Theories of Learning: A Computer Game Perspective
Ang Chee Siang, Radha Krishna Rao
Multimedia University
Jalan Multimedia, 63100 Cyberjaya, Selangor
Malaysia
Tel.: +603-83125458 Fax.: +603-83125264
Main author email: [email protected]
Abstract
Computer games provide a good environment for
learning. Players learn to play the game without being
taught didactically as the learning process takes place
naturally in the virtual world. Learning is no longer a
process of knowledge transfer from the expert to the
novice. Learners need to construct the knowledge
themselves by interacting with the environment. It is
beneficial to study the theory underpinning computer
games: how players learn and respond in the game
environment. In this paper, the theories of learning,
i.e. behavioural learning theory, cognitive learning
theory and motivation theory, are elucidated in the
context of computer game. Psychology provides a way
to apprehend the learning that occurs naturally in
games and also helps in developing an environment in
which the player can learn a particular domain of
knowledge extrinsically. By studying the psychology
and its relatedness to computer games, we can know
the players more comprehensively, thus predict their
responses. The understanding of psychology offers a
framework to developing an educational game that
promotes learning while maintaining high motivation
of the player. This paper also attempts to shed some
light on how players learn in computer games based
on the theory, thus infers better techniques in
supporting game-based learning.
Keywords: Computer game, Behavioural Learning,
Cognitive Learning, Motivation Theory
1. Introduction
Among all application software, computer games
are having a shorter learning curve. Compared to the
user of business software, who has to read a thick
manual before being able to use it, the computer game
player goes directly into the software, instead of the
manual, which ironically consists of only several
pages. It is not because games are simple to use by
nature; some games involve intricate rules that one
must master in order to win. Players understand the
rules of game and know how to play the game without
being instructed. Therefore, it is beneficial to study the
theory underpinning computer games: how players learn
and respond in the game environment. This study is
conducted by employing the theory of learning, one of
the most prominent fields in psychology. Though some of
these theories are applied implicitly in the game design,
seldom are they elucidated their implication on games
explicitly. This paper attempts to shed some light on how
players learn in computer games based on the theories,
thus infers better techniques in supporting game-based
learning.
2. Behavioural learning theory
Most of the game that needs sensorimotor and eyehand coordination skills to play involves behavioural
learning to a certain extent. In these games, such as action
games, fighting games and sport games, players act and
react in response to stimuli. The explanation of learning
that emphasises on observable changes in behaviour is
called behavioural learning theory. Behaviourists treat the
learner as a black box that receives stimuli, and what is
happening inside the black box can be studied only by
observing the overt behaviour elicited by the stimulus [1].
In this section, some important theories and their
relatedness to computer games are examined.
2.1 Classical conditioning
While studying the digestive reflexes of a dog, Ivan
Petrovich Pavlov accidentally discovered that the dog
salivated not only to food, but also to the mere sight or
food steps of the experimenter who was bringing the
food. This serendipity resulted in the definition of a new
paradigm in psychology – classical conditioning [2]. It is
a process of associating a previously neutral stimulus
with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned
response. An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that
evokes a particular involuntary response known as
unconditioned response. In a First Person Shooter (FPS)
game, players open fire involuntarily when seeing the
bandit. In a side-scrolling action game, players jump
spontaneously to avoid the monster. These unconditioned
responses, unlike the salivation, are in fact learned
Proceedings of the IEEE Fifth International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering (ISMSE’03)
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responses through operant conditioning, which is
discussed in the next section.
In some computer games, a player might become
vigilant and cast magic when seeing monsters.
Supposing that a monster growls each time before it
appears. After several pairings of growl and the sight
of monster, the player becomes vigilant and casts
magic when only hearing the growl. The process is
depicted as follows:
Before learning:
Monster (unconditioned
stimulus)
elicit
Becoming vigilant,
casting magic
(unconditioned response)
elicit
Becoming vigilant,
casting magic
(unconditioned response)
elicit
Becoming vigilant,
casting magic
(conditioned response)
During learning:
Monster (unconditioned
stimulus)
+
Growl (nuetral stimulus)
After learning:
Growl (conditioned
stimulus)
Figure 1. Classical conditioning
A stimulus, which is initially neutral, becomes a
conditioned stimulus after learning, while the
conditioned response is in fact the learned response.
This theory has had a significant implication in
learning in the game environment.
number of pairing between the unconditioned stimulus
and the conditioned stimulus, the less generalisation as
players have learned to discriminate stimuli.
