unclear whether researchers consider these two
constructs to be similar in nature or distinctly different. Future research that delineates between
similar constructs, such as posttraumatic growth and resilience, would be useful in determining
whether these terms are the same construct or represent different processes following traumatic
experiences.
Bonanno , G.A. (2004) Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human
capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59(1), 20-28
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20
Many people are exposed to loss or potentially traumatic events at some point in their lives, and
yet they continue to have positive emotional experiences and show only minor and transient
disruptions in their ability to function. Unfortunately, because much of psychology's knowledge
about how adults cope with loss or trauma has come from individuals who sought treatment or
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exhibited great distress, loss and trauma theorists have often viewed this type of resilience as
either rare or pathological. The author challenges these assumptions by reviewing evidence that
resilience represents a distinct trajectory from the process of recovery, that resilience in the face
of loss or potential trauma is more common than is often believed, and that there are multiple and
sometimes unexpected pathways to resilience.
Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Resilience in the face of potential trauma. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 14(3), 135-138.
Until recently, resilience among adults exposed to potentially traumatic events was thought to
occur rarely and in either pathological or exceptionally healthy individuals. Recent research
indicates, however, that the most common reaction among adults exposed to such events is a
relatively stable pattern of healthy functioning coupled with the enduring capacity for positive
emotion and generative experiences. A surprising finding is that there is no single resilient type.
Rather, there appear to be multiple and sometimes unexpected ways to be resilient, and
sometimes resilience is achieved by means that are not fully adaptive under normal
circumstances. For example, people who characteristically use self-enhancing biases often incur
social liabilities but show resilient outcomes when confronted with extreme adversity. Directions
for further research are considered.
Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). What predicts psychological
resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress. Journal of
consulting and clinical psychology, 75(5), 671-82. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.5.671.
A growing body of evidence suggests that most adults exposed to potentially traumatic events
are resilient. However, research on the factors that may promote or deter adult resilience has
been limited. This study examined patterns of association between resilience and various
sociocontextual factors. The authors used data from a random-digit-dial phone survey (N =
2,752) conducted in the New York City area after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack.
Resilience was defined as having 1 or 0 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and as being
associated with low levels of depression and substance use. Multivariate analyses indicated that
the prevalence of resilience was uniquely predicted by participant gender, age, race/ethnicity,
education, level of trauma exposure, income change, social support, frequency of chronic disease,
and recent and past life stressors. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.
Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Clarifying and extending the construct of adult resilience. American
Psychologist, 60, 265-267. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.3.265b
In this article the author responds to comments made in this issue responding to his original
article entitled Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity
to thrive after extremely aversive events? The author notes that in his original article he focused
on three crucial points: Resilience among adults represents a distinct and empirically separable
outcome trajectory from that normally associated with recovery from trauma; resilience is more
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prevalent than generally accepted in either the lay or professional literature; and there are
multiple and sometimes unexpected factors that inform adult resilience. Owing to the brevity of
the article, the author could only touch briefly on many of the more nuanced and complex issues
suggested by the resilience construct; this left plenty of room for critique. Fortunately, the
comments are generous and insightful and for the most part compatible with the driving goal of
the article. As might be expected, of course, there were statements peppered throughout the
comments that the author deemed worthy of rebuttal or correction. He considers four points that
seemed to beg most urgently for response.
Bonanno, G.A., & Kaltman, S. (1999). Toward an integrative perspective on bereavement.
Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 760-776. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.760
For nearly a century, bereavement theorists have assumed that recovery from loss requires a
period of grief work in which the ultimate goal is the severing of the attachment bond to the
deceased. Reviews appearing in the 1980s noted a surprising absence of empirical support for
this view, thus leaving the bereavement field without a guiding theoretical base. In this article,
the authors consider alternative perspectives on bereavement that are based on cognitive stress
theory, attachment theory, the social-functional account of emotion, and trauma theory. They
then elaborate on the most promising features of each theory in an attempt to develop an
integrative framework to guide future research. The authors elucidate 4 fundamental components
of the grieving process—context, meaning, representations of the lost relationship, and coping
and emotion-regulation processes—and suggest ways in which these components may interact
over the course of bereavement.
