Media Agenda-Setting
Emergence
Theory:
jian-Hua
Jonathan
of A Research
Tradition
In 1972, two journalism
Chapel
Hill, Maxwell
Opinion
McCombs
Quarterly that
proved
mass communications.
demonstrated
Known
speculated.
conducted
a content
to identify
presidential
influencing
and Donald
of North
Shaw, published
(Figure
Carolina-
an article
to be the genesis of a new research
as the Chapel Hill study, McCombs
and then surveyed
perfect
audiences
correlation,
correlation
1). It appeared
they first
newscasts
voters
found
(as high as .97) between
in
in the Chapel
By
some stunning
the two sets of
or what the public
issues of the day, was being shaped by the
and Shaw labeled this phenomenon
“agenda-setting”,
that "the mass media set the agenda for each political
the salience of attitudes
in
during the 1968
the authors
that issue salience,
tradition
in ways only
methodology,
100 undecided
in Public
and Shaw
issues they felt to be the most important.
to be the most important
mass media. McCombs
observing
at University
what issues the media were emphasizing
a simple tank-order
issue salience
considered
professors
Tradition
Blood
analysis of both the press and television
election,
results: an almost
Research
Zhu and Deborah
Using a simple but innovative
Hill area to find out what
performing
of a 25Year
that the mass media could influence
previously
order
Review
toward
the political
campaign,
issues” (1972. p. 177).
97
Rank-Order
2.3
1
Figure 1
of Media and Public Agenda
Comparison
CMedk
-Public
While
the term "agenda-setting”
to the McCombs
determining
and Shaw article
warned
what the public deems important
of the serious
of events in society.
Met-ton
and its branch of research
of 1972, the notion
argued that the mass media create
responsibility
In identifying
(1948) recognized
Cohen wrote
98
can be traced
of a media capable of
is much older.
Lippman
(1922)
images of events in people's
minds, and
of the press as purveyors
and interpreters
the functions
of the press, Lazarsfeld
and
its ability to confer status upon topics it emphasizes.
Long (I 958) and Lang and Lang (1959) also wrote
media to force attention
Agenda
Agenda
on certain
of the tendency
for the
issues. And in his study of foreign
policy,
the press "may not be successful much of the time in telling
people
what to think,
chink about
people,
but it is stunningly
And it follows
depending
that is drawn
not only on their personal
read” (1963, p. 13, italics added).
content
methodology
looks different
interests,
editors
what to
to different
but also on the map
and publishers
From this intellectual
the first systematic
straightforward
in telling its readers
from this that the world
for them by the writers,
Shaw provided
successful
of the papers they
heritage,
study of “agenda-setting”
McCombs
and
and established
for testing it, the simple comparison
a
of a media
analysis with a survey of the public agenda.
Key Concepts
Put simply, media agenda-setting
lead the public in assigning relative
media accomplish
ineffective;
instead,
positions.
treatment,
function
In short, the agenda-setting
between
them (the media agenda influences
involves
the recession.
to be
issues by giving
coverage
hypothesis
involves
to a long-term
covet-age,
In contrast
and more
two
a causal relationship
the public agenda).
refers to a list of issues or events that receive
An issue refers
continual
of certain
agenda and public agenda) and postulates
agenda”
telling the public
has proven
such as more frequent
(media
coverage.
which
the news media
public issues. The
not by directly
than another,
concepts
“Media
whereby
to various
the media signal the importance
these issues preferential
prominent
importance
this agenda-setting
that one issue is more important
is the process
problem
or series of events that
such as the war in Vietnam,
an event is characterized
news
Watergate,
by a quick-onset
AIDS, or
happening
99
over a discrete
attention.
Center
period
of time, attracting
The Los Angeles
riots of 1992, or the bombing
in New York are examples
into an issue, although
understudied
and Dearing
of events. A sequence
the process
of such evolution
topic in agenda-setting
(1988) pointed
events when conducting
intense but short-term
research.
agenda-setting
of the World
research
Trade
of events may evolve
itself is an interesting
For conceptual
out that is is important
media
clarity,
to differentiate
as they may differ
but
Rogers
issues from
in terms
of
timing and salience, or importance.
The media agenda is often
prominently
an issue is covered
inches for press stories,
newspaper
broadly
or program
measured
in the news, weighting
or amount
(Gormley,
an issue is defined
factors
of air time for television,
1975; Williams
is important
1985). A very broad definition
not provide
sufficient
such as column
in
1978). How
issue salience
such as “economic
for an agenda-setting
and how
or position
& Semlak,
when measuring
& Maccoby,
variance
by how frequently
(Roberts
conditions”
may
effect to be detected.
"Public agenda” refers to the list of issues that are on the minds of the
public. Typically,
the public agenda is gauged by a survey
to the open-ended
nation
versions
today?“.
McLeod,
"what
is the most important
is to others);
responses
problem
facing our
Becker and Byrnes (1974) identified
of public agenda: an intrapersonal
is to the person
100
question,
of people's
him/herself);
and a community
an interpersonal
three operational
agenda (i.e., how important
an issue
agenda (how important
an issue
agenda (how important
an issue is to the
community/nation).
other
While
to some extent,
is most noticeable
these different-level
research
has shown
agendas interact
that the media agenda-setting
in shaping the community
Some researchers
have gone beyond
simple measures
instead the extent
of people's
example,
Benton
(1976) measured
issues, and the causes of and possible
Wackman
(1973) used open-ended
knowledge
concerning
what people
Underlying
believed
about the issues. For
peoples
awareness
of certain
to these issues. Tichenor
items to measure
a local sewage dumping controversy,
about the issue was a function
its apparent
assumptions,
example,
solutions
of issue salience.
and
people's
and showed
of which
that
papers they read.
Assumptions
Despite
several
knowledge
survey
effect
agenda.
exploring
and Frazier
with each
in their
simplicity,
many of which
1972 article,
the agenda-setting
hypothesis
have not been explicitly
McCombs
draws on
stated. For
and Shaw noted that media agenda-
setting
is a content-specific
certain
issues with what the public think about these issues) and an aggregate-
/eve/effect
concerns).
superior
effect (by matching what the media report
(by using an overall
An implicit
statistic
assumption
to a content-free
to summarize
individuals’
here is that a content-specific
effect because the former
on
issue
effect is
has more face validity
than
the latter.
A second assumption,
aggregate-level
perhaps somewhat
effect by its own is as important
controversial,
is that the
if not more important,
than an
101
individual-level
effect
As McCombs
and Shaw (1972) showed,
capable of creating
an agenda for the community
individual
of the community
member
be different
drawn
from the community
some criticism
Neumann
may have his/her
(e.g., McLeod
public opinion,
capable of turning,
through
a spiral of silence process.
of public opinion,
for example,
effects of agenda-setting.
has established
to think about”
indirect
concerns
policymaking
a critical
movement
process
concerning
above, agenda-setting
about this seemingly
lines of research
consequences.
issues, triggered
(Page & Shapiro,
(e.g., anti-technologies,
1973). And, by drawing
1992). Often
and subsequent
Mazur,
attention
modest and
have illustrated.