Discrimination is the perception of and response to
differences in stimulus. Players learn to distinguish the
different growl of the different monster. This however
can be achieved only if the frequency of pairing is high.
2.2 Operant conditioning
According to Burrhus Frederic Skinner, there are two
kinds of behaviour: respondent behaviour, which is
elicited by a known stimulus, and operant behaviour,
which is not elicited by a known stimulus but is simply
emitted by the organism [3]. Casting magic is an example
of respondent behaviour because it is elicited by stimuli,
i.e. the sight of monster. Walking about and jumping
without a particular reason are operant behaviour because
there are not correlated with known stimuli. Skinner tried
to condition the lever-pressing response of a rat in the
Skinner box. The box was arranged so that a small pellet
of food was sent into the food cup every time the rat
depressed the lever. After a few accidental leverpressings, the rat would start pressing the lever more
frequently to receive the food pellet. Using consequences
to control the occurrence of behaviour is known as
operant conditioning [4].
Most games involve this kind of trial and error
learning, in which reinforcers are used tactfully to evoke
specific behaviour. For example, players receive a certain
reward, such as a more powerful weapon after killing the
opponent. The weapon serves as a reinforcer that
strengthens the behaviour of killing the enemy.
yield
Killing the opponent
(operant response)
Recieving a powerful
weapon (reinforcer)
reinforce
Figure 3. Operant conditioning
Figure 2. The player holds down the magic
button when seeing monsters in Harry Potter
In another example, cobwebs are placed together
with spiders so that when seeing the cobweb, players
know there are spiders lurking around the area.
Players learn to act accordingly, depending on
different stimuli. Besides, it is noticed that a slightly
different stimulus is likely to evoke the same
conditioned response. This observation, known as
stimulus generalisation, is important in predicting the
player’s responses to a new situation. The greater the
Operant conditioning is very crucial in moulding
unconditioned responses in computer games. It is argued
that unconditioned responses do not exist in games until
players have learned them. Hence, during this trial and
error learning process, punishers or unpleasant
consequences given to weaken behaviour should be
minimised to keep high motivation of the player, while
reinforcers should be given more frequently and
appropriately. The feedback of game must be given
instantly, as concerned in immediacy of consequences,
else the players may take longer to learn because they
cannot associate their behaviour with the reinforcer or
punisher.
There are two types of reinforcers: positive
reinforcers, consequences given to strengthen the
behaviour, and negative reinforcers, consequences taken
away to strengthen the behaviour [5]. In the example
explained in figure 3, the powerful weapon works as the
Proceedings of the IEEE Fifth International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering (ISMSE’03)
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positive reinforcer. Negative reinforcers are
implemented by releasing players from an unpleasant
situation. In most Role Playing Games (RPG), when
the player is poisoned, his or her health points are
reduced gradually. In order to escape from this
unpleasant condition, the behaviour of buying
antidotes is strengthened.
However, the reinforcer should be imposed
carefully so that it is commensurate to the behaviour
of the player. Players who complete a complicated
task expect higher rewards, thus are less motivated if
small rewards are given. On the other hand, players
would grow tired being awarded for every simple task
they perform, and the reinforcer might become
ineffective.
It is rather difficult to learn if players are reinforced
only after they have completed the whole task no
matter how substantial the reward is. Using small
steps combined with feedback to help learners reach
goals is known as shaping. When fighting the enemy’s
boss, it is insufficient to reinforce the player only after
he or she defeats the boss. Therefore, most of the
game provides an enemy health bar to show the
remaining health points. Small steps – showing each
health point deduction of the monster – are used to
help the player reach goals. If no health bar is shown,
it is hard for the player to learn that casting certain
types of magic (not others) kills the enemy.
There are four types of schedule that determine the
frequency and predictability of reinforcement. These
schedules have an observable impact on the extinction
of behaviour, a term used to refer to the eliminating or
decreasing behaviour by removing reinforcement for
it.
In a fixed-ratio schedule, a specified number of
behaviour is required for reinforcement. In many
RPG, after collecting a fixed number of experience
points by killing enemies, the game will introduce
level up. Immediately after gaining the level up, the
behaviour of killing enemies drops, as players know
more experience points are required for the next level
up. However, if they are close to the points needed for
level up, the behaviour to kill enemies rises. When the
reinforcement is removed – killing enemies no longer
pays off – the behaviour soon becomes extinct. Thus,
if fixed-ratio schedule is used, it is efficient to
gradually increase the reinforcement ratio. Early in the
game, perhaps 100 experience points are needed for
level up. Later it may be possible to reinforce only
500 experience points are collected. In this way
players are more able to work without reinforcement
and the behaviour is more resistant to extinction.
