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Introduction and Explication of the Questionnaires
Methodology for early warning detection of risk
for Early School Leaving,
Project acronym: SEE-ME
Project number: 2014-1-SE01-KA201-000993
Theoretical concepts & interview topics Early School Leaving (SEE-ME)
Ivy Goedegebure & Jan Woldendorp
Introduction and Explication of the Questionnaires
Version: 2015.5.2
Activity code: O1-A1
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission.
This publication [communication] reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot
be held responsible for any use, which may be made of the information contained therein.
Theoretical concepts & interview topics Early School Leaving (ELS)
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Table of Content
Preface ................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
Problem definition ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Theory .................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Demographic and background factors ............................................................................................... 5
Career adaptability and core competences ...................................................................................... 6
Sense of belonging ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Student engagement and (earlier) academic performance ............................................................ 9
Career-oriented learning climate ........................................................................................................... 10
Conceptual model ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Method .............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Development of the questionnaires ...................................................................................................... 16
Literature ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
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Preface
The project “Methodology for Early warning Detection of Risk for Early School Leaving “SEEME” is a EU funded project under the Erasmus+ program, which sets out to identify effective
intervention strategies that are known to work to improve student engagement and increase
completion of school for “at risk students”. Effective strategies and processes will be
outlined in a methodological handbook, the final product of this project. The development
of this methodological handbook will be done step wise:
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through research on reasons for school leaving, on indicators for students at risk as well
as on good practices to prevent this to happen;
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interviews with different stakeholders (like students, teachers, mentors, parents etc.) on
the issue of engagement and methods to increase school completion
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peer groups discussion on draft guidelines
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training of school representatives in the usage of the final version of the methodological
handbook.
The project is started in November 2014 and will be finalized in December 2017. The project
is coordinated by Folkuniversitetet Uppsala. In the project the following partners are
participating:
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Documenta, Spain
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Expero APS, Italy
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Folkuniversitetet Uppsala, Sweden
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IES Hermanos Machado, Spain
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Uffico Scolastico Regionale per Il Veneto, Italy
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Revalento, Netherlands
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Saxion University, Netherlands
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Semper Avanti, Poland
This report covers the first stage of the project: defining the research instruments and the
methodological framework for the research, which is required for the development of the
research set up (design, questionnaire, data processing) as well as the focus of the
methodological framework (what aspects will be dealt with).
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Introduction
In this writing an analysis will be given of the key questions that are at the foundation of the
ESL research program. After a first orientation and definition of the problem, the basic
theoretical concepts are described and put into a theoretical framework. The conceptual
model that is based on this framework is presented and used for the data collection design.
Finally an interview script is presented for a semi-structured interview with students that
have dropped out.
Problem definition
There is an increasing awareness that a preventative emphasis on early school leaving
factors is more efficient and effective than actions needed after drop out or when the
process towards ESL has proceeded too far (project document 1.06). ESL is a complex
process in a multi-level system (Bradshaw, O’Brennan & McNeely, 2008). School is one of
the influences that can provide an early attention for the pattern of risk factors that play a
role in a particular moment or period in a student’s life. This project aims to address the lack
of an early warning system or methodological tool that makes the school to pay attention to
a student at risk as early as possible and take proper actions to prevent ESL (project
document 1.06). ESL is described as leaving school before the student graduates school
without a start qualification (Government of the Netherlands, 2015). In the most European
countries the student is in the age of fifteen – eighteen and will be into vocational
education.
The first part of the project is to identify early risk factors which can contribute to the early
warning system or methodological tool. Diverse studies have identified several factors
influencing the risk of dropping out of school (Markussen, Frøseth & Sandberg, 2011). Since
our research question is “which factors predict in a premature stage early school leaving?”,
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we will focus on those relevant factors that can identify ELS at a very early stage in the ESL
process, whether or not in a specific combination (within a multilevel system). The latter
indeed, as the person of the student (i.g. Meijers & Kuijpers, 2007; Markussen et al., 2011,
Savickas & Porfeli, 2012); his socio-economic background and environment outside school
(i.g. Markussen et al., 2011), the key forces and actors within the school (i.g. Marks, 2007),
and the school environment (i.g. Meijers & Kuijpers, 2007; Lee & Breen, 2007; Marks, 2007)
interact during the whole process of prior education, orientation on (vocational) education,
application and introduction, first results and continuation (or not).