For example,
by news coverage,
public
can affect the
media agenda setting plays
political
force of a social
1981; or anti-war
movements,
to some issues over others,
cues for the public to judge, for instance,
the basis of themes the media emphasize,
102
into a real minority
is the assumption
As described
is so remarkable
role in the emergence
media provide
in the political
that the media are capable of telling the public “what
can have far-reaching
about certain
or the perception
institution
a silent majority
form of media effect? As several
agenda-setting
Mueller,
What
analysis has
et al.. 1974). But as Fan (I 988) and Noelle-
Beyond the level of analysis, more central
research
each
own agenda that could
can be a very powerful
process,
the ultimate
even though
agenda. This aggregate-level
(1974) have argued, the totality
of an aggregate
as a whole,
the media are
a mechanism
political
known
the
candidates
as priming
on
(lyengar
and Kinder,
1987). The priming
actual voting decisions
during election
Eyal, 1981). As evidence
times (Weaver,
of replications
Bregman
(1993),
of McCombs
prominence
nearly
most important
followed
editors),
who were
every
of agenda-setting
of agenda-setting,
subfield
the most votes
(21) and diffusion
scholars freely pursue
is, then, what is the “invisible
to the pursuit
properties
in which
since
and 96 ICA, AEJMC, SCA
and Shaw (1993) once described
market
and
survey of core
in their field (So & Chan,
still receives
reduction
Dearing,
and Shaw (1972). The
(138 most cited authors
since the survey involves
agenda-setting
by Rogers,
can be also seen in a recent
concepts/theories
diverse
McCombs
question
that
an unexpected
studies have been published
cite McCombs
and major journal
by uncertainty
laissez-faire
explicitly
scholars
deans/chairs,
However,
assertion
what to think about.
As counted
200 agenda-setting
of agenda-setting
communication
expectedly
Cohen's
and Shaw (1972) unleashed
and extensions.
that date, 56% of which
officers,
&
Power
The publication
flood
McCombs,
we may once again need
of the media beyond
the press is successful only in telling its readers
Organizing
Graber,
of media effects accumulates,
to revise our view of the power
to transfer into
effect has been shown
asked to name the
1991). The result
of communication.
(by 31 respondents),
of innovation
academic
(16).
research
research
as a
topics at will. The
hand” that has held so many scholars
research? We believe
its organizing
power,
is
that the following
its cognitive
orientation,
fast
three
and
103
its new methodological
sustenance
paradigm,
of this ever-growing
The scholarly
voluminous
of agenda-setting
it has generated.
candidate
as a metaphor,
society,
people's
agenda-setting
when evaluating
matching
theory
two constructs,
setting a parsimonious
comparison
(as evidenced
fairly strong
by the volume
predictive
The organizing
of research
104
concepts
what is important
in their
given that these beliefs are
& Berger,
generally
1987). The simplicity
consistent
makes agenda-
(involving
it has generated),
of
the
provocative
appears to have
and is falsifiable.
of agenda-setting
the field of mass communication
communication
the way in which the mass
of two sets of issues), heuristically
power,
power
and organizational
and public opinion,
It is internally
of the rank orders
of contexts
meets many of the criteria
(see Chaffee
theory.
agendas, election
happening in society.
favorably
media content
agenda-
this conceptualization
and to a variety
addresses
important
is actually
underlying
advertising,
beliefs concerning
at odds with what
As a theory,
applied
political
Given that agenda-setting
such studies are particularly
frequently
the
beyond
of personal
status conferral,
such as health care, social marketing,
media may influence
extends
has enabled
to investigations
agendas. stereotyping,
communication.
and
The key concepts
setting are quite simple, and their generality
to be applied,
for the creation
family.
significance
research
are responsible
relating
is evidenced
agenda-setting
by studies within
with other
such as the spiral of silence, the uses and gratifications
approach,
bandwagon
integrated
various
the sociology
(Breed,
research
sub-fields
and media-system
of research
of news literature
(see McCombs
(Shoemaker
1955). and gatekeeping
dependency.
research
& Shaw, 1993) such as
1991). news diffusion
& Reese,
in journalism
(Becker,
McLeod,
1975). While
it should be noted that conceptualizing
a theory
has its critics
(for example,
relative
naivety and methodological
see lyengar & Kinder,
primitiveness,
appears to satisfy many of the requirements
Agenda-setting
research
emerged
at a time when
powerful
mass media effects.
&
agenda-setting
as
1987) due to its
agenda-setting
clearly
of a good theory.
was eagerly accepted
communication
After
scholars
the apparent
during the first world
war, and the subseauent
leaders
Hitler
such as Adolf
mass communications),
of wielding
influence
consequences.
that people
invested
sophisticated
success of political
rise of charismatic
(who were
for more
propaganda
political
adept at using
came to view the mass media as capable
upon its audience,
and were
became
fearful
known
which captures the swift.
of its
later as the
sure and dangerous
in the media
in the forties
much support
survey methods
by the field because it
began searching
Churchill
This early perspective
a metaphor
Later researchers
unable to detect
and Winston
many people
enormous
magic bullet theory,
power
McCombs
Orientation
Cognitive
potential
It has also
and fifties, such as Paul Lazarsfeld.
for powerful
being developed
media effects
were
using the more
at the time. Neither
were those
105
conducting
their
Hovland.
communication
experiments
The absence of powerful-effects
researchers
to conclude
of persuasion.
in his book
in laboratories,
findings
led contemporary
that the media after all had extremely
This “limited
effects”
The Effects of Mass
view was best articulated
Communicarion
had demonstrated
mass media to be "ordinarily”
sufficient
cause of audience
effects. Instead, it operated
existing
values and attitudes,
and media effects were
reading
relationships
of Klapper's
under which
contemporary
perhaps
dangerous
and personal
scholars
in response
were
as a reinforcer
generally
experience.
could greatly
content
While
influence
Figure 2
106
of Media
Effects
Theory
or
of
a more careful
some conditions
most
perspective,
claims of a powerful
mass media made earlier.
Evoluation
Klapper
seen as mediated
society,
to hold a limited-effects
to the more extravagent
by Joseph
not a necessary
book reveals his belief that there were
mass communication
limited powers
(I 960) who argued that
research
by interpersonal
such as Carl
and
Since that time there
led to a paradigm
have been developments
shift in communication
that the media may have powerful
instance,
the emergence
1967) heralded
active information
media effects
audiences.
voting
Meanwhile,
number
experienced
& Maccoby,
reconceptualized
research
change rather
1985). For
determined
people
as
this led to a search for
than attitude
change in
were
to explain
in voting studies, researchers
forced
by traditional
variables
such
status, causing them to look again at the media as a source
Finally, the field of communication
growing
of the view
during the 1960's (Neisser.
which
In communication
which was no longer
as socioeconomic
influence.
of thought
in the form of cognitive
behavior
inclined
seekers.
psychology
fields which have
and a renewal
effects (see Roberts
of cognitive
a new school
research
in other
of scholars
to hold powerful
itself was changing due to a
with actual communication
media practitioners
qualifications
joining its ranks, all of whom
and
were
more
effects views (see Figure 2). It is not surprising
that the first agenda-setting
of
study was received
with such interest
then
and
enthusiasm.
