Human information processing:
Chapters 4-9
Attentional resources
Receptors
Response
selection
Perception
Decision making
Long-term memory
Working memory
Controlled
system
1
Response
execution
Objectives





Different types of decision making descriptions
and the implications for design
Heuristics and biases affecting decisions
Levels of cognitive control describe qualitatively
different types of human performance
Levels of cognitive control span many theories of
DM and can identify training and cognitive support
strategies
Skill-based processing and affect are key
elements of decision making
2
Decision making defined

Decision making defined as:
•
•
•
•

Select one choice from many
Some information available regarding choices
Time frame is relatively long (> 1 sec)
Uncertainty regarding best or acceptable choice
Builds upon basic cognitive mechanisms of:
perception, working memory, attention and LTM
3
Decision making types

Intuitive

• Quick
• Automatic

Analytical
• Slow
• Deliberate, controlled
Classical Decision Theory
• Optimal, rational decision
determined through use of
expected values
• Description of bias and
heuristics that reflect
human limits
4

Naturalistic DM
• Experienced people
• Complex, dynamic
environments
• Based on experiences and
mental simulations
Expected utility calculations example
Expected value of choice “v” equals the sum of the probabilities and values
E(v)= p(i)v(i)
For the most simple case of the lottery:
Purchase ticket
p(winning)=1x10-7
v(winning) =1x106
E(ticket value-ticket cost)=0.10-1.0
Save money
p(bank surviving)=1-1x10-7
v(with interest) =1.02
E(money saved)=1.019999
5
Types of classical decision theory

Normative models

• What people SHOULD do
• Basis of computer aids
• Basis for understanding
when people make rational
decisions
• Basis for training
6
Descriptive models
• What people ACTUALLY
do
• Heuristics used/ Biases
that undermine
performance
• Information processing
model as a descriptive
model of DM
Elements of decision process




Obtain and combine cues (selective attention)
Generate hypotheses (LTM)
Hypothesis evaluation and selection (working
memory)
Action selection (working memory, LTM)
7
Information processing model of DM
Working memory
Uncertainty
Cues
C1
C2
C3
C4
Selective
attention
Choice
Diagnosis
H H
A
A
LTM
A
H H
H
H H
H H
H
A
A
A
A
A A
A
8
Factors influencing heuristics and biases






Selective attention
Limited capacity of working memory
Time available
Limited attentional resources
Limited knowledge (LTM)
Ability to retrieve appropriate information (inert
knowledge)
9
Which penny: Precise decisions with
imprecise knowledge
1
Heuristics and biases:
Obtaining and selecting cues





Attention to limited number of cues (landing gear
light fixation)
Cue primacy (first cues get greater weight)
Inattention to later cues (ignore later cues)
Cue salience
Inappropriate weight to unreliable cues
1
Heuristics and biases:
Hypothesis generation




Limited number of hypotheses generated
Availability heuristic (frequent, recent)
Representative heuristic (take as typical of
category)
Overconfidence
1
Heuristics and biases:
Hypothesis evaluation and selection


Cognitive fixation (continue along path, ignoring
contrary information)
Confirmation bias
• Seek only evidence to confirm NOT to disconfirm
• Fail to use absence of important cues
1
Heuristics and biases:
Action selection



Retrieve small number of actions
Availability heuristic for actions
Availability heuristic for possible outcome
• Subjective probability does not equal actual
1
Decision making types

Classical Decision Theory
• Heuristics and biases
associated information
processing limits

Naturalistic DM
• Levels of cognitive
performance/control for
experienced people in
complex, dynamic
environments
1
Characteristics of naturalistic
decision making situations






Ill-structured problems
Uncertain high-risk environments
Cognitive processing as an iterative
action/feedback loop
Time constraints and time stress
Multiple persons involved in decision
People with extreme domain expertise
1
The strange case of Phineas Gage
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/academic/
cult_sci/anthro/origins/phineas.html
Left intellectual abilities intact,
but greatly impaired decision making
1
Elements of naturalistic decision making