Bonanno, G. A., Westphal, M., & Mancini, A. D. (2011). Resilience to loss and potential trauma.
Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7(1), 511-535. Retrieved from
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526.
Initial research on loss and potentially traumatic events (PTEs) has been dominated by either a
psychopathological approach emphasizing individual dysfunction or an event approach
emphasizing average differences between exposed and nonexposed groups. We consider the
limitations of these approaches and review more recent research that has focused on the
heterogeneity of outcomes following aversive events. Using both traditional analytic tools and
sophisticated latent trajectory modeling, this research has identified a set of prototypical outcome
patterns. Typically, the most common outcome following PTEs is a stable trajectory of healthy
functioning or resilience. We review research showing that resilience is not the result of a few
dominant factors, but rather that there are multiple independent predictors of resilient outcomes.
Finally, we critically evaluate the question of whether resilience-building interventions can
actually make people more resilient, and we close with suggestions for future research on
resilience.
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Bonanno, G.A., Wortman, C.B., Lehman, D.R., Tweed, R.G., Haring, M., Sonnega, J., Carr, D.,
& Nesse, R.M. (2002). Resilience to loss and chronic grief: A prospective study from preloss to
18-months postloss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(5), 1150-1164.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1150
The vast majority of bereavement research is conducted after a loss has occurred. Thus,
knowledge of the divergent trajectories of grieving or their antecedent predictors is lacking. This
study gathered prospective data on 205 individuals several years prior to the death of their
spouse and at 6- and 18-mo postloss. Five core bereavement patterns were identified: common
grief, chronic grief, chronic depression, improvement during bereavement, and resilience.
Common grief was relatively infrequent, and the resilient pattern most frequent. The authors
tested key hypotheses in the literature pertaining to chronic grief and resilience by identifying the
preloss predictors of each pattern. Chronic grief was associated with preloss dependency and
resilience with preloss acceptance of death and belief in a just world.
Aldwin[AH3] , C. M., & Levenson, M. R. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: A developmental
perspective. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 19-22. Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20447195
Although investigators Richard G. Tedeschi and Lawrence G. Calhoun in the January 2004 issue
of the "Psychological Inquiry" are not the first to discuss post-traumatic growth, they have done
much to systematize investigation into the topic, by both their theoretical and empirical work.
Few would disagree with their identification of the five major domains of post traumatic growth.
Nonetheless, the field is still new and there are a great many questions still unresolved. This
commentary focuses on developmental issues about the process by which growth occurs after the
experience of traumas and other events. The study of adult development has much to contribute
to this discussion, given its major focus on how and why change occurs in adulthood.
Almedom, A. (2005). Resilience, hardiness, sense of coherence, and posttraumatic growth: All
paths leading to "light at the end of the tunnel"? Journal of Loss and Trauma, 10(3), 253-265.
doi:10.1080/15325020590928216.
Two questions prompted this targeted review: (a) What are the behavioral and social
determinants of individual and/or collective resilience-the capacity to rebound from crisis? and
(b) Is the evidence base for related concepts, including hardiness, sense of coherence, and
posttraumatic growth consistent? The findings suggest that the theory of salutogenesis,
operationalized by the sense of coherence construct, is inclusive of the related concepts of
resilience and hardiness. Moreover, it is grounded in robust primary research of cross-cultural
relevance. More recent concepts of recovery and posttraumatic growth also contribute to our
understanding of resilience. Implications for international humanitarian psychosocial
programming are discussed.
71
Anderson , K. M., Danis, F. S., & Havig, K. (2011). Adult daughters of battered women:
Recovery and posttraumatic growth following childhood adversity. Families in Society, 92(2).
doi:10.1606/1044-3894.4092.