A New
Methodological
Paradigm
The value of finking media content
methodology
Neuman
of agenda-setting
with public opinion
had been recognized
by earlier
(1989) points out that as early as 1910 Weber
systematic
has tended
study of the press and public opinion.
to move along two separate
which is the
scholars.
called for a joint
Yet communication
lines: media content
research
research
which
107
concentrates
only on the content
and audience
effects research
and accepts media content
survey
research,
which
it is often impossible
respondents
to assume exposure
to the tested
hand, content
descriptive,
the targeted
limitations
audience)
response”
exposed.
research,
overcomes
the limitations
to a complex
of media content
and hypotheses.
hypothesis
108
Numerous
as controlling,
framework
On
called for to
by Neuman
of media content
media content
this strategy
and audience
and
analysis
and
effects style research.
Extensions
has grown
from a simple
(i.e., media agenda and public agenda)
encompassing
new concepts
intervening,
of research
measurement
clearly follows
only two variables
theoretical
self-reports.
the two fields and their
Over the last two decades, agenda-serving
involving
often have
on its own is merely
analysis proposed
and simultaneous
Relevant
proposition
to
(i.e., assuming the message has reached
content
agenda-setting
In
certainty
Researchers
message based on audience
(1989, p. 212). By comparing
with survey
responses
with complete
noted and new directions
parallel
as "the systematic
and audience
are actually
arise. The gap between
address the gap, notably
defined
to determine
of inference
has been widely
effects,
on its own has limitations.
anaiysis of media programming
and problems
audience
focuses on surveys of audience
as given. Each strategy
what media content
the other
of the media and ignores
various
auxiliary
concepts
have been added to the original
or moderating
variables.
Of the various
extensions,
research
substantive
context
Causality
on the causal direction,
of agenda-setting
the contingent
conditions,
and the
are among the most important.
of Agenda-Setting
The original
between
study by McCombs
and Shaw (1972) reported
media agenda and public agenda, but conveyed
media agenda precedes
out three
competing
an assumption
and causes the public agenda. Scholars
hypotheses
only a match
that the
quickly pointed
to explain the correspondence
between
media
agenda and public agenda: the media indeed set the agenda for the public; the
media merely
reinforce
reflect
the public's sentiment;
each other's
issue salience.
1972 has been devoted
variety
to resolving
of methodological
correlation,
adopted
the Charlotte
employed
by McCombs
Study. This analytic
Much of the agenda-setting
this intriguing
approaches
The first technique
or the media and the public
research
causal question,
since
with a
from the social sciences arsenal.
was the panel design with, cross-fagged
and Shaw in their
strategy
compares
second study, known
the correlation
as
between
the media agenda at time one and the public agenda at time two with the
correlation
between
time two in order
the public agenda at time one and the media agenda at
to determine
whether
the media influences
public opinion
at
a later date, or vice versa (Figure 3). The Charlotte
study (Shaw & McCombs,
1977) was conducted
during the 1972 presidential
election,
throughout
in Charlotte,
North
Carolina
using a panel sample of respondents
interviewed
the campaign to measure their issue salience,
at several points
and then matching
it
with the issue emphasis by the Charlotte
programs
during the same period.
the correlation
between
agenda at time period
around,
although
this cross-lagged
causality,
Cross-lagged
the newspaper
and two
correlation
this pattern
was not detected
design provides
a straightforward
Cross-Lagged
Figure 3
Correlation
Design
/
7
I
Saurce: based on Shaw and McComba (1977)
110
the other way
data. Because
means of establishing
et al., 1981).
/ Public Agenda
in 0-r
that
I and the public
for the television
1975; Weaver
news
results showed
used in many later studies of agenda-setting
Haney, & Baseheart,
1 Public Agenda
I
;nJ*ne
broadcast
agenda at time period
2 was much larger than the correlation
it has been widely
(e.g.,Tipton,
newspaper
Where
convention
the panel design with
of an aggregate
the laboratory
cross-lagged
study the agenda-setting
level. In a series of controlled
experiments
dealing with several issues such as inflation,
compared
the responses
their
importance
the viewers’
of nonviewers.
exposure
other
causal process
between
of external
scholars
Then
of these issues with
still attached
even a week
after
much higher
residents
investigative
University
before
laboratory
test the
between
a random
the researchers
sample of
to trace any
types of noise inevitably
and his colleagues
than those in lyengar
Protess
et al., 1991) conducted
the two surveys to the content
Given the various
Protess
(Protess
stations,
and after the airing of several
Such a design permits
change in public opinion
field experiments,
with
have chosen the field experiment
in which they interviewed
a few weeks
newscasts.
usually associated
with help from local television
at Northwestern
newscasts.
validity
the media agenda and the public agenda in a more
a series of field experiments
weaker
and defense.
The results were unequivocal;
setting. For example,
and his colleagues
television
importance
news
to these issues than did nonviewers.
experimentation,
Chicago
(I 987) adopted
television
unemployment,
viewers
the
effect at the individual
subjects watched
perceived
to the news programs,
Given the problem
realistic
continued
unit of analysis, lyengar and Kinder
experimentto
investigators
correlation
and Kinder's
found agenda-setting
laboratory
experiment.
of the
introduced
into
effects to be
However,
111
the more realistic
confidence
in the validity
Structural
establish
setting of their studies may provide
Degenhardt
measurement
error,
comparison
communication,
considerable
potential
of scholars
effect after controlling
and other
(1993) believe
agenda-setting
1985; Beniger,
level of analysis by using public opinion
as a process,
mentioned
and further,
effects. TSA enables one to examine
determine
112
the optimum
time window
at the
elsewhere
(Zhu,
many more time points than other
a more appropriate
is more sensitive
Operating
data, TSA has several
above, as noted
TSA usually involves
and is therefore
1990;
1980; Zhu, 1992; Zhu et al., 1993) have
aggregate
methods
1978;
1981; Neuman,
time series analysis (TSA) to study agenda-setting.
over the methods
intervening
that SEM has
1973; MacKuen,
1991 ; Smith,
for
research.
(e.g., Behr & lyengar,
1990; Funkhouser,
& Chang,
1992). For example,
for
effects, and
employed
advantages
(e.g., Hugel,
tool, allowing
and indirect
issue obtrusiveness,
in advancing
Brosius & Kepplinger,
analytical
an agenda-setting
(1988) and Kosicki
Finally, a number
Rogers, Dearing
of direct
process
causal paths. In the Hugel et al. (1989) study, SEM
to detect
Both lyengar
have also been used to
in the agenda-setting
decomposition
of alternative
interpersonal
(SEM) techniques
1989). SEM is a versatile
enabled the researchers
variables.
modeling
of causality
& Weiss,
degree of
of effects found.
equation
the direction
a greater
means of studying
to longer-term
time lags of various
for agenda-setting
agenda-setting
agenda-setting
lengths in order
to
effects to take place,
and to detect
cycles of media coverage
TSA can also incorporate
inflation.