Theory
Demographic and background factors
Much research, however not all (Barrington & Hendrick as cited in Markussen et al., 2011),
has shown that gender is a factor that matters: boys, compared with girls, have a higher
probability of leaving school early (Marks, 2007; Markussen et al., 2011). Marks and
Flemming (as cited in Marks, 2007) clarified that this difference between boys and girls is
partly caused by differences in attitudes toward school and educational aspiration.
Markussen et al. (2011) attribute this gender difference to differences in earlier educational
performances between boys and girls.
Ethnicity (Marks, 2007; Markussen et al., 2011; Lamote, Speybroeck, Van den Noortgate, &
Van Damme, 2013), and especially the ethnic and cultural background of those students
with a language minority background, is a factor to take into account. Family matters:
education of parents (the higher, the lower the probability of dropping out), both parents
having work provides a lower probability (Marks, 2007; Markussen et al., 2011) and a single
parent household and a larger family increase the chance (Marks, 2007). Finally, it appears
that students from rural/non-metropolitan areas are more likely to leave school early, which
can be explained by social norms and/or employment opportunities (Marks, 2007)
Socio economic background is inversely related to school leaving (Lamote et al., 2013),
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although the impact of this factor seems to be weakening over time. Marks (2007) found for
instance that the effect of students’ achievement on leaving school cannot be attributed to
socio economic background. Markussen et al. (2011) found that when controlling for
students’ engagement and educational performance the effect of most of the variables
related to students’ background and demography is reduced significantly. They argued that
these factors (e.g. gender, ethnic background, parents’ educational level, both or one of the
parents working and whether student is living with both of his parents) have an indirect
effect on leaving school early, mediated by school engagement and educational
performance. In addition, Lamote et al. (2013) concluded that students demonstrating a
lower initial cognitive ability, starting in a remedial class, and being retained in a grade are
more likely to leave school without a diploma, apart from the initial school engagement at
the start of their secondary school.
Career adaptability and core competences
Career adaptability is a central focus in today’s career education and career counseling
(Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) because it represents a coping strategy to deal with challenges in
early and later career intersections. Early school leaving can be seen as a result of issues
around such career crossings and therefore this psychosocial construct is of interest for our
study.
Career Adaptability ”denotes an individual's resources for coping with current and
anticipated tasks, transitions, traumas in their occupational roles that, to some degree large
or small, alter their social integration” (Savickas, 1997 in Savickas & Porfeli, 2012:663). These
authors emphasize the psychological-social interaction in the existence of career adaptability
resources which can be seen as self-regulation strengths that a student can use to deal with
complex problems in career setting (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Career adaptability is
therefore an aggregate construct from concern, control, curiosity and confidence. The
adaptable student can be conceptualized as concerned about the vocational future
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(concern), taking control of trying to prepare for one's vocational future (control), displaying
curiosity by exploring possible selves and future scenarios (curiosity) and strengthening the
confidence to pursue one's aspirations (confidence; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012:663). It seems
that conscientiousness, as a personal trait, is a factor that plays a role in how adaptable a
student can behave (Markussen et al., 2011).
However, students who leave school before graduation may have some difficulties in their
emotional, social or cognitive development whereby career adaptability lacks a grounded
soil. From this point of view, we associated five core competencies with career adaptability
and school success (Bradshaw, O’Brennan & McNeely, 2008): positive sense of self, selfcontrol, decision-making skills, a moral system of belief and prosocial connectedness.
A positive sense of self is needed to identify extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for being
successful in school (Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997 in Bradshaw et al., 2008) and is linked
with purposefulness and efficacy (Finn & Rock, 1997 in Bradshaw et al., 2008). Prosocial
connectedness, in which the base is located in a secure attachment with parental figures,
has a positive influence on school success mediated through a positive sense of self
(Bradshaw & Garbarino, 2004 in Bradshaw et al., 2008). Confidence (Savickas & Porfeli,
2012) is located in the extension of a positive sense of self.