Variable numbers of behaviour are required for
reinforcement in a variable-ratio schedule. Killing
enemies sometimes yields certain rewards such as
coins, weapons and potions. Players never know
which enemies they should kill in order to receive the
reward. This schedule tends to produce high and
stable rates of behaviour and are quite addicting. Even
after the reinforcement is removed, the players may
keep killing the enemies for a long time and probably not
give up.
In a fixed-interval schedule, a specified amount of
time passes before reinforcement is available. The player
may do very little before reinforcement is available, and
then exerts a burst of effort as the time for reinforcement
approaches. In this schedule, it is always better to have a
shorter interval to encourage players to try their best
constantly.
For the variable-interval schedule, variable amount of
time passes before reinforcement is available. This is
where randomness in games plays a significant role.
Randomness can be very effective in maintaining the
behaviour of the player. In some RPG, players never
know when the monster would ambush; they have to get
prepared all the time. This schedule produces stronger
behaviour than the fixed-interval schedule does.
Sometimes, players need to be told when their
behaviour will be reinforced. Signals as to what
behaviour will be reinforced or punished are called cues.
When the enemy’s boss emerges, it is common that the
mood of background music changes. It is actually a cue to
inform the players that they are going to fight a tougher
opponent.
3. Cognitive learning theory
Cognitive theorists argue that learning is a more
complex process that utilises problem-solving and
insightful thinking in addition to repetition of a stimulusresponse chain. In contrast to behavioural learning theory,
cognitive learning theory is an explanation of learning
that focuses on mental process. Most of the game that
needs internal mental processing to play involves
cognitive learning. Some examples are adventure games,
strategy games and all forms of puzzle games. This
theory attempts to answer several questions: how are
memories encoded, how are memories retained and how
are memories retrieved. It is maintained that most initial
learning in computer games is behavioural learning.
Players learn by trial and error, as well as stimulus
associations. When the basic rules of game are
understood, players start to think cognitively how they
should respond in a new situation, actively update
existing knowledge to fit what is newly confronted in the
game environment. In this section, some important
theories and their relatedness to computer games are
studied.
3.1 Memory processing model
One classical model of memory proposed by Atkinson
and Shiffrin describes how information is processed,
stored and retrieved in the mind.
Proceedings of the IEEE Fifth International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering (ISMSE’03)
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rehearsal
encoding
External
stimulus
Sensory
Register
attention
Short-Term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
retrieval
decay/
displacement
decay/
displacement
interference
Figure 4. Memory model of Atkinson and
Shiffrin
There are three components of memory according
to this model: sensory registers, which receive
information and hold it for a very short period of time,
short-term memory, which can store limited amount
of information for a few seconds, and long-term
memory, which stores large amount of information for
a long period of time [6].
Sensory registers hold a large amount of external
stimulus from the game environment, such as
background music, sound effects, visual effects,
enemies, items, etc for a very brief time: less than a
second. These stimuli, without being attended to, will
rapidly lose and never enter short-term memory for
further processing. So, attention – the process of
focusing on certain stimuli while screening out the
others – plays an important role. Players must pay
attention to information if they are to retain it.
For example, items that are important to achieve
game goals are designed in specific ways so as to grab
the players’ attention. These items may be rotating or
glittering so that they stand out from the other parts of
the game world. Apart from this, some texts in games
are highlighted in different colours to indicate
important points. Attention is also attracted by
inconsistency. If a magic wand is placed inside a
peasant’s cottage, it creates inconsistency and will
grab the players’ attention to check the wand.
Short-term memory is the component of memory in
which current information processing is carried out.
The capacity is limited to five to nine “bits” of
information [7]. A twenty-item list that is hard to
remember in a random order can be organised into a
smaller of familiar categories making the list easier to
recall. Therefore, unless the information is very well
organised, players should not be bombarded with too
much information at once. Although short-term
memory can hold information for up to 30 seconds,
with rehearsal, one can keep the information more
than that and probably transfer it to long-term
memory. Rehearsal means mental repetition of
information to improve its retention. Hence, ample
time is essential for the player to rehearse new
information. Games, especially real time games,
should provide pause function for players to reflect
newly learned information.