"real world”
unemployment,
casualties
between
in Vietnam,
and public attention
indicators
and energy consumption,
MacKuen,
(Downs,
1972).
into the analysis (e.g.,
see Behr & lyengar,
1981), by which a spurious
relationship
the media agenda and the public agenda can be eliminated.
discussed
in more detail later, TSA also enables investigators
setting as a competitive,
nonlinear,
or other
1985; or
As will be
to treat agenda-
more complicated
or realistic
process.
Despite
multiple
variations
methods
in design and analysis from study to study, these
have demonstrated
a clear causal influence
agenda upon the public agenda. It is likely that no other
in human communication
so many scholars
research
has received
and with such diverse
methods
should be noted that some studies have reported
setting effect”
others
in which
a "reciprocal
agenda mutually
public issue concerns
agenda-setting
reinforce
effect’
each other.
of the media
theoretical
as much empirical
a so-called
"reversed
lead to media coverage,
where
Rogers and Dearing
relationship
studies may reveal a two-way
the media agenda and public agenda over time which
For breaking
news events where
It
agendaand
(1988) point out
influence,
to present
by
the media agenda and public
a one-way
the drive by media personnel
attention
as has agenda-setting.
that short term studies on specific events tend to reveal
but longer term
hypothesis
of
between
seems more realistic
news of interest
there is no previous
direction
given
to their audiences.
public concern,
one can
113
expect
a one way influence
persistent
issues for which
and prior
public opinion
of the media upon the public agenda. But for more
people are likely to have some personal
(i.e., an obtrusive
may well lead to agenda-setting
issue like inflation),
study on the agenda-setting
(Brosius
1990) which showed
by a sudden onset of media interest,
function
the media influenced
in the case of other
issues where
awareness
with little variation,
the public agenda appeared
enduring
question
setting researchers
is whether
happens to certain
people
McCombs
McCombs
reminiscent
that has attracted
agenda-setting
public
to drive the news.
(newspapers,
agenda-setting
and Independents).
newsmagazines,
and television).
effect or only
Almost
everyone,
including
sounds
In their
seminal article,
effects across voter
across issues (receiving
They explicitly
analyses was to examine
that might be lost in the overall
in an analysis”
of agenda-
from the media), and across media outlets
of the between-group
differences”
is a universal
of the magic bullet theory.
Republicans,
high or low prominence
the attention
the latter because the former
and Shaw (1972) compared
groups (Democrats,
114
news
public opinion.
there was long term
under certain conditions.
and Shaw. believes
uncomfortably
together
of television
Conditons
Another
purpose
appears to
that for some issues characterized
However,
Contingent
public concern
effects upon the media. This pattern
have held in a German
& Kepplinger,
experience
(p. 181). Other
sated
the “individual
design of "lumping
scholars
that the
all the voters
have since joined in the search
for what Et-bring, Goldenberg
agenda-setting.
conditions:
In particular,
audience
characteristics
the agenda-seaing
audience
involvement
preference
These variables
variable
& Frazier,
by such variables
demographic
various
condition.
as political
& Shaw, 1972; McLeod
role in
dimensions
of
Audience
partisanship
et al., 1974),
et al., 1981). and media
1976) or media dependency
used as controlling
variables
(Salwen,
to eliminate
1987).
a possible
effect of the media agenda on public agenda, or as a moderator
differential
groups. The general findings
more susceptible
exceptions
to their
contingent
et al., 1974; Weaver
are either
to detect
audiences
and media
a very limited
scholars have found
to be an important
(McLeod
(Benton
spurious
effect,
1987; McCombs
campaign interest
of
sets of contingent
most of the conventional
have demonstrated
has been measured
& Kinder,
issue characteristics,
While
variables
qualifying
(lyengar
on three
theory”
1981).
characteristics.
and socio-economic
(1980) called a " contingent
the search has focused
characteristics,
(Winter,
Audience
involvement
and Miller
are that the more involved
the audience
(most notably
were
is to media agenda-serting,
lyengar
& Kinder,
1987, where
less subject to the agenda-setting
laboratory
effect,
an audience
audience
is, the
with some
the more involved
a finding we attribute
setting).
Why are more involved
agenda-setting?
effects of the media agenda on various
There
audiences
more likely to be influenced
are at least two plausible explanations.
by
The first
115
concerns
the notion
individual
is said to have a high NFO when he/she is highly interested
strongly
believes
of "Need
for Orientation”
in the relevance
(NFO,
see Weaver,
1977). An
in (or
of) a public issue. but is also highly uncertain
about the issue. A high level of NFO will lead to active use of the mass media,
which opens the door
(e.g., McCombs
Weaver
for an agenda-setting
& Weaver,
1973; Schoenbach
et al., 1981) have found support
setting process,
although
terms of the magnitude
MacKuen
theorization
audience
attentiveness
1985; Weaver,
1977;
for the role of NFO in the agenda-
another,
involvement.
process the information.
incoming
There
across studies
two
competing
The attentiveness
to media agenda-setting
information
attentiveness
model
is a function
and their cognitive
need for orientation
measured
models--
between
construct
by interest
ability
(NFO).
in politics,
as rated
on a scale ranging from low to high. Cognitive
ability was
operationalized
as years of education.
interest
level a person
media agenda-setting,
framework
116
The higher the political
has, the more susceptible
according
to the attentiveness
model suggests a rival hypothesis
where
to
the
by respondents
educational
in
elaborate,
appear to be some parallels
model and Weaver's
MacKuen
framework
susceptibility
toward
perhaps more
He posited
vs. cognitive
suggests that the audiences’
Operationally,
& Weaver,
investigations
of its influence.
of audience
attentiveness
Empirical
the results are not always consistent
(1981) proposed
of their attentiveness
influence.
and/or
the person should be to
model.
The cognitive
those with more education
and higher political
mechanisms
empirical
interest
against the influence
tests. MacKuen
findings which
While
individuals’
the differences
with sufficient
evidence
there
of their
differences.
A longitudinal
is the notion
distinction
verified.
For example,
foreign
obtrusive
through
(Zucker,
a factor
of their
more
of time.
concerning
issue
1978). According
experience
with it, or
economic
are often cited as examples
and unobtrusive
being
in terms
contact with it. Domestic
affairs is considered
and
of the
over a long period
if the public has direct
and unemployment
issues, whereas
between
in our society
sectors
become
theorization
of issue obtrusiveness
if the public has no direct
issues such as inflation
obtrusive
issue concerns
The most important
an issue is obtrusive
unobtrusive
not overstate
study currently
at any given point
the sectors
in
(1982) have argued in
will show that various
however,
when one traces their
Issue characteristics.
to Zucker.
should
that cause them to share the same problems
about social problems;
characteristics
we probably
are broad strata of people
public may appear to be heterogeneous
homogenous
model,
on NFO.
and Ball-Rokeach
by Zhu and his associates
concerns
In a series of
has been that there are likely to be variations
theory,
similarities
self-defense
the attentiveness
with the research
too much. As Defleur
regardless
supporting
to agenda-setting,
their media dependency
conducted
found
the consensus
have more effective
of media agenda-setting.
are also consistent
susceptibility
concerns,
should
an unobtrusive
of
issue. The
issues has been empirically
analysis procedure,
Eyal (1979)
117
identified
two distinctive
included
inflation,
issue group
(1981)
among
unemployment,
included welfare,
reported
obtrusive
groups
11 issues. The obtrusive
the economy,
the environment,
that respondents
etc., while
issue group
the unobtrusive
and foreign
affairs, etc. Blood
in a survey rated inflation
as the most
issue, and the Iran hostage issue as the least obtrusive,
roughly
with recession
in the middle.