This article details the recovery process, including posttraumatic growth, for 15 adult daughters
of battered women. Using qualitative inquiry, participants' recovery was found to involve a
cognitive restructuring of childhood misconceptions of themselves, their parents, and the trauma
itself. Key to this transformation process, and consequently allowing for posttraumatic growth,
was an interwoven process of meaning-making including two specific elements of
understanding: the cause and effect of domestic violence and the significance of suffering from
such exposure in childhood. Distancing from their parents, education on domestic violence,
accessing therapeutic/support services, and having a spiritual connection contributed to enhanced
insight and wisdom. Implications include providing professionals with conceptual insights
regarding how to identify and support adult daughters' lifelong recovery and growth.
Boals , A., Steward, J., & Schuettler, D. (2010). Advancing our understanding of posttraumatic
growth by considering event centrality. Journal of Loss & Trauma, 15(6), 518-533.
doi:10.1080/15325024.2010.519271
Research on posttraumatic growth (PTG) has been plagued by inconsistencies and small effect
sizes. We hypothesized that relationships between PTG and other psychological variables would
become stronger and more consistent with expectations when we limited analyses to only
adverse events construed as central to one's identity. The results supported the hypothesis.
Comparing our results to those from a recent meta-analysis on PTG, the relationships between
PTG, depression, and positive affect were stronger when examining only events central to
identity. Additionally, previously nonsignificant correlations with anxiety, global distress, and
physical health became significant in the expected directions. Lastly, a formerly puzzling
positive correlation between PTG and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms became
nonsignificant. In stark contrast, limiting analyses to only events meeting the DSM-IV A1
criterion did not produce similar results. Future PTG studies should exclude events that fail to
cause disruption in respondents' core beliefs to better separate coping behaviors from PTG.
Butler, L. D. (2007). Growing pains: Commentary on the field of posttraumatic growth and
Hobfoll and colleagues? Recent contributions to it. Applied Psychology, 56(3), 367-378.
doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00293.x
The field of research on benefit-finding and growth following traumatic experience lacks
consensus with respect to some central conceptual questions, and a number of these issues are
apparent in the research reported by Stevan Hobfoll and his colleagues. In this commentary I
briefly discuss, and at times dispute, some of the assertions and assumptions in this target article
that I believe reflect these broader issues, including that: psychosocial gains (or benefits) and
psychological growth are equivalent, reporting gains (or benefits) represents maladaptive efforts
at coping, posttraumatic growth (PTG) is necessarily linked with positive psychological
72
adjustment, and trauma symptoms represent poor adjustment following traumatic event exposure.
I also discuss the intriguing proposal of this research: that action is essential to true growth.
Butler, L. D., Blasey, C. M., Garlan, R. W., McCaslin, S. E., Azarow, J., Chen, X., et al. (2005).
Posttraumatic growth following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Cognitive, coping
and trauma symptom predictors in an internet convenience sample. Traumatology, 11, 247-267.
doi:10.1177/153476560501100405
Cognitive, coping, and trauma symptom predictors of posttraumatic growth (PTG; measured
with the Post-traumatic Growth Inventory) were examined in a large convenience sample (n
=1,505) participating in a longitudinal Internet-based study following the terrorist attacks of
9/11/01. Results indicate that initial PTG levels (mean 9 weeks post-attacks) were generally
associated with higher trauma symptoms (measured with the PTSD Checklist-Specific), positive
changes in worldview (measured with the Changes in Outlook Questionnaire), more denial, and
less behavioral disengagement (measured with the Brief COPE). Additionally, PTG had a
curvilinear association with level of trauma symptoms, such that those reporting symptoms at
intermediate levels reported the highest levels of growth. Levels of PTG declined somewhat over
time with the exception of Spiritual Change. As expected, PTG levels at follow-up (mean 6.5
months post-attacks) were primarily predicted by initial PTG levels; however, decreases from
baseline in trauma symptoms and increases from baseline in positive worldview, acceptance, and
positive reframing were also associated with higher reported posttraumatic growth at follow-up.
