Innovative Higher Education. Vol. 22, No. 1, Fall 1997
Classroom Strategies That Facilitate
Transfer of Learning to the Workplace
Brenda S. Gardner and Sharon J. Korth
ABSTRACT: Organizations have frequently expressed the need for employees who can
learn and work effectively in a team environment. This article discusses a process by
which an educational program has responded to this challenge. The program used
experiential learning, transfer of learning, and team learning theories as the
framework for designing a holistic, integrative, and experiential process by which
students could transfer their classroom learning to workplace activities. Implications
for higher education are discussed.
Teams are common in today's workplace. A 1996 Training magazine
survey indicated that 73% of organizations report using teams for
some work processes (1996 Industry Report). Organizations are relying more and more on teams to improve quality, to develop products
and services, and to enhance work processes (Andrews, 1995). They
are looking for employees who can work and learn as a team in order
to remain competitive and innovative (Tjosvold, 1991). Organizations
want people with "people skills," who can be effective team members
and team leaders (Jenkins, 1992; Southerst, 1993). However, they
feel that academic programs have not been providing employees with
these skills and abilities (Foggin, 1992) and need to fundamentally
change their way of preparing students for the workplace (Muller,
Porter, & Rehder, 1991).
How can higher education respond to this need? In this article we
describe the program process of a Master's degree in Human Resource Development (HRD) for preparing students to transfer their
course-related learning to a team environment in the workplace. The
Brenda S. Gardner and Sharon J. Korth are Assistant Professors of Human Resource
Development at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. Gardner is also Director
of the Master of Education program in Human Resource Development. She received
her M.P.A. from the University of Southern California-Washington Public Affairs
Center and Ph.D. from the University of Missouri-Columbia. Her interests include
group and team behavior and applying organizational behavior concepts to the
classroom. Dr. Korth received her M.Ed, from Miami University-Ohio and her Ed.D.
from the University of Cincinnati. Her research and teaching interests include
instructional design and needs assessment and evaluation processes in organizations.
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© 1997 Human Sciences Press, Inc.
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
strategies used in the design and implementation of this program
have applicability to programs in other disciplines as well.
Program Description
In order to enhance the transfer of learning from a formal classroom to the workplace, our challenge was to design techniques to
ensure that classroom learning related to group and team development will transfer to a workplace utilizing teams to accomplish its
goals. The program director and faculty saw a strong need to integrate theories of group dynamics and development with the practice
of working in, leading, or facilitating teams in the workplace. In designing this approach, it was imperative that both formative and
summative evaluation measures be integrated into the curriculum
so that faculty could make changes and enhancements during the
program and assess the overall effectiveness of these collective strategies for transferring learning to the workplace. Evaluation processes
include informal and formal methods, individual and group feedback,
and faculty assessments which are described in more depth in the
application of theories and the discussion sections of this article.
This Master's degree in Human Resource Development focuses on
the fields of training, organization, and career development. Within
a Department of Education in a small, private Catholic, Jesuit university in an urban setting, the program was designed five years ago
for working adults. Some of the students already have master's degrees and work in all levels of government, education, business,
health care, and social services. The majority are in their thirties
with at least 10-15 years of professional experience in their specialized field. Although many of these students work in organizations in
which teams are utilized, they may not have had the opportunity to
learn about and practice effective team membership and leadership
skills. Much of the current research on successful implementation of
teams in the workplace discusses the critical importance of training
group members and leaders in group dynamics and development
(Hackman, 1990; Varney, 1989).
Within the context of an intensive weekend format, two threecredit courses on adult learning and organization behavior are delivered over two academic semesters to groups of approximately 35
students each. These students enter as a group once a year and stay
together throughout the two years of the program; all courses are
Classroom Strategies
47
required, and students from other programs do not share any classes
with the group. The two courses orient the students to the whole
program and are team taught by two faculty members on Friday
nights and some Saturdays and Sundays over a nine-month period.
One major goal for these courses is to assist students in understanding group dynamics, group development, and techniques for improving group effectiveness as members or facilitators of a team.
Another goal is for students to understand how individual and cultural differences in values, needs, interests, styles, and competencies
affect others and the learning process. The intensive time periods
for these courses allow for issues and skills to be explored in depth,
with time for development, practice, feedback, reflection, and reinforcement.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for these courses includes experiential
learning, transfer of learning, and team learning. The integration of
these perspectives provides a foundation for the design of coursework
in an educational program that leads to the transfer of learning to
the workplace.