Media agenda-setting
argued,
because audiences
effects are stronger
for unobtrusive
issues, Zucker
have to rely on the media for information
these issues. On the other
hand, audiences
setting
issues because they learn about these issues from
their
effects on obtrusive
own experience,
number
of authors
example,
or personal
have found
evidence
(1979)
Palmgreen
and Clarke
weaker
or even null agenda-setting
generally
hold up after controlling
instance,
MacKuen
more
these arguments.
the other
on certain
hand, some findings
(1978) found a stronger
(1977), and Winter
effect for obtrusive
for real world
(1980) found a
issues. These patterns
indictors
in the analysis. For
economic
by the "real world”
issues the public
than by the media. On
have shown that the extent
issues is out of proportion
For
issues, and Hugel et al. (1989).
(1981) found that for obtrusive
likely to be influenced
to agenda-
than from the media. A
supposing
effect for unobtrusive
lyengar
118
rather
Eyal (1979), Hugel et al. (1989) and Zucker
media agenda-setting
were
networks,
are less susceptible
about
of media coverage
with respect to objective
indicators
and
that public perception
than “objective”
more
tends to be more influenced
reality
(Funkhouser,
1973; Blood,
There
are also other
recent
study by Yagade and Dozier
“concreteness”
formulations
vs. "abstractness.”
setting power
is enhanced
issues. As the authors
acknowledged,
however,
with audiences’
Media characteristics.
Of course,
different
-- is a better
newsmagazines,
similarity
between
agenda-setting
elaborate
for abstract
Further
research
is
of issue characteristics.
intense
that newspapers
-- newspapers
research
interest.
and television
have
and Shaw's (1972) classic study, four types
national
newspapers,
The results showed
in issue agenda within
newspapers
each medium
demonstrated
that there was a
and only a modest
the strongest
effects, followed
by television.
Hugel et al. (1989) presented
a
study involving
individual-level
data to test the differential
roles
the content
newspapers
that media agenda-
ability.
has attracted
networks.
media; national
of print and broadcasting
matched
cognitive
local newspapers,
and television
high degree of similarity
more
agenda-setter
a
issues into
The debate over which media outlet
issue agendas. in McCombs
examined:
For example,
the role of issue concreteness
dimensions
this is based on the assumption
of media were
reported
issues but diminished
needed to shed light on this and other
or television
(1990) distinguishes
The authors
rather
1994).
of issue characteristics.
for concrete
may have been confounded
by media portrayals
media in agenda-setting.
of national
to measures
television
of national
voters’
In their
programming
study, investigators
and 13 daily
media exposure.
A path analysis
119
based on structural
the newspaper
(foreign
modeling
however,
voters
that newspapers
television
(Benton
McClure,
1976; Weaver,
More recent
attention
to either
issue (social security).
have a stronger
& Frazier,
scholars
have criticized
earlier
and too little to television
that television
public's
television
may be well grounded,
television
than newspapers
than newspapers
advocates
of television
newscasts
in their empirical
impossible
to compare
120
conception
&
"Our
and Kinder
purpose
here is
without
peer,
virtually
life in pervasive
The view on the primacy
of
since the public spends more time on
(Robinson
(Roper
research
& Kepplinger,
by lyengar
of political
news is news that matters.”
conditions,
1977; Patterson
is best articulated
news is in fact an educator
that it shapes the American
contingent
studies
effect than does
(e.g., Brosius
in their opening statement
that
issue
studies for paying too much
(1987. pp. 1-2, italics added)
It is evident
by
or
Several other
1976; Eyal, 1979; McCombs,
television
in television
newspaper
agenda-setting
1990). The case for studying
ways; that television
influenced
1977).
to newspapers
to establish
were
agenda on an unobtrusive
did not respond
agendas on an obtrusive
also report
found that voters
agenda but not by the television
affairs);
television
equation
& Levy, 1986), and has more
Organization,
1984). However,
have focused exclusively
investigations.
in spite of the impressive
our understanding
the
on television
By using a single-media
the impact of television
confidence
design, it is
and newspapers.
effort
of the qualifying
devoted
to exploring
effects of audience,
issue, and media characteristics
cumulative
evidence
find no significant
others
detect
however,
some contingent
even discrepant.
from one study to another.
that has kept agenda-setting
Despite
attracting
where
and direction
of
the inconsistencies,
understanding
research
The
Some studies
process
effects, but with the magnitude
decades, and that will continue
Context
is far from conclusive.
effects on the agenda-setting
it is this very search for a better
conditions
two
has been mixed, sometimes
contingent
the effect varying
upon agenda-setting
of the contingent
alive and well over the last
scholars
to this research
domain.
of Agenda-Searing
As described
the context
established
of national
and local political
that news could influence
important
notion
above, agenda-setting
election
to other
campaign
of agenda-setting
advertising,
organizational
activism,
illustrates
and sports
from the communication
One context
elections.
Once researchers
thought
issues, it was not long before
contexts.
conducted
management,
criminal
A brief review
justice, semiotics,
that has gained in importance
confidence
individual
consumer
accounts
spending
this
years, many
as
peace
of some of these applications
sciences, to problems
news on consumer
had
they extended
In the last twenty
insights gained from applying
economic
in
to be the most
have been made to topics as diverse
medicine.
the significant
was originally
what readers
types of issues in other
applications
research
this metaphor,
pertaining
to other
originating
fields.
has been the impact of
(Fan, 1993). Given the fact that
for two-thirds
of the U.S. national
121
expenditure,
it is therefore
pertinent
to rise and fail?“. Contrary
consumer
setting
scholars
greater
David
confidence
to conventional
have shown that news coverage
(1991) examined
consumer
that consumer
reality.
confidence
confidence
influenced
public perception
has been developed
a poor
concerning
in the U.S. economy
purpose
the more achievable
purchasing
and necessary
Agenda-setting
and found
when
and
that
(1994) found strong
the U.S. recession
lowered
over and above the direct
effects of
(1981) were the first to use the agenda-setting
as persuading
goal of advertising
a product
techniques
process,
instead
to buy its touted
is to focus the consumer's
to think about when
This has been established
first step in the marketing
research
a new light. Now,
the audience
on what values, brands, and attributes
considering
news
over the economy
data, Blood
to cast the role of commercial advertising
attention
122
headlines
and Galloway
of seeing advertising’s
product
economic
and
upon public sentiment.