These findings suggest that there may be a range of traumatic experience most conducive to
growth and they also highlight the important contributions of cognitive and coping variables to
psychological thriving in short- and longer-term periods following traumatic experience
Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R. G., & McMillan, J. (2000). A correlational test of the
relationship between posttraumatic growth, religion, and cognitive processing. Journal of
Traumatic Stress, 13(3), 521-527. doi:10.1023/A:1007745627077
The present study examined the degree to which event related rumination, a quest orientation to
religion, and religious involvement is related to posttraumatic growth. Fifty-four young adults,
selected based on prescreening for experience of a traumatic event, completed a measure of
event related ruminations, the Quest Scale, an index of religious participation, and the
Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. The three subscales of the Quest Scale, the two groups of
rumination items (soon after event/within past two weeks), and the index of religious
participation were entered in a standard multiple regression with the total score of the
Posttraumatic Growth Inventory as the dependent variable. The degree of rumination soon after
the event and the degree of openness to religious change were significantly related to
Posttraumatic Growth. Congruent with theoretical predictions, more rumination soon after the
event, and greater openness to religious change were related to more posttraumatic growth.
Present findings offer some confirmation of theoretical predictions, and also offer clear direction
for further research on the relationships of religion, rumination, and posttraumatic growth.
73
Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (1998). Beyond recovery from trauma: Implications for
clinical practice and research. Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 357-371. doi:10.1111/j.15404560.1998.tb01223.x
This article draws implications for clinicians working with survivors of major life crises in four
general areas: the relation of psychological well-being, distress, and posttraumatic growth;
conceptual issues in this type of clinical work; the process of encouraging growth in clients
following traumatic events; and suggestions for additional research. Posttraumatic growth can be
accompanied by an increase in well-being, but distress and growth may also coexist. Positive
changes can occur in several domains, but many are likely to be phenomenological. Degree of
change produced by clinical intervention may be limited in scope, but there clearly are some
ways in which the clinician may make growth more likely for the client. Suggestions for future
research include the call for longitudinal investigations, studies of rumination and responses of
the social network, and the examination of potential gender differences in posttraumatic growth.
Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (1999). Facilitating posttraumatic growth: A clinician's guide.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
The authors provide a framework for clinical efforts to enhance posttraumatic growth. Chapters
provide case examples, clinical approaches, and resources for both clinicians and clients.
Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2001). Posttraumatic growth: The positive lessons of loss. In
R. A. Neimeyer, (Ed), Meaning reconstruction & the experience of loss, (pp. 157-172).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10397-008
Presents a wide-ranging review of the substantial empirical literature that provides evidence of
personal growth resulting from a struggle with loss, for at least a stable minority of those who
suffer it. Processes addressed include factors such as individual differences, the magnitude of the
trauma and the growth processes facilitating a changed sense of self, changed relationships,
existential and spiritual growth. The authors go on to develop not only a research agenda for
future investigations, but also some preliminary guidelines for practicing clinicians engaged with
their clients in an effort after meaning.
Calhoun, L. G. & Tedeschi, R. G. (2004) The foundations of posttraumatic growth: New
considerations, Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 93-102 doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1501_03
In response to comments on our model of posttraumatic growth, we consider the validity of
reports of posttraumatic growth, appropriate methodology to use to assess posttraumatic growth,
and its relation with other variables that appear to bear a resemblance to posttraumatic growth
(e.g., well-being and psychological adjustment). The potentially important role of proximate and
distal cultural factors is also addressed. Clinicians are encouraged to use interventions that
facilitate posttraumatic growth with care, so as not to create expectations for posttraumatic
growth in all trauma survivors, and to instead promote a respect for the difficulty of trauma
74
recovery while allowing for the exploration of possibilities for various kinds of growth even in
those who have suffered greatly.