Implications of levels of cognitive control
•
•
•
•

Types of information
Level of expertise
Error tendencies
Situation awareness
Implications for decision aids
1
1
Levels of cognitive control
Goals
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Rule-based
Behavior
Identification
Signs
Decision of
Task
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Skill-based
Behavior
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
2
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
2
Types of information
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Rule-based
Behavior
Skill-based
Behavior
Goals
Identification
Signs
Decision of
Task
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
2
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Amount of experience
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Rule-based
Behavior
Skill-based
Behavior
Goals
Identification
Signs
Novice
Decision of
Task
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Expert
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
2
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Error tendencies
Goals
Knowledge-basedFailure to consider consequence
Behavior
Symbols
Decision of
Identification
Planning
Task
Misclassification
Rule-based
Behavior of situation
Recognition
Skill-based
Behavior
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
Association
State/Task
Perform task out of habit
Motor control error
Signs
2
Stored Rules
for Task
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Situation awareness
“The perception of the elements in the environment
with a volume of time and space, the
comprehension of their meaning and the
projection of their status in the near future”
Level 1: Perceiving status
Level 2: Comprehending information in light of goals
Level 3: Projecting the activity to the future
2
Situation awareness
Level 2 SA
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Identification
Rule-based
Level
Behavior
Skill-based
Behavior
1 SA
Signs
Decision of
Task
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
Level 3 SA
Goals
2
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Cognitive continuum theory
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Rule-based
Behavior
Skill-based
Behavior
Goals
Identification
Signs
Analytic
Decision of
Task
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Intuitive
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
2
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Cognitive continuum theory

Factors inducing Intuition:
•
•
•
•
•

Large number of cues
Brief display of cues
Complex relationship between cues
Short DM time
Analog display
Factors inducing Analysis:
•
•
•
•
Few cues
Long availability of cues
High consequence
Digital display
2
Recognition-primed decision making






Pattern matching used to recognize situation
Recognition “primes” the selection of a plausible
solution
Action selected without comparison with alternates
Action evaluated through simulation using a
mental model
Particularly effective in time-constrained situations
40-80% based on condition-action rules
2
Recognition-primed decision making
Goals
Simulation-based evaluation
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Decision of
Identification
Task
Rule-based
Behavior
Signs
with mental model
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Application of condition-action rules
Skill-based
Behavior
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
3
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Improving decision making



Redesign to support decision making and
performance
Decision aids
Training
3
Redesign




Accentuate relevant cues
Warning devices to guide attention to critical
events
Restructure situation and overall system
Analysis of system dynamics
3
Training





Train analytic methods, has proven marginally
successful
Train better metacognition (e.g., manage time
pressure), has proven marginally successful
Focus on job-relevant knowledge and procedures
Train skill-based with actual cues
Cognitive feedback rather than performance
feedback
3
Decision aids

Fallacy of “expert” systems
• No basis for evaluation of the input
• Output mistrusted
• “Joint cognitive breakdowns” due to unanticipated
complexity

Cognitive support
• Interactive system that improves DM by extending
user’s capabilities
• Tool rather than prosthesis
3
Types of cognitive support
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Rule-based
Behavior
Goals
Identification
Signs
Decision of
Task
Planning
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Skill-based
Display and call attention to important cues
Behavior
Present
Signs
Featurereliability/value of cues
Formation
Allow
operators to specify alarms according
Sensory Input
3
Stored Rules
for Task
to
Automated
Sensory-Motor
circumstances
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Types of cognitive support
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Goals
Identification
Decision of
Task
Planning
Rule-based
Use
Behavior
spatial organization to state information
Stored Rules
Signs
Association
Recognition
Present condition-action rulesState/Task
and discrepancies
for Task
Indicate variable levels that require responses
(e.g., level associated with normal operations)
Skill-based
Behavior
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
3
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Types of cognitive support
Goals
Knowledge-based
Behavior Support “what if” analysis
Provide an externalized
mental
Symbols
Decision
of model in the display
Identification
Planning
Task
Provide critiques of hypotheses
generated
Rule-based
Behavior
Skill-based
Behavior
Signs
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
3
Stored Rules
for Task
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Requires
Knowledge
Mental model for simulation
Goals
Working memory capacity
Problem solving
Knowledge-based
Behavior
Symbols
Rule-based
Behavior
Skill-based
Behavior
Identification
Signs
Decision of
Task
Association
State/Task
Recognition
Signs
Feature
Formation
Sensory Input
3
Planning
Stored Rules
for Task
Automated
Sensory-Motor
Patterns
Signals
Actions
Critiquing system
http://freney.sys.virginia.edu/~sag3c/ProblemBasedLearning.html
3
Key concepts





Different types of decision making descriptions
and the implications for design
Heuristics and biases affecting decisions
Levels of cognitive control describe qualitatively
different types of human performance
Levels of cognitive control span many theories of
DM and can identify training and cognitive support
strategies
Skill-based processing and affect are key
elements of decision making
4