Sutherland
concept
Gonzenbach,
at a later date. Using a set of new techniques
to handle nonstationary
confidence
economy
may play a
but the media in turn picked up on public concern
that newspaper
consumer
media coverage
(i.e.,
agenda-
and the actual state of the economy,
influenced
for reality,
Stevenson,
between
confidence
determinism”
of the economy
For example,
the interrelationship
controlling
evidence
"pocket-book
is based on the well being of the economy),
role than economic
coverage,
to ask "what causes consumer
as an important
ultimately
ending in sales.
have also been applied
to assessing the
effectiveness
of political advertising.
advertisements
about
were
shown
In a state senate campaign,
to be fairly effective
in communicating
issues to voters
(Kaid,
1976).
Other
within
business organizations
applying
functions
an agenda-setting
management.
Managerial
organizational
writers
managers
framework
and creating
consulting,
networks
them (e.g., Kotter.
argued that businesses are very slow at becoming
arena of politics.
analysts”
in business, who can identify
interests,
and foster
The emergence
the U.S. and abroad
setting.
Mayer
transformed
problems
problems
relations
has been explained
into consumer
attract
have
in the agenda-setting
is a need for “issue
issues in the company's
with the media
of public policy issues such as consumer prorection
(1991) described
the framework
issues by moving through
by policy
why the government
but not others.
within
three
which in turn arouses
makers.
Harrison
is attentive
By comparing
problems
are
stages: consumer
public opinion,
and Hoberg
to certain
in
of agenda-
the process of how consumer
media attention,
finally are addressed
investigated
effective
for their business,
involved
and promote
effective
1983). Yet others
(1985) even suggested that there
Nolan
planning.
and industries,
in their focus on agenda-setting
to accomplish
from
personnel
and strategic
have noted that across businesses
display similarities
information
have benefited
such as public relations,
management,
newspaper
and
(1991)
environmental
the U.S. and Canadian
governments’
123
handling
of indoor
problems
radon and dioxin,
set the issue priority
Other
sorts of policy
of agenda-setting,
comparable
example
weapon
and social security.
President
Carter's
Pentagon
funding,
the decision
The agenda-setting
public health. Researchers
professional
framework
considered.
124
not to deploy
For example,
programs
through
agenda-setting
the neutron
bomb, a
Walter
yet
Pincus
through
obscure
outcry
ultimately
forced
the bomb (Linsky et al., 1986).
metaphor
has been applied
have re-evaluated
sports, abortion,
Some unintended
on child abuse
1984). A dramatic
Post reporter
bomb was being developed
to issues concerning
media educational
transmitted
programs
such
disease, drug abuse in
and use of seat belts. Using an agenda-setting
on issue salience, they have been more likely to find
the campaigns to be effective
behavior.
policymaking
Washington
at AIDS, sexually
which focuses
bargaining,
Sustained media coverage
the ensuing public and congressional
not to deploy
as those directed
collective
to the public as capable of killing people
standing. After
that the neutron
their status from the early use
issue (Nelson,
decision
was described
leaving buildings
television
reform,
of how the press affects federal
which
revealed
issues have achieved
in making it a public policy
concerned
of these
for their governments.
such as school finance
worth,
succeeded
they found that media coverage
than when looking
agenda-setting
Atkin
effects upon
effects on health have also been
(1989) looked
on risky driving
for direct
behaviors
at the agenda-setting
by teenagers.
effects of
There
have also been a number
effects of crime stories
David Pritchard
coverage
of crimes has affected
allocated
to cities (Pritchard
decisions
on pre-bargains
has conducted
the number
in homicide
that the more
publicity
creates
more public attention
charge of the case is willing
officers
cases (Pritchard,
of civil rights movements
minority
approach
relating
Alaskan
that the Hispanic perspective
phases (Arp,
differences
natives and the senators
reveal active agendato protect
Reform
was not represented
of the problem
who received
their
On the
and Control
1990). And a close comparison
in understanding
in
have been
are intended
to the claims made by Alaskan natives showed
significant
presumably
in their analysis. Case studies
rights passage invariably
these legislations
study
deal with the defendant.
hand, a case study of the failure of the Immigration
early agenda-setting
which
to the case, the less likely the prosecutor
by using an agenda-setting
Act of 1986 revealed
subsequently
1984). The latter
case receives,
to make a pre-bargain
setting on the part of groups
other
of police
1993), or public prosecutors’
a homicide
The successes and failures
successful
rape, and police
a series of studies on how news
& Berkowitz,
showed
documenting
into the agenda-setting
on topics as diverse as homicides,
brutality.
illuminated
of investigations
in the
of the issues
that there were
on the part of testifying
testimony
(Korsmo.
1990).
New Frontiers
Recently,
panel discussion
Maxwell
McCombs
organized
at the joint conference
a series of activities,
of the World
Association
including
a
for Public
125
Opinion
Research
and the American
and a special collection
Communication
of articles
Association
each for Journalism
(see McCombs,
1992; McCombs
last two decades of agenda-setting
take the opportunity
anticipations
continues
several
concerning
the future
on the major extensions
have emerged
of what we believe
setting
research
research
Research
Quarterly and
Journal
& Shaw, 1993) to review
and to envision
here to join in this exercise
new frontiers
account
for Public Opinion
and offer
the future.
While
important
to agenda-setting,
as described
in recent years. The following
will be the most exciting
prospects
the
We
our thoughts
of agenda-setting.
of
and
work
above,
is a brief
for agenda-
in the years to come.
Issue Competition
Passing reference
implicit
assumptions
hypothesis:
has already
underlying
the notion
been made to one of the central
the original
of issue competition.
when using rank-order
correlation
formulation
Though
to compare
of the agenda-setting
never explicitly
audience
order
recognized
or addressed.
the rank-order
characteristics
126
importance
assigned to each issue. Many follow-up
design, and the implications
criticized
the relative
studies
of issue competition
Thus, some scholars
comparison
and Shaw (1972)
the media and the
have used this rankhave not been fully
(e.g., Wmter
for ignoring
of these issues by aggregating
stated,
a list of issues on the media
agenda with a list of issues on the public agenda, McCombs
assumed that each list reflected
but
& Eyai, 1981) have
the idiosyncratic
them into a single analysis. These
criticisms
permit
make methodological
sense, but the single-issue
to test issue competition
the researcher
analysis does not
as the rank-order
comparison
design can.
Zhu (1992) takes a fresh look at the pros and cons of tank-order
comparison.
Drawing
processing,
“zero-sum
on research
media organization,
game” metaphor
competition
underlying
the attention
policymaking
to explicate
the agenda-setting
argues that agenda-setting
to attract
from the fields of human cognitive
is a process
and interest
groups,
the implicit
assumption
process.
The zero-sum
whereby
various
carrying
limited
attention
capacity
(e.g., limited
While
the notion
of another.
research
has been assumed since its inception,
earlier
process.
by the zero-sum
body all have a
of the system),
the
in agenda-setting
all the conventional
have not been able to provide
Zhu (1992) develops
principle)
to their
& Bosk. 1988) is at the
of issue-competition
make this test possible. The model incorporates
required
resources
(Hilgartner
expense
as reviewed
compete
space or time on the part of the media,
span by the public, and limited
to test this dynamic
perspective
of the media, the public, and the policymakers
rise of one issue on the "public arenas”
methodologies
of issue
social groups
issues. Because the media, the public, and the policymaking
limited
he uses a
a mathematical
both muitiple
and time series technique
a ready way
model to
issues (as
into one analysis.