Calhoun, L. G. & Tedeschi, R. G. (2008). The paradox of struggling with trauma: Guidelines for
practice and directions for research. In S. Joseph & P. A. Linley (Eds.), Trauma, recovery, and
growth: Positive psychological perspectives on posttraumatic stress (pp. 325-337). Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley.
Calhoun, L., Tedeschi, R., & Cann, A. (2010). Positive outcomes following bereavement: Paths
to posttraumatic growth. Psychologica Belgica, 50(1&2), 125-143.
Recent theory and research have drawn attention to the need to better understand the positive
changes, termed posttraumatic growth, that often occur in bereaved individuals; even as negative
emotions related to grief persist. We describe five dimensions of posttraumatic growth and
present a model for understanding how the loss of a close other can eventually lead to a
recognition of important positive personal changes. Loss, especially unexpected loss, disrupts an
individual's beliefs about the world and initiates a process of rebuilding an understanding.
During this process, many people come to realise their own strengths, appreciate the impact of
their relationships, and have new spiritual insights. A strategy for facilitating growth during
clinical work also is described.
Cann , A., Calhoun, L., Tedeschi, R., Taku, K., Vishnevsky, T., Triplett, K., & Danhauer, S.
(2010). A short form of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 23(2),
127-137. doi:10.1080/10615800903094273
A short form of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI-SF) is described. A sample of 1351
adults who had completed the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) in previous studies
provided the basis for item selection. The resulting 10-item form includes two items from each of
the five subscales of the original PTGI, selected on the basis of loadings on the original factors
and breadth of item content. A separate sample of 186 completed the short form of the scale
(PTGISF). Confirmatory factor analyses on both data sets demonstrated a five-factor structure
for the PTGI-short form (PTGI-SF) equivalent to that of the PTGI. Three studies of homogenous
clinical samples (bereaved parents, intimate partner violence victims, and acute leukemia
patients) demonstrated that the PTGI-SF yields relationships with other variables of interest that
are equivalent to those found using the original form of the PTGI. A final study demonstrated
that administering the 10 short-form items in a random order, rather than in the fixed context of
the original scale, did not impact the performance of the PTGI-SF. Overall, these results indicate
that the PTGI-SF could be substituted for the PTGI with little loss of information.
Chopko, B. (2010). Posttraumatic distress and growth: An empirical study of police officers.
American Journal of Psychotherapy, 64(1), 55-72.
75
Few studies have examined the experience of posttraumatic growth, among police officers
following traumatic incidents. Additionally, research examining the relationship between
posttraumatic distress (e.g., posttraumatic symptoms) and posttraumatic growth among various
populations has been inconsistent. Consistent with the need to gain enhanced understanding in
the area of posttraumatic growth, this study investigated the relation between posttraumatic
distress (using the Impact of Events Scale-Revised) and posttraumatic growth (using the
Posttraumatic Growth Inventory) among 183 police officers. Results of Pearson Correlations
showed that posttraumatic distress was significantly and positively related to the Posttraumatic
Growth Inventory full-scale and all sub-scale scores. Multiple regression analyses revealed that
being involved in a duty-related shooting was the most significant predictor of posttraumatic
growth. Implications for mental health providers are discussed.
Preventing and effectively addressing structural and direct violence by Emily Barnum
(Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Toporek, R.L., Gerstein, L.H., Fouad, N.A., Roysircar-Sodowsky, G. & Israel, T. (Eds.). (2005).
Handbook for Social Justice in Counseling Psychology: Leadership, Vision, and Action. CA:
Sage Publications.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature
Non-counseling psychologists have begun to publish more extensive research on structural and
direct violence in the past several decades. This is true, particularly in the journal of Peace
Psychology. Structural violence has negatively impacted multiple facets of today’s society,
including the field of psychology. Particularly, intelligence testing is a primary concern for
todays’ practitioners due to the biased generalizations in the data. Structural violence is the
“unequal access to resources, to political power, to education, to health care, or to legal standing.”