Long-term memory is said to store not only
information but also the meaning of information. In
order to transfer information from short-term memory
to long-term memory, the information needs
elaboration so that it is meaningful. The process of
thinking about a new material in a way that helps to
connect it with existing knowledge is called elaboration.
In games, there are usually help systems or Non Player
Characters (NPC) that provide hints to elaborate new
information so that it connects with the existing
knowledge. This helps to encode the information to longterm memory.
There are several theories related to the memory
model, such as levels of processing theory, an
explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with
the amount of processing it receives. It implies that
instead of giving hints immediately players get stuck in a
game level, game designers should let them think for a
while so that more processing is received by the brain to
increase retention. This theory serves as an impetus in
constructivism theory in which players think critically to
solve an authentic problem. Constructivism is discussed
in later section.
According to schema theory proposed by Jean Piaget,
information is stored in long-term memory in network of
connected facts and concepts that provide a structure for
making sense of new information. When encountering
new enemies, players attempt to assimilate them into the
existing schema and decide what should be done. If what
is encountered is different from what is understood,
disequilibrium is said to occur. Players will try to reduce
disequilibrium by developing new schema or adapting old
one until equilibrium is restored.
Enemy
Sky
Avoid
Land
Without
shell
With shell
With
thorn
Water
Without
thorn
Jump and trample
Jump, trumple and push
the shell away
Figure 5. The network of the enemies in Super
Mario Bros. 3
Transfer appropriate theory proposes that memory is
stronger and lasts longer when the conditions of
performance are similar to those under which learning
occurred [8]. Players learn to hold down the magic button
when hearing monster growls in an ominous jungle. The
behaviour is not likely to be elicited when they hear the
sounds in a peaceful castle.
3.2 Remembering and forgetting
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Many theorists believe that information in longterm memory will never lose; it is forgotten because
of the loss of ability to find it within the memory.
While the information in sensory register and shortterm memory may be forgotten due to decay and
displacement of new information, the access to
information in long-term memory may be lost as a
result of interference, where the information gets
mixed up with or pushed aside by other information in
the memory. There are two types of interference:
proactive interference, where previously learned
information interferes with memory for new
information, and retroactive interference, where newly
learned information interferes with memory for
previously learned information. These indicate that
similar tasks of learning should be separated so that
one task is mastered thoroughly before introducing
another. In certain games, players are required to
complete a challenge to practice a newly learned skill
so that they master it before learning the others.
It should be noticed that learning one thing could
sometimes help a learner in learning similar
information. The increased ability to learn new
information due to the previously acquired
information is called proactive facilitation, while the
increased comprehension of previously learned
information due to the acquisition of new information
is known as retroactive facilitation. Thus, the learning
contents should be designed in such a way that
understanding of previous information aids the
learning of new information or vice versa. The skills
needed in a game should be introduced in a wellplaned sequence to optimise facilitation.
Primacy and recency effect suggests that items that
appear at the beginning and end of a list are more
easily recalled than other items. This effect is
particularly apparent in the dialogue of game. The
important message should appear at the beginning or
at the end of the dialogue.
The most mundane technique for committing
information to memory is probably practice.
Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are
repeated many times over a concentrated period of
time is called massed practice, while technique in
which items to be learned are repeated at interval over
a period of time is called distributed practice. Having
understood primacy and recency effect, it is clear that
distributed practice enhances retention more than
massed practice does because players tend to put forth
their effort at the beginning and at the end of a
particular game task. Games should be divided into
sub-goals where players need to complete several
small tasks, instead of having only one ultimate goal.
Apart from these, game levels that require similar skill
to complete should not be put together because
practicing a particular skill 60 straight minutes is less
effective than practicing it five minutes for 12 times.
Automaticity purposes that task that requires highlevel thinking can be done without much attention if
they have been learned very thoroughly. The virtual
world in some adventure games may appear as a
complicated maze at first, however, after exploring it for
many times, players can go to a particular place without
much thinking.
3.3 Constructivism
Ever since 15th century, Galileo Galilei, the famous
mathematician and astronomer stated that one cannot
teach a person anything, one can only help them discover
it down inside themselves. This is what constructivism
about. Learners must individually discover and transform
complex information, checking new information against
old rules and revising them when they no longer work.
Discovery learning is one of the instruction models based
on constructivism. Discovery learning is an approach to
instruction through which students interact with their
environment by exploring and manipulating objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing
experiments [9]. Computers take discovery learning a
step further with the advent of game and simulation. In all
forms of game, players do not just sit in the classroom
and are lectured about what they need to do in the games.