Self-control, including self-regulation, impulse control, and delay of gratification, are critical
for success at school (Bradshaw et al., 2008) and are needed to be aware of and to rely on
own strengths and responsibilities or control (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The shortage in the
maturity of decision-making skills, in combination with lower reward expectations of
graduation can potentially influence the way in which students handle challenges in school
career intersections. In turn, this will influence career-adaptability, specially displaying
curiosity.
A moral system of belief, such as empathy and pro-social behavior is related to taking social
responsible roles and academic success (Bradshaw et al., 2008). Prosocial connectedness
with parents who serve as educational role models and set clear and consistent educational
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expectations (academic engagement parents) is related to a strong commitment to
education. Prosocial connectedness with teachers is also likely to foster academic
engagement and positive school behavior (Marks, 2007). Prosocial connectedness with
friends who hold positive attitudes towards school is related to school success (Crosnoe,
Cavanagh & Elder, 2003 in Bradshaw et al., 2008). Less academic oriented students are easy
to entice to join deviant or delinquent behavior (Crosnoe, 2002 in Bradshaw et al., 2008).
Both core competences do not seem to be directly linked to career adaptability since it is
about adapting the social environment instead of adapting own career encounters. On the
other hand, career adaptability resources exist on the crossing of psychological-social
interaction in which empathy and taking social perspective will influence that interaction.
Sense of belonging
Prosocial connectedness can be related to fundamental concepts as feeling needed,
supported and respected: fundamental concepts underlying psychological motivation (Lee &
Breen, 2007). In addition, the Self Determination Theory distinguishes basic needs as
autonomy, belongingness and competence. These are needed for personal grow and optimal
functioning (Deci & Ryan, 2000 in Van den Broeck, 2013). Central in these motivation
oriented theories seems to be a sense of belonging, a “fundamental human need whereby
individuals have a desire to form friendships from which they gain a sense of being valued,
accepted and encouraged by others” (Lee & Breen, 2007:329). Lee and Breen (2007) found
in their qualitative study among dropouts that implicit exclusion is an important factor to
leave school. Examples are bullying and gossip, feeling an outcast, social exclusion
(Markussen et al., 2011) and an environment that is too massive and detached (Lee & Breen,
2007). These authors found also that implicit exclusion made pull factors, like independence,
freedom, money and interest, more important and the positive experiences within school
became less significant. In addition, McMillan and Marks (as cited in Marks, 2007) found in
their study that getting a job was, for about 50% of their respondents, a main reason for
leaving school. At that point in the process, students probably will have turned their
emotional backs on school.
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Most of the respondents in Lee and Breen’s study “felt a need to be connected and wanted
within their school….” And “…school made them feel depressed and they were not enjoying
their time at school” (2007: 337). Feelings of disconnectedness within the school can be
seen as a result of a psychological outcome of experiencing a lack of power and control (Lee
& Breen, 2007). This means that if the social environment interacts with psychological needs
without adequate fitting that this interaction reduces coping, self-esteem, and self-efficacy;
factors, which, we saw previously, are needed to show adequate career adaptabilities. Those
students will have difficulty to adjust within the social environment and they felt socially
excluded or anxious about going to school. Absent behavior can be the result (Markussen et
al., 2011).
However, it appears that the socio-economic factors discussed before and prior academic
performance (see below) play a more dominant role in that interaction of social
environment and psychological needs (Marks, 2007).
