Career Counseling: A Holistic
Approach
Theories of Career Development
Part III
1
Developmental Theories
• Primary assumption is that career
development is a process that takes place
over the life span.
2
Developmental Theories
• The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach to
Careers
– Donald Super (1972)
– Career development was viewed as a
continuous process.
– Self-concept theory is a vital part of Super’s
approach to vocational behavior.
3
Developmental Theories
Super’s Self-Concept
• Research has indicated that the vocational
self-concept develops through:
– physical and mental growth
– observations of work
– identification with working adults
– general environment
– and general experiences.
4
Developmental Theories
Super’s Self-Concept
• Although the vocational self-concept is
only part of the total self-concept, it is the
driving force that establishes a career
pattern one will follow throughout life.
• Thus, individuals implement their selfconcepts into careers that will provide the
most efficient means of self-expression.
5
Developmental Theories
Super’s Self-Concept
• Self-concept developmental process is
multidimensional.
• Clients have a better chance of making
optimal decisions when they are most
aware of the work world and themselves.
6
Super’s Vocational Stages
• Another of Super’s important contributions has
been his formalization of vocational
developmental stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Growth (birth to age 14 or 15)
Exploratory (ages 15-24)
Establishment (ages 25-44)
Maintenance (ages 45-64)
Decline (ages 65+)
• Five developmental tasks are delineated by
typical age ranges, but tasks can occur at
other age levels.
7
Vocational
Developmental
Tasks
Crystallization
Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks
Ages
General Characteristics
14-18
Specification
18-21
Implementation
21-24
Stabilization
24-35
Consolidation
35+
A cognitive process period of formulating a
general vocational goal through awareness
of resources, contingencies, interests,
values, and planning for the preferred
occupation.
A period of moving from tentative vocational
preferences toward a specific vocation
preference.
A period of completing training for vocational
preference and entering employment.
A period of confirming a preferred career by
actual work experience and use of talents to
demonstrate career choice as an
appropriate one.
A period of establishment in a career by
advancement, status, and seniority.
8
Super’s Developmental Stages
• Super (1990) modified the developmental
tasks through the life span as shown on
next slide and uses the terms cycling and
recycling.
9
The Cycling and Recycling of Developmental Tasks Through the Life Span
Age
Early
Middle
Late
Adolescence Adulthood
Adulthood
Adulthood
Life Stage
(14-25)
(25-45)
(45-65)
(over 65)
Decline
Giving less
Reducing
Focusing on
Reducing
time to
sports
essential
working hours
hobbies
participation
activities
Maintenance
Verifying
Making
Holding own Keeping up
current
occupational
against
what is still
occupational
position
competition
enjoyed
choice
secure
Establishment Getting
Settling down Developing
Doing things
started in a
in a
new skills
one has always
chosen field
permanent
wanted to do
position
Exploration
Learning
Finding
Identifying
Finding a good
more about
opportunity to new
retirement spot
more
do desired
problems to
opportunities
work
work on
Growth
Developing a Learning to
Accepting
Developing
realistic selfrelate to
one’s
nonoccupational
concept
others
limitations
roles
10
Super – Career Maturity
• One of Super’s best-known studies, launched in
•
1951, followed the vocational development of
ninth-grade boys in Middletown, NY (Super &
Overstreet, 1960).
The career maturity concepts developed by
Super have far-reaching implications for career
education and career counseling programs.
11
Implications of Super’s Approach
• The critical phases of career maturity
•
development provide points of reference.
The delineation of desired attitudes and
competencies affords the specification of
objectives for instructional and counseling
projects.
12
Implications of Super’s Approach
• Super (1974) identified six dimensions that he thought
were relevant and appropriate for adolescents:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Orientation to vocational choice
Information and planning
Consistency of vocational preferences
Crystallization of traits
Vocational independence
Wisdom of vocational preferences
13
Implications of Super’s Approach
• Example of how this information can be
used.
• The dimensions of career maturity support
the concept that education and counseling
can provide the stimulus for career
development.
• Super’s is most comprehensive of all
developmental theories.
14
Implications of Super’s Approach
• Two major tenets of his theory give credence to
developmental theories in general.
– Career development is a lifelong process occurring
through defined developmental periods.
– The self-concept is being shaped as each phase of life
exerts its influence on human behavior.
• Super (1990) illustrated a life-stage model by
using a “life rainbow” as shown in Figure 2-4.
15
The life-career rainbow: Six life roles in schematic life space
16
Implications of Super’s Approach
• This model leads to some interesting
observations:
– Success in one role facilitates success in
another.
– All roles affect one another in the various
theaters.
17
Super’s Archway Model
• Super also created an “archway model” to
delineate the changing diversity of life
roles experienced by individuals over the
life span.
18
A segmental model
of career development
19
Super’s Archway Model
• The relationship of the model’s segments
highlights the interaction of influences in
the career development process.
• In a publication after Super’s death in
1994, his theory was labeled “the life-span
life-space approach to careers.”
• In this broad-based approach, gender and
cultural differences are also addressed.
20
Super - Practical Applications
• Super and his colleagues developed numerous
•
assessment instruments designed to measure
developmental tasks over the life span.
Career Development Assessment and
Counseling model (C-DAC) was developed to
measure constructs from the life-span, lifespace theory in four phases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Focus on client’s life structure and work-role salience.