They learn by doing and making mistakes. They literally
construct the knowledge internally by immersing
themselves into the virtual world.
In most of the adventure game, players are given brief
visual or/and verbal instructions on the very basic rules of
the game. Arming with this basic knowledge, the players
venture into the world of fantasy and learn more about it.
When they encounter new thing, they learn to adapt it
with their existing schema by trial and error or mental
reflection. The game gives hints appropriately to help
elaborating new information so that it can be connected to
the knowledge network easily. In some action games,
players know only the basic control of the game and learn
by making mistakes and exploring directly in the game
world. It explains that top-down approach is harnessed
effectively in computer games, in which players begin
with a complex and complete task, rather than small parts
of the task.
4. Motivation theory
Motivation theory is indispensable when discussing
theories of learning. Learners who are motivated can
learn almost everything. Motivation is the internal
process that activates, guides, and maintains behaviour
over time [10].
It is contended that using computer games in learning
is motivating intrinsically. However, with the rapid
growth of the game industry, the mere use of computer
game does not promise high motivation. The Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs can be adapted to explain the needs of
player so as to understand how players are motivated in
the game environment. By understanding their needs,
game designers can direct the motivation of player to
learn in computer games. It is contended that needs at the
lower levels are to be fulfilled before moving to the
higher levels in the pyramid.
Proceedings of the IEEE Fifth International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering (ISMSE’03)
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Self
actualisation
need
Aesthetic need
Need to know
and understand
needs. Startling graphics alone would not save the bad
gameplay. The industry has witnessed bestseller without
a powerful graphic engine as well as failure with cutting
edge 3D engines but with hardly any gameplay. It must
be remembered that if players fail to understand the rules
of game in the first few minutes, they would simply walk
away.
5. Conclusion
Esteem need
Belongingness need
Safety need
Rules need
Figure 6. Hierarchy of the players’ needs
At the bottom level, players are seeking for
information to understand the basic rules of game.
This is the most fundamental need of the players
because no player can be motivated to play without
knowing the basic rules. When the rules need is
satisfied, players move on to safety need where they
need helping information so that they can stay in the
game long enough to win and avoid being knocked
out. They need to feel safe and secure. Next at the
level of belongingness need, the players need to feel
comfortable with the game and eventually achieve the
game’s goal. At least they need to know it is possible
to win.
After knowing that they can win, they want to feel
great when playing the game. They are looking for
information on how their ego can be developed to
achieve esteem need. They need to be in possession
and have full control over the game. After that, they
need to understand and know more about the game
such as different strategies, hidden items, etc. They
start to expect something more challenging. At the
level of aesthetic need, they call for good graphics and
visual effects, appropriate music, sound effects, etc.
Finally, players want to be able to do anything as long
as it conforms to the game rules. They want to play
God in the virtual world.
Game designers should be able to derive some
useful principles of game design from the hierarchy of
Using games as learning tools is an interesting field to
be explored. Many researchers have been working
towards a learning framework of computer game. This
paper provides the basic idea on how psychology can be
utilised in game design. By studying the psychology and
its relatedness to computer games, we can know the
players more comprehensively, thus predict their
responses. Psychology not only provides a way to
apprehend the learning that occurs naturally in game, but
also helps in developing an environment in which the
players can learn a particular domain of knowledge
extrinsically. More can be done to relate these theories to
design an educational game where players are highly
motivated to learn.
6. Reference
[1] W. Huitt, J Hummel, Educational Psychology, College of
Education, 1999
[2] Florence R. Sullivan, A Brief Introduction to Learning
Theory, Teachers College, 2002
[3] B.R. Hergenhahn, Matthew H, Theories of Learning sixth
edition, Olson Prentice Hall, 2001
[4] Robert E. Salvin, Education Psychology, Theory and
Practice, fourth edition, Paramount Publishing, 1994
[5] John Hopson, Behavioural Game Design, Gamasutra, 2001
[6] Robert S. Reldman, Understanding Psychology, McGrawHill, 1996
[7] Gerald Grow, Ph.D., A Cognitive Model of Learning,
Florida A&M University, 1994, 1996
[8] Robert E. Salvin, Education Psychology, Theory and
Practice, fourth edition, Paramount Publishing, 1994
[9] Lloyd P. Rieber, Computer, Graphic and Learning, The
University of Georgia, 2000
[10] Marc Prensky, Digital Game-Based Learning, McGrawHill, 2001
Proceedings of the IEEE Fifth International Symposium on Multimedia Software Engineering (ISMSE’03)
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