Student engagement and (earlier) academic performance
Sense of belonging thus can influence the motivation of a student and vice versa. Students
who are motivated display more positive attitudes toward school and schoolwork, which
expresses in presence and effort (Marks, 2007). Motivation can be seen as an indicator of
student engagement, a factor that shows a statistically significant effect on attainment of
qualification (Markussen et al., 2011). Motivation interacts with having ambitions and future
plans (Marks, 2007), which, on their turn, can be seen as a result or a start of being
concerned about the vocational future, one of the four career adaptability resources
(Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). School engagement is defined in different ways but always has a
behavioral and an affective dimension (Lamote et al., 2013). Fredrick et al (as cited in
Lamote et al, 2013) distinguished three dimensions of school engagement: behavioral
engagement (refers to ‘involvement in academic and social activities); emotional
engagement (refers to the relations with teachers, classmates and/or school); and cognitive
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engagement (refers to the willingness to put effort into complex problems and tasks)’
(Lamote et al., 2013: 741). The latter expresses itself in the amount of effort a student puts
into his/her schoolwork, both at home and in school (Marks, 2007; Alexander et al.; Lamb et
al. both cited in Markussen et al., 2011). Behavioral engagement can be indicated by
absence, deviant behavior, spare time activities (Marks, 2007; Markussen et al., 2011) and
substance use (Bradshaw et al., 2008) and is linked to sense of belonging. A high absent rate
is related to feeling socially excluded or anxious about going to school, and to spending most
of the spare time with friends. It is striking that students with extreme deviant behavior are
less likely to leave school early than their ‘brothers in crime’ with deviant behavior to a
lesser extent, because the first will be provided with extra resources, support and attention
(Markussen et al., 2011). Anyway, we can state that lower school engagement (applicable
for all dimensions) already is present early in de process that can lead to drop out (Lamote et
al., 2013). Furthermore, earlier school performance mediates the relation between
engagement with school and early leaving and is therefore in a similar way an important
indicator of early school leaving (Marks, 2007; Markussen et al., 2011). Undeniably, prior
school achievement has a stronger impact (about four times stronger) on leaving school than
the previously discussed socio-economic factors (Marks, 2007).
[We have to insert theory about: Process of choosing & satisfaction of choice]
Career-oriented learning climate
Although Marks (2007) found no impact of school-level factors on early school leaving if
individual level factors were taken into account, Lee & Breen (2007) extracted from drop out
students that school environment is a factor that can play a role in the process that leads to
skipping school before completion. Lamote et al. (2013) state that the decision of students
to drop out is a consequence of a longitudinal process in which disengagement from school
is growing. In that process social relations and academic fitting are playing an important role.
To make adequate choices in young career paths, according to Savickas and Porfeli (2012),
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psychological-social interaction plays a role in the existence of the needed career
adaptability resources. In the view of these results and assumptions it is arguable to take
some school-level factors into account. Especially those who can be a factor in the
interaction process of disengagement since school engagement, along with previous school
performance and cognitive ability, seems to be a dominant factor.
A poor student-teacher relationship at the start of secondary education will be worsening
during the progress of education (Lamote et al., 2013). From that point of view the existence
and the quality of career conversations within a school are of some value to develop a
meaningful relationship. Career conversations are an essential ingredient of integral career
guidance (Mittendorf, Den Brok & Beijaard, 2009) and will help students to develop their
career adaptabilities. Although an essential ingredient of such conversations is the reflective
dialogue, Mittendorf et al. (2009) found that career conversations lack that ingredient. The
conversations were rather instrumentally oriented and teacher dominant than focused on
meaning-making of students, personal experiences and students’ career issues. It seems
that the traditional structure and culture comes into these conversations: “lots of
instruction, giving and asking of information, instrumental use of personal development
plans and portfolios, and very little emphasis on reflection and agency “(Mittendorf et al.,
2009:161). Meijers and Kuijpers (2007) advocate a career oriented learning environment
within schools that is characterized by career conversations (dialogical & integrated with
experiences and ambitions of students) and a career oriented educational program (focused
on practice and request instead of a standardized program). The latter is confirmed by Lee
and Breen’s drop out students who state that the content was not applied, nor real, and
therefore not relevant for them. The participants were not satisfied with the learning
conditions within their school, and reported that their unfulfilled needs contributed to their
decision to leave school early (Lee & Breen, 2007:337).
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Conceptual model
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Method
The multilevel perspective forces us to explore the perceptions and experiences of students
or pupils who left school early. In addition it is important to take into account the caring
climate within the school and the focus on career orientation in policy and practice.
Therefore, we have to do desk research on career orientation in school policy making and
conduct interviews with stakeholders within school to investigate whether policies will be
put into practice. In addition, we have to conduct interviews with students who left school
early. We will use a written checklist in which we interrogate facts and more sensitive
themes. The topics for this are shown in table 1. Before we actually start the semi-structured
interviews, former students are asked to fill in this checklist.