Major examples of these violent acts include Nazi Germany and the apartheid in South Africa. In
today’s society, it is important for researchers to identify such problems in their communities and
understanding the impact of their own practices on their clients.
Structural and direct violence can occur in any group or subgroup of individuals. Although these
topics are extremely broad, counseling and non-counseling mental health workers alike should
embrace this research to promote health and wellness among the community in which they work.
Structural violence often has an impact on the way individuals interact with one another.
Therefore, mental health professionals also must be aware of the difficulties working with these
clients and the challenges, which may arise, particularly if the client has been a victim in the past.
Schwebel, M. (2011). Victories over structural violence. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace
Psychology, 17(1), 85-99.
76
Structural violence has been inherent in the governance of the United States for almost 200 years.
It has been a feature of American society since its inception and, within psychology, it has been
associated with the use of intelligence tests from the time they were first introduced in the United
States. This article briefly traces the history of structural violence in society at large and in
psychology’s use of the IQ test. It examines the past and potential role of psychologists in
combating that violence and proposes new directions for that purpose. Finally, it describes an
example of how bias in psychology has led the field to ignore a theme that should be highly
relevant to peace psychology namely, imperialism as a major basis of structural violence.
Eldridge, J. & Johnson, P. (2011). The relationship between old-fashioned and modern
heterosexism to social dominance orientation and structural violence. Journal of Homosexuality,
58(3), 382-401.
This study proposes that broader social systemic factors could have a role in the perpetuation of
two types of heterosexism. Old-fashioned and modern heterosexism are discussed and differentiated. The roles of social dominance orientation and the acceptance of structural violence in
the maintenance of het- erosexism are explored. Results indicated that social dominance
orientation and the acceptance of structural violence predicted the level of old-fashioned and
modern heterosexism in a sample of 129 people. Acceptance of structural violence better
predicted both modern and old-fashioned heterosexism than did social dom- inance orientation.
Such relationships highlight the possibility that social systemic beliefs may create and support
heterosexism.
Roark, M. L. (1987). Preventing violence on college campuses. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 65, 367-371.
The author examines violence on college campuses by reviewing its types, prevalence, and
underlying factors. Institutional responses to prevent campus violence through tertiary,
secondary and primary prevention activities are discussed.
Schwebel, M. (1997). Job insecurity as structural violence: Implications for destructive
intergroup conflict. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 3(4), 333-351.
Structural violence, in the forms of unemployment and other negative employment statuses and
of debilitating economic insecurity, is a global phenomenon. The psychological and economic
consequences of structural violence often result in deteriorated mental health functioning and
family disruption. They also lead to both competition for the fewer available opportunities and
organized efforts to modify the violence-breeding structures. The thesis of this article is that
structural violence, especially the actions taken by those in power to safeguard the economic and
political status quo, leads to destructive intergroup conflict. The article highlights the economic
and psychological factors that appear to be driving nations in this direction, and proposes policy
changes and actions to prevent intergroup job wars.
77
Goodman, L. A., & Epstein, D. (2008). Listening to battered women: A survivor-centered
approach to advocacy, mental health, and justice. Washington, DC US: American Psychological
Association.
Listening to Battered Women: A Survivor-Centered Approach to Advocacy, Mental Health, and
Justice presents an in-depth, multidisciplinary look at society's responses to domestic violence.