Experiential Learning Theory
Kolb's experiential learning theory (1984) describes learning as a
holistic adaptive process that "provides conceptual bridges across life
situations such as school and work" (p. 33). The learning cycle involves four stages: Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation
(RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation
(AE). In order to complete the cycle, learners must engage in experiences, reflect on them from various perspectives, form concepts that
integrate their observations with theories, and use these theories to
guide their future action. Learning is an ongoing integration of theory and practice.
The experiential learning model can also be used to identify learning preferences in individuals. Having this information can help
learners better understand their learning strengths as well as potential obstacles to future development. Individuals can also use this
information in group learning situations to better understand simi-
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
larities and differences among members as well as collective
strengths and weaknesses.
Furthermore, individuals can use Kolb's experiential learning cycle
to enhance the transfer of learning from one situation to another.
The cycle itself implies that experience is the springboard for new
learning. The last phase of Kolb's cycle, active experimentation, involves developing a plan for the application of this learning in novel
situations.
Transfer of Learning
Models have been developed that offer a framework for enhancing
on-the-job application of skills and knowledge acquired during a
training program (Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Milheim, 1994). These
models suggest activities that should occur before, during, and after
the training event. Although there are limitations in creating a supportive work environment when participants come from different organizations, which is the case in academic programs, many of the
transfer strategies can still apply.
Strategies to be implemented prior to training include: systematically designing the instruction, building in time for practice opportunities during the training, developing trainee readiness, and
designing a peer coaching component for the program and its followup activities (Broad & Newstrom, 1992).
One recommended strategy to be implemented during the training
is to have the participants develop an action plan which includes the
steps to be carried out at the worksite to apply the new concepts
and skills (Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Milheim, 1994; Parry, 1990).
Broad and Newstrom also suggest providing opportunities for the development of support groups as another approach. Additional strategies include using general instructional techniques that are
consistent with the principles of adult learning, such as role playing
(Kruger & May, 1986; Tallman & Holt, 1987). Tallman and Holt propose that specific time be allotted for discussion of application strategies as well as time for reflection, synthesis, and/or integration of
new material. Kemerer (1991) adds that training should include a
discussion about how the learning experience links to the trainee's
work setting. Further, the instructor's use of many different examples
can help increase transfer by presenting various contexts in which
trainees can expect to utilize the skills and knowledge learned in
training (Garavaglia, 1993). Garavaglia also proposes that providing
Classroom Strategies
49
learners with information about the general principles and theories
behind the skills they are learning enhances transfer as it gives
trainees a broader, deeper knowledge.
Post-training strategies that can apply whether the individuals
come from the same or different organizations include the provision
of job aids to be used at the worksite (Broad & Newstrom, 1992;
Parry, 1990). Additionally, trainees can facilitate their own transfer
of learning by applying their new skills as soon as possible (Kemerer,
1991) and maintaining contact with training "buddies" (Broad &
Newstrom, 1992). Follow-up communication and follow-up sessions
can also help by providing an opportunity for support networks,
through which trained personnel can receive additional instruction,
practice, and feedback concerning their recently acquired skills. Likewise, difficulties that have been encountered can surface, and trainees can share ideas and help each other solve problems that have
been experienced (Tallman & Holt, 1987).
Thomas (1990) uses the term "application work" to describe activities which enhance the transfer of learning from group dynamics instruction to the workplace. He suggests that application work is most
effective when integrated throughout the course rather than left until
the end, as is common practice. Instructors can create the foundation
for the application work by raising awareness of commonality with
other organizational settings, while using examples from the group
dynamics course as well as work situations. Relating back to Kolb's
learning cycle, Thomas explains how abstract conceptualization and
active experimentation are critical phases for application work. He
proposes that instructors can enhance the application work by helping students conceptualize at two levels; students should first ask
what was learned about self in this context and then ask what was
learned that is generalizable to other contexts.
Another avenue for facilitating transfer is to make the most of both
on-line and off-line learning experiences (Gillette, 1990). According
to Thomas (1990), "on-line learning occurs in the context of the experiential learning group, while off-line learning occurs during activities that are part of the instruction, but not in the experiential
group, and also when the individual is outside the boundaries of the
course" (p. 166). Thus, instructors can provide for explicit application
work in whole-group classroom activities, but must make sure that
these activities are also carefully related to the students' group learning or workplace situations.