A test of the model with data on three major issues in 1990-91, the federal
I27
budget deficit,
zero-sum
the Persian Gulf War,
research”
that this “promises
(McCombs,
explore
if the zero-sum
often-observed
volatility
to be one of the most exciting
1992, p. 823), McCombs
to the
perspective
provides
of weeks).
a reasonable
explanation
The volatility
the rising standard
an expansion
of issue interest,
agenda which
has a limited
"What
show that there
measured
may result, they hypothesized,
of education
and the relative
carrying
public's issue agenda from
Poll's question
constant
problem
size of the public
has been an increase in the number
as a consequence,
the change in the
the duration
by Gallup
facing this country!”
crowding
a
which leads to
1954 to 1994, as registered
is most important
within
from a growing
in the population,
capacity. They examined
by the size of their constituencies)
and probably
for the
in the public issue agenda (e.g., the issue of the federal
gap between
American
venues of
and Zhu (1995) moved on to
or crime can rise to and fall from the top of public concerns
matter
results
lends support
notion.
Recognizing
deficit
and the recession,
The
of smaller issues (as
on the public agenda,
of issues on the public agenda has
decreased.
Thus, the public agenda has become more volatile.
preliminary
results of work
understanding
weakness
Nonlinear
128
in progress,
While
these are only
it is clear that this line of approach
to
the dynamic nature of public agenda. an often-criticized
of past agenda-setting
Models
research
(e.g., Swanson,
1988), shows promise.
Traditionally,
agenda-setting
has been treated
as a linear model
which the public's concern
about an issue is a linear function
on the issue; this amounts
to no coverage,
concerns.
example,
One can readily see problems
news coverage,
ceiling (saturation
agenda-setting
Neuman,
develop
Neuman
whereas
time-varying.
in reality
will increase
there
over time, whereas,
Several recent studies (Brosius
1990; Watt
Mazza, & Snyder,
higher
For
infinitely
as long
is always an upper-
Logistic
based on Neuman
the
in real life, media impact
& Kepplinger,
1992;
1993; Zhu et al., 1993) have begun to
models of the agenda-setting
(I 990) is particularly
Source:
more coverage,
point) for any issue salience. Also, the linear model treats
effect as a constant
nonlinear
of news coverage
with this linear perspective.
under the linear model, issue concerns
as they receive
is often
no concern;
in
process.
Among
these,
appealing.
Figure 4
Model of Agenda-Setting
(1990).
as modified
in Zhu et al. (1993).
p. 10.
129
In search of an answer
function
to the question
make more sense?“, Neuman
see Figure 4) to model
issue. Essentially,
the public's attention
accumulates
saturation
attention
findings.
For example,
those issues with a maximum
steep slope (.7 or above) as "crises”
public concern
(60% or higher)
While
Neuman
conceptually
present
130
of around
(e.g., Vietnam
There
modeling
war,
nonlinear
a lower
slope (.3-5),
are certain
is a promising
time on a number
of technical
He
and a
maximum
of
such as Watergate,
drug
of
flat slope, such as inflation
or "nonproblems.”
approach,
is inferior
grounds.
and
issues with a high maximum
but with an almost
modeling
of the
racial unrest, and
two notes of caution are in order.
appealing,
some
public
50% of public concern
he labeled these simple "problems”
nonlinear
and others,
model produced
an issue typology.
crises” are those issues with
and poverty.
it levels off after a
issue). Based on the maximum
developed
(about 20%) and a slower
and unemployment:
and eventually
the range of 5-20% (i.e., the proportion
curve, Neuman
abuse, pollution,
of an
path: it remains
he found that the threshold of
the slope of the logistic
public concern
to the media coverage
test of the logistic
about that particular
energy crisis), “Symbolic
curve (i.e., S-curve,
a three-stage
threshold;
public being concerned
termed
response
by the media; it rises rapidly once the
empirical
for an issue is within
a nonlinear
a logistic
follows
covered
to a take-off
point. Neuman's
very interesting
proposed
how the public responds
low when an issue is initially
coverage
“Would
When
as demonstrated
by
First while more
to linear models at the
assumptions
are met
linear
regression
variance
models
estimators
asymptotically,
Further,
nonlinear
models
theory
is complete
distributed,
achieve
and minimum
these properties
infinity
solutions
1990).
but mostly
linear models,
whereas
only
(Ratkowsky,
for linear models
models. For example,
always have a unique solution,
models
if specified
for many nonlinear
have not been developed.
Second,
driven,
nonlinear
because there
are an infinite
theory-driven
parameter
requires
a priori
number
reasonably
the model
of nonlinear
superimposes
knowledge
a functional
but rather,
small error,
On the other
form,
whether
1990). This approach
study, which, unfortunately,
as well as the underlying
tested.
is
Here
the model is the “best-fit”
the model
which can be viewed
The
and if necessary,
model needs to be empirically
fits the data with
as evidence
for the plausibility
of
assumptions.
hand, the empirically-driven
model among various
candidates,
for the chosen model
(e.g., Brosius & Kepplinger,
approach
forms to consider.
(e.g., Neuman,
under
than data-
in any linear model whereas
functional
is not so much about whether
dataset
structure
form
of the process
A theory-driven
concern
to a particular
should be more theory-driven
values, to the model
not available.
the primary
modeling
is only one functional
approach
certain
often
normally
that is, as the sample sizes approach
for nonlinear
correctly,
there
whereas
mathematical
incomplete
yield unbiased,
strategy
and then tries to provide
searches for a best-fit
ad hoc explanations
1992). While
cannot rule out rival models, the empirically-driven,
the a priori
best-fit
approach
can hardly
number
exhaust
all possible
of models
Chirife
models
either,
because there
to choose from. A case in point
(I 982) who reported
bivariate
relationship:
product
We certainly
50 I alternative
the water
activity
can be an infinite
comes from lglesias and
empirical
models for a simple
and the moisture
content
do not need 501 empirically-derived
of a food
nonlinear
models
of
agenda-setting!
Psychological
Mechanism
One of the criticisms
lack of theorization
“theory”
(e.g., lyengar,
here is a psychological
place within
the individual.
as a sociological
in unearthing
psychological
1988). What
was originally
many investigators
mechanisms
effect takes
conceptualized
are also interested
behind the phenomenon.
focusing on the psychological
process
is a
is meant by
of how the agenda-setting
agenda-setting
process,
the psychological
and his colleagues
concepts,
emotional arousal
audiences
counter-arguments
the source's
have investigated
including
in mediating
argued that individuals
132
While
against agenda-setting
Here two
of agenda-setting
are
noting.
lyengar
instead,
1988; Swanson,
account
(i.e., aggregate)
lines of research
worth
that have been leveled
counterargument
source
the agenda-setting
are not passive recipients
the role of three
credibility,
and
effect upon individuals.
of incoming
They
media agenda;
contrast
the issue agenda presented
available
to them at the time, and will also take into account
credibility.