Measure client’s perception of the work role, referred to as the client’s career
stage, and career concerns.
Measures of abilities, interests, and values.
Assessment of self-concepts and life themes.
21
Super - Practical Applications
• After assessment, counselor interprets data to
•
•
•
client.
Counselor assists client to develop accurate
picture of her/his self and life roles.
Counseling procedures pertinent to career
development tasks are recommended.
Counseling may use coaching, educating,
mentoring, modifying, or restructuring during an
interview.
22
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• Circumscription, Compromise, and SelfCreation: A Developmental Theory of
Occupational Aspirations
23
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• The main theme of Gottfredson’s (1981)
theory is the development of occupational
aspirations.
• Her theory describes how people become
attracted to certain occupations.
24
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• Self-concept in vocational development is
a key factor to career selection because
people want jobs that are compatible with
their self-images.
– Key determinants of self-concept development
are one’s social class, level of intelligence, and
experiences with sex-typing.
25
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• According to Gottfredson, individual
development progresses through four
stages:
1. Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5)
2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8)
3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13)
4. Orientation to the internal, unique self
(beginning at age 14)
26
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• A major determinant of occupational preferences is the
•
•
progressive circumscription of aspirations during selfconcept development.
Gottfredson suggested that socioeconomic background
and intellectual level greatly influence individuals’ selfconcept in the dominant society.
As people project into the work world, they choose
occupations that are appropriate to their “social space,”
intellectual level, and sex-typing.
27
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• Gottfredson suggested that people compromise their
•
•
occupational choices because of accessibility or even
give up vocational interests to take a job that has an
appropriate level of prestige and sex-type.
This theory has a strong sociological perspective.
– Gottfredson is concerned with the external barriers
that limit individual goals and opportunities.
The theory’s premise is that career choice is a process of
eliminating options, thus narrowing one’s choices.
28
Developmental Theories –
Gottfredson
• Major Concepts of Gottfredson’s Theory
– Self-Concept
– Images of Occupations
– Cognitive Maps of Occupations
– Social Space
– Circumscription
– Compromise
29
Gottfredson
• The scope of the theory was expanded
greatly in Gottfredson (2002).
– She stressed that career development is to be
viewed as a nature-nurture partnership.
– Genetically distinct individuals create different
environments, and each individual’s genetic
uniqueness shapes their experiences.
30
Gottfredson
• This position differs from socialization
theory (which suggests we are passive
learners from our environmental
experiences) and supports the view that
we are active participants in creating selfdirected experiences.
• Both genes and environment contribute to
one’s unique development.
31
Gottfredson
• The nature-nurture partnership approach
therefore adheres to an inner compass
from which one may circumscribe and
compromise life choices.
• Gottfredson’s theory is distinguished from
others by her emphasis on inherited
genetic propensities that shape individual
traits.
32
Gottfredson
• The implications for career counseling
include a perspective on individual
differences that focuses on the influence
of genetic individuality.
• Most important to recognize the interplay
of genetic and environmental factors.
33
Gottfredson
• Individuals and their environments are
involved in a continuous state of dynamic
interaction.
• Counselors are to respect the individuality
of all clients and make no assumptions
about a client’s vocational interests,
attitudes, and abilities.
• Counselors should encourage clients to be
as realistic as possible.
34
Gottfredson – Practical Applications
• She recommends five developmental criteria to
aid the counselee in dealing with reality.
1. The counselee is able to name one or more
occupational alternatives.
2. The counselee’s interests and abilities are adequate
for occupations chosen.
3. The counselee is satisfied with the alternatives s/he
has identified.
4. The counselee has not unnecessarily restricted
her/his alternatives.
5. The counselee is aware of opportunities and is
realistic about obstacles for implementing the
chosen occupation.
35
Gottfredson – Practical Applications
• She adds a biosocial perspective to the
career development of the very young.
• She strongly suggests that more attention
be given to the development of individuals
in their young years.
36
Gottfredson – Practical Applications
• Of her key concepts, circumscription and
compromise are the most dynamic.
• Her theory has been criticized because it is
limited to children and leaves much to be
said about adult development.
37
Development Theories - Summary
• Concept of vocational maturity illuminates the
•
•
proposition that some clients simply are not
prepared to make an optimal career decision.
Counselors are to assess a client’s orientation to
work, planning skills, and reality of occupational
preferences to determine readiness for career
choice.
There are developmental tasks and stages in
career development that provide windows of
opportunity for counseling interventions.
38
Development Theories - Summary
• Self-concept is the driving force that establishes
•
a career pattern.
The assumption that clients are involved in
several life roles simultaneously, and success in
one life role facilitates success in another,
underscores the important perspective of lifespan development.
39
Development Theories - Summary
• Gottfredson’s research underscores a well•
known position that career educations should
begin with the very young.
Counselors need to make every effort to
empower children to learn more about he work
world and promote the proposition that each
child should feel free to choose any career.
40
Development Theories - Summary
• Each client’s unique development should be the
•
•
focus of the intake interview.
Developmental theories point out that each
individuals development is unique, multifaceted,
and multidimensional.
Counselors must recognize that client concerns
can emerge from internal and external factors or
a combination of both.
41