Table 1: topic list interviews drop out students, parents and school representatives
Gender
Ethnicity
Education of parents
Work of parents
Family size
Family structure
Living area
Extra help / remedial teaching at school
Retain classes
Early school performance
Latest school performance
Substance use
Deviant behavior
Depressive feelings
Additions
After that, the interviewer crisscrosses the checklist for details. In Table 2 the interview
topics for the semi structured part of the interview are presented. In the left column the
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theoretical concepts/constructs are given. On the right column the definition and
operationalization into more detailed factors is given. The questionnaires for the interviews
were based on the interview topics from table 1 and table 2. In general as much as possible
we tried to include these topics in the questionnaires for all three groups of respondents. If
necessary small adjustments have been made to fit the topics to the target group in
question.
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Table 2: interview topics semi-structured interview drop out student, parents and school
representatives
Concept + definition
Adaptability and
Concern: being engaged with own future and goals
core competences
Control: relying on its own strength and responsibility (self-control,
including impulse control and delay of gratification &
conscientiousness)
Curiosity: exploring and being curious about own opinion and
development before making choices (decision making skills &
conscientiousness)
Confidence: working with confidence in own performance and
working as good as possible (a positive sense of self and moral
system of beliefs)
Moral system of belief: helpfulness, sharing, kindness,
cooperativeness, emphatic & concern for others
Prosocial connectedness: connection to parents, social
connectedness to school (+), teachers (+) and peers (both + and -)
Sense of belonging
Sense of belonging: fundamental human need whereby individuals
have a desire to form friendships from which they gain a sense of
being valued, accepted and encourages by others + need for
autonomy, belongingness and feeling competent  Experiencing
lack of power control and having difficulties to adjust
Moral system of belief: helpfulness, sharing, kindness,
cooperativeness, emphatic & concern for others
Prosocial connectedness: connection to parents, social
connectedness to school (+), teachers (+) and peers (both + and -)
Implicit exclusion: bullying, gossip, feeling an outcast, social
exclusion, too massive and detached environment (no connection
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with relevant others seems possible)
Pull factors: a job, independence, freedom, money and interest
Absent behavior
Student
Cognitive engagement: attitudes toward school and schoolwork
engagement &
(presence, effort, +)  Concern: being engaged with own future and
previous academic
goals
performance
Emotional engagement: relations with teachers, classmates and/or
school  Prosocial connectedness: social connectedness to school
(+), teachers (+) and peers (both + and -)
Behavioral engagement: involvement in academic and social
activities  Moral system of belief: helpfulness, sharing, kindness,
cooperativeness, emphatic & concern for others & indicators:
absence, deviant behavior, spare time activities, substance use
Sense of belonging
(Earlier) school performance
Process of choosing (amount of orientation, first choice, extra help
with orientation and choosing process)
Satisfaction with choice
Career-orientated
Career conversations: reflective, dialogical, dialogue, meaning-
learning climate
making of students, personal experiences & ambitions and students’
career issues.
Career orientated educational program: focus on practice and
request applied content, real, and relevant; customized learning
conditions
Development of the questionnaires
The questionnaires used for the interviews are based on research by Saxion University of
applied Science in Deventer. Students from Saxion perform interviews with early school
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leavers, their parents and school representatives from the lower levels from five different
schools for secondary vocational education in The Netherlands. All interviews were recorded
and completely transcribed. The transcripts are analyzed using open, axial and selective
encoding to develop an empirical model of the patterns we have found. The theoretical and
empirical input is used to manufacture the questionnaires to be used by the SEE-ME project
partners in the participating countries.
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Literature
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Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 122, 19-32.
Lamote, C., Speybroeck, S., Van den Noortgate, W., & Van Damme, J. (2013). Different pathways
towards dropout: the role of engagement in early school leaving. Oxford Review of
Education, 39 (6), 739-760, [DOI: 10.1080/03054985.2013.854202].
Lee, T., & Breen, L. (2007). Young People’s Perceptions and Experiences of Leaving High School
Early: An Exploration. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 17, 329-346. [DOI:
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Marks, G. N. (2007). Do Schools Matter for Early School Leaving? Individual and School
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Markussen, E., Frøseth, M. W., & Sandberg, N. (2011). Reaching for the Unreachable: Identifying
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Savickas, M. L., & Porfeli, E. J. (2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale: Construction, reliability, and
measurement equivalence across 13 countries. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 661-673.
Van den Broeck, A. (2013). The Job Demands-Resources model: A motivational analysis from
Self-Determination Theory. Gedrag & Organisatie, 26 (4), 449-466.
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