Although substantial reforms have been made in the services available to battered women since
the 1970s, the book shows how the public and private systems available to victims of domestic
violence are still failing to meet the needs of the women who seek help. Using a feminist
perspective, authors Lisa A. Goodman and Deborah Epstein explore and critique the current
available services in three different arenas: the domestic violence advocacy community, the
mental health profession, and the justice system. In recent years, the options available to battered
women have expanded dramatically. However, these reforms have been made at the expense of
the contextualized, women-centered focus that was once at the heart of the anti-domestic
violence movement. The authors argue that a renewed focus on the principles of the early
feminist movement--for example, listening to individual women's voices, promoting supportive
communities, and facilitating economic empowerment--could result in substantial progress in
efforts to protect and counsel battered women. A series of concrete recommendations for
improvements in the advocacy, mental health, and justice systems are also discussed.
Researchers interested in the fields of violence, gender studies, psychology of women, mental
health trauma, and family law, as well as practitioners working with the victims of intimate
partner violence, will find this book to be a valuable resource in their efforts.
Resilience by Meredith Berry (Ball State University)
Counseling Psychology Literature (no summary)
Chambers, E., & Fischer, J. M. (2002). Multicultural Awareness, Knowledge and Skills:
Directions for Adult Education Training Programs. Journal of Adult Education.
Objective: Given the need to better understand male resilient development, the present study
examined the contextual factors that contributed to the resilience of successful, nonviolent adult
men who experienced exposure to interparental violence (EPV) as children. Method: Resilience
was examined through semistructured interviews with 12 adult men who experienced EPV as
children and who were identified as successful, nonviolent adults. Results: Male participants
identified factors vital to their resilient development such as having key safe relationships with
caring adults and a safe haven outside of the home, using positive coping strategies like
extracurricular activities and sports, and gaining professional and personal achievements.
Conclusion: Study findings suggest that clinicians and researchers should implement and
evaluate interventions that leverage broader social supports, use extracurricular activities, focus
on developing safe spaces, and redefine male gender role norms. Researchers also should expand
assessment of resilience to include more diverse coping strategies.
78
Hernandez, P., Gangsei, D., & Engstrom, D. (2007). Vicarious resilience: A new concept in
work with those who survive trauma. Family Process, 46, 229-241.
This study explores the formulation of a new concept: vicarious resilience. It addresses the
question of how psychotherapists who work with survivors of political violence or kidnapping
are affected by their clients' stories of resilience. It focuses on the psychotherapists'
interpretations of their clients' stories, and how they make sense of the impact that these stories
have had on their lives. In semistructured interviews, 12 psychotherapists who work with victims
of political violence and kidnapping were interviewed about their perceptions of their clients'
overcoming of adversity. A phenomenological analysis of the transcripts was used to describe
the themes that speak about the effects of witnessing how clients cope constructively with
adversity. These themes are discussed to advance the concept of vicarious resilience and how it
can contribute to sustaining and empowering trauma therapists.
Hill, N. A., Woodson, K. M., Ferguson, A. D., & Parks, C. W. (2012). Intimate partner abuse
among African American lesbians: Prevalence, risk factors, theory, and resilience. Journal of
Family Violence, 27, 401-413.
The purpose of this article is to present an intersectionality-based model for conceptualizing the
risk factors associated with intimate partner abuse (IPA) among African American lesbians. The
available literature on prevalence and risk factors associated with IPA suggests that: (a) estimates
of prevalence rates for African American lesbian IPA could range from 25 % to 40 %, with the
higher end of the range representing the inclusion of nonphysical forms of abuse (i.e., verbal
abuse, intimidation, and coercion); and (b) the risk factors most likely to be associated with IPA
for this population include poverty, history of trauma and mental health symptoms (including
substance abuse), in addition to distress caused by multiple and intersecting forms of oppression
(i.e., racialized, classist sexism and heterosexism). The model demonstrates the manner in which
all of these risk factors intersect to create disproportionately high risk for this underresearched
and underserved population. A psychodynamically based model is also presented that illustrates
the cycle of abuse within an African American lesbian relationship. Finally, a model depicting
the most likely protective factors segues into a brief concluding discussion about the implications
for intervention, prevention, policy, education, and future research.