While
these responses
by the media against
to media messages represent
active
cognitive
will respond
laboratory
processing,
primarily
authors
(lyengar,
found
support
Peters & Kinder,
arousal
effect, followed
possibility
and emotional
1982; lyengar
& Kinder,
to be the most significant
by perceived
source
et al. (1993) investigated
of the psychological
reconceptualized
forgetting
were
1985), the
mediator
credibility.
process
the role of memory,
underlying
of the
There was little
the media agenda-setting
process,
which
to the public in order
developed
a nonlinear
involving
aggregate
though
consistent
While
be applied
decay theory
there are probably
productively
answers
curve. The authors
and tested it with data
with individual-level
data, appear to be
and the agenda-setting
to agenda-setting,
television,
on the same issue
on a daily basis. The
psychological
these two
capable of mobilizing,
literature.
concepts
lines of inquiry
of the agenda-setting
to some of its most puzzling aspects.
the media, especially
as a memory
coverage
many other
shed new light on our understanding
stories
this process,
issue salience and television
with memory
They
over time. To sustain an issue
for the forgetting
model to represent
needing to be verified
effect
key element
effect on the audiences
decays exponentially
to compensate
another
the agenda-setting
on the public agenda, the media need to keep feeding
provide
processes
for the impact of counterargument.
Watt
results,
that audiences
appeal of the media. In a series of
in which these cognitive
emotional
agenda-setting
is the alternative
to the affective
experiments
manipulated
there
process
For example,
seemingly
that could
certainly
and may
how are
overnight,
133
intense
public concern
about certain
have any real consequences
to trigger
affective
for the individuals
responses,
seems a plausible
issues (e.g., nuclear waste)
memory
public’s mind. Continuing
surely
be an important
lntegrating
work
part of agenda-setting
However,
interpersonal
familiarity
more consistent
media coverage
More recent
interpersonal
for those issues ignored
the main source
effect
134
in other
Wanta
two types of issues depending
For those receiving
reinforces
extensive
a mixed
in providing
and Wu
on how much
media attention.
the media agenda-setting
and thus competes
has long been
cases, and have no impact
results. For example,
by the media, interpersonal
of influence
will
media agenda-setting
studies have made some progress
between
communication
have produced
appears to enhance
theorized
each receives.
processes
in the future.
in agenda-setting
investigations
communication
(I 992) made a distinction
psychological
research
communication
empirical
and better
how long issues remain on the
Communication
in some cases, inhibit media agenda-setting
at all in still others.
with the issues, which
on these and other
The role of interpersonal
picture:
to the way issues are handled by the
decay, may determine
Mass and Interpersonal
acknowledged.
by lyengar and his colleagues,
Also, why do some issues linger on the public
explanation...
such as the audience's
counterbalances
may not
they alarm? The media's ability
as demonstrated
agenda longer than others? In addition
media, factors
which
communication
effect
while
becomes
with the media agenda-setting
Drawing
on a model
Zhu and Willnat
sources,
(1992) proposed
including
exposure
initially
their
direct
by Diana Mutz (1991), Weaver,
that people
learn about issues from three
experience,
conversations
with others,
to the media; and each of these information
role in shaping people's
issue perception.
an issue often
leads the individual
media-relayed
information
societal
problem,
generalize
a personal
and Weaver
problem
conversations,
to a social problem
plausible
as a moderator
variable
For an unobtrusive
through
structural
producing
issue (e.g., foreign
equation
modeling
enhances
newspapers’
and Wu,
1992) but suppresses
Interpersonal
moderator
agenda-setting
communication,
variable
affairs),
effects
effect
Finally, Zhu et al. (1993) developed
problem
of media agenda-setting.
demonstrated
communication
is consistent
which
with Wanta
is a new finding.
as a
issues.
a mathematical
communication
1991
confirmed).
does not appear to operate
for obtrusive
may
was conceptualized
the authors
effect (which
however,
in agenda-setting
both media and interpersonal
to a personal
that interpersonal
television's
while
(as found in both Mun.
communication
differential
with
two levels of
the individual
but has not been empirically
In Hugel et al. (1989), interpersonal
problem,
bridges these
et al., 1992). or localize a social problem
is theoretically
experience
look upon the issue as a
communication
through
and
plays a different
direct
it as a personal
makes the individual
For example,
sources
An audience's
to perceive
and interpersonal
issue perception.
(which
proposed
model to incorporate
into an integrated
model of
agenda-setting.
interpersonal
coverage,
As the two-step
communication
but its influence
the issue under discussion.
media component
whereas
Beyond
The empirical
test of their
role in three
the American
the interpersonal
on the nature
of
model shows that the
unobtrusive
issues (e.g., relations
hostages in Iran, and the Persian Gulf
communication
component
more obtrusive
is more important
issues (inflation,
the Public Agenda
many mysteries
media agenda-setting,
agenda-setting.
Two
media agenda-setting
consequences
important
exciting
remain concerning
a number
of scholars
lines of inquiry
(also known
of media-setting
extensions
a framework
have dutifully
("policy
from a communications
agenda-setting”).
research
several important
(e.g., Semetko
and effects
the antecedents
of
perspective,
domains
content
& Reese, 1990) and framing
both are
the former
to be
because it provides
of research,
including
et al.. 1991; Reese, 1991), news
(Kosocki,
of
and the
While
we believe
behavior
(Shoemaker
emerged:
as "media agenda-building”),
of media agenda-setting,
for integrating
the processes
have made the call to look beyond
media organizational
136
media
and the deficit).
Although
more
suggests,
can exceed the media’s, depending
in setting the public agenda for three,
recession,
theory
about a public issue often follows
plays a central
with the Soviet Union,
War),
flow of information
1993).
Figure 5
Issue Process in Democratic
Society
------,
Central Route
We propose
the broader
players
an additional
context
(interest
connected
social issue process,
big picture.
building,
routes
routes
media direct
inclusion
including
grass roots
While there may be little
of these players
in the political
process,
are
roles in the
only one piece of the
and policy agenda-setting,
such as direct lobbying,
intervention.
respective
now becomes
three routes as central,
into
In Figure 5, four major
in terms of their
and agenda-setting
public agenda-setting,
as peripheral,
process.
the media, the public, and the government)
various
We consider
Route
line of inquiry, that of placing agenda-setting
of the democratic
groups,
through
Peripheral
media agenda-
and the remaining
mobilization,
disagreement
there certainly
and
about the
are
137
different
perspectives
of these routes.
about the causal direction
For example,
look at the same process.
been studied
separately
communication,
literature
connecting
the different
alternative
emphases,
science, sociology,
thread.
importance
ways to
each route
has
spanning mass
and public administration.
appears to be well placed to pull this diverse
together,
and boundless
Despite
(1993) offered
in its own domain of research,
political
Agenda-setting
Graber
and the relative
body of
by using the life and times of a social issue as the
This is a truly inter-disciplinary
frontier
for scholars
endeavor
on a fascinating
to explore.
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