McDowell, T., Libal, K., & Brown, A. L. (2012). Human rights in the practice of family therapy:
Domestic violence, a case in point. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy: An International Forum,
24, 1-23.
In this article the authors introduce a human rights framework into the practice of family therapy.
In particular, the authors explore the relevance of human rights to the practice of liberation-based
work, arguing for situating individual experience within collective human rights discourse;
drawing from human rights movements to promote resistance and resilience; and using a human
rights framework to promote restorative justice and accountability. Domestic violence is offered
as a case in point.
79
Shen, C-T. (2010). The resilience of young adults experiencing inter-parental marital violence
and child maltreatment. Chinese Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 27, 115-160.
Based on the concept of resilience, this study aimed to understand the process through which
young adults overcame the adversity of experiencing both parental marital violence and child
maltreatment during childhood. Qualitative method and semi-structured guidelines were
employed to interview six young adults. Research participants were aged between 22 and 27
years old. They were recruited mainly by advertisements posted in BBS in 2005. Research
results indicated that most participants experienced parental marital violence and child
maltreatment since early age. Their life stories are presented to show their unique strengths that
enabled them to overcome this adversity. Several themes emerged from the research results,
including positive self-concept and positive thinking, self-awareness and knowledge how to
handle feelings, support from significant others, determination, effort, and the opportunity to
leave violent homes. The interaction of these multiple protective systems helped the research
participants cope with the dual-violence's impact and overcome these disadvantaging experiences.
The need for interventions addressed at young adults experiencing dual violence during
childhood was highlighted in this study.
Singh, A. A. (2009). Helping South Asian immigrant women use resilience strategies in healing
from sexual abuse: A call for a culturally relevant model. Women & Therapy, 32, 361-376.
This article calls for the counseling and psychological field to construct a culturally relevant
model for working with South Asian immigrant women survivors of sexual abuse to support
their resilience and healing. Patriarchal norms of South Asian culture and acculturative stressors
in the United States are examined to understand how they influence survivors' abuse experiences.
The literature on South Asian women's experiences of intimate partner violence is reviewed in
addition to resilience studies with women of color who have survived sexual abuse. Practice and
research implications are presented.
Windham, C. R., Hooper, L. M., & Hudson, C. R. (2005). Selected spiritual, religious, and
family factors in the prevention of school violence. Counseling and Values, 49, 208-216.
The mass-casualty school shooting incidents in recent years have heightened concern about the
safety of U.S. schools and prompted responses that, in many cases, have centered mainly on
bolstering security on school campuses. Some researchers have concluded, however, that the
most effective prevention efforts are those that are more comprehensive in scope. This article
explores selected spiritual, religious, and family value factors that research has indicated may
play an important protective role in strengthening resilience in young people and minimizing atrisk behavior that may be associated with school violence.
80
Zaghrout-Hodali, M., Alissa, F., & Dodgson, P. W. (2008). Building resilience and dismantling
fear: EMDR group protocol with children in an area of ongoing trauma. Journal of EMDR
Practice and Research, 2, 106-113.
A number of studies indicate that EMDR (eye movement desensitization and reprocessing) may
be efficacious in treatment of children and young people with symptoms of posttraumatic stress.
However, reports are limited in the use of the EMDR psychotherapy approach in situations of
ongoing violence and trauma. This case study describes work with seven children in an area of
ongoing violence who were subject to repeat traumas during the course of an EMDR
psychotherapy intervention, using a group protocol. Results indicate that the EMDR approach
can be effective in a group setting, and in an acute situation, both in reducing symptoms of
posttraumatic and peritraumatic stress and in "inoculation" or building resilience in a setting of
ongoing conflict and trauma. Given the need for such applications, further research is
recommended regarding EMDR's ability to increase personal resources in such settings.
Non-Counseling Psychology Literature (not reviewed)