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
Team Learning
According to Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, and Smith (1994),
teams can follow a learning cycle that parallels Kolb's model. The
team learning model involves coordinated action (Concrete Experience), public reflection (Reflective Observation), developing shared
meaning (Abstract Conceptualization), and conducting joint planning
(Active Experimentation) as illustrated in Figure 1. Once individuals
become familiar with Kolb's cycle on an individual level, they can
apply it in groups. Providing students with opportunities to understand and practice team learning in an educational setting will facilitate their application of the model in a work setting.
Figure 1
Comparison of Experiential Learning Cycle
and Team Learning Wheel
Team learning approaches are not new in educational settings, but
they are growing in popularity as enhancements to courses utilizing
combinations of techniques such as lectures, case studies, and discussion. Although much of the research on cooperative learning
groups has been conducted on precollegiate levels, more attention is
currently being paid to increasing college student learning through
Classroom Strategies
51
exercises and assignments that emphasize interdependence, shared
leadership and responsibility, and focus on process as well as task.
Bierema reports her experiences in conducting team-oriented academic courses which model total quality practices in organizations
(1996). Hughes Caplow and Kardash (1995) discuss their alternative
collaborative learning methods in graduate education. Using these
team learning groups can heighten student learning and also provide
students with a model to apply to on-the-job situations involving
teams. The use of learning groups in conjunction with the experiential learning model enhances the learning process, reinforces the link
between theory and practice, and facilitates the transfer of learning
to the workplace.
Application of Theories
The faculty decided to use experiential learning theory as the most
appropriate and theoretically sound framework to design these
courses and facilitate the students' transferring learning to the workplace. In order to provide learners with a Concrete Experience (CE),
we form them into groups of up to 7 persons each, based upon diversity of work responsibilities, experience level, gender and ethnicity. Members do not have pre-assigned roles such as leader or
facilitator, although such behaviors naturally emerge as the groups
progress; students are encouraged to try new roles and behaviors.
These learning groups, similar to work teams, have projects to accomplish within specific deadlines. The majority of their time is spent
outside of the classroom, but there is a major emphasis in the coursework on group membership and leadership skills. The group members stay together for these projects for one academic year and do
not have options to transfer to another group. Groups are encouraged
from the beginning of their formation to apply conflict management
techniques and team building concepts they have learned in class to
issues arising in their groups. If, however, the small group feels that
it needs additional help, the entire small group can approach one of
the faculty members for assistance in addressing the issues. The
groups have a major 30-minute group presentation and two group
papers due in the second semester. They are expected to involve
every member in the planning, production, presentation, and writing
phase of the project although faculty only formally evaluate whether
all members play a role in the actual presentation. The groups are
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
given wide latitude in choosing their topic and the structure and format of their presentation. Students receive group grades for these
assignments. Extensive oral and written feedback is provided to the
groups by faculty and fellow students as well as a facilitated selfevaluation by group members.
In addition to the Concrete Experience of working in a group on
group projects, in-class activities are designed to provide situations
in which the learning groups participate in problem-solving, planning,
decision-making, and team development exercises. These activities are
the basis for applying the remaining phases of the experiential learning cycle. At this point in the cycle, the process of Reflective Observation (RO) is encouraged through the requirement of other individual
and group assignments. Each student must maintain an individual
learning journal that follows Kolb's experiential learning cycle
throughout their group experience. The instructors review this journal
three times in the year to ensure that students are actively engaged
in the process of reflection on their group and work experiences.
Another assignment which focuses on reflection and integrating student learning with practice is an individually prepared analysis. This
essay, due at the end of the academic year, requires students to reflect
on their year-long group experience and discuss the resultant learning. The analysis is not intended to be a theoretical discussion about
individual and group behavior, but a reflection on personal behavior
in the group and the impact that interactions had on the group and
on the individual student. Students refer to their concrete experiences
of working on the group projects and papers as well as to the selfassessment exercises and instruments they had used in class.
One of the group assignments due at the end of the academic year
is a group analysis which details the group's progress throughout
the year and examines their group's behavior and functioning. Reflecting back on the year also provides the groups with the opportunity to discuss changes they might have made and how the group
paralleled or differed from group development theories. The analysis
receives a group grade and is also a good closure for the group after
their intense two-semester experience.
Reflective Observation activities, therefore, are emphasized for
their ability to help students learn from experience, but they also
serve as a major component in reinforcing individual and group
learning as a "way of life" that can serve them throughout their personal and professional lives.
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53
The process of Abstract Conceptualization (AC) at this point in the
experiential learning cycle is where the issue of transfer of learning
begins to be directly addressed in the students' journals, individual
analysis, and group analysis. The students compare their personal
reflections on individual and group behavior with formal adult learning and organizational behavior theories discussed in class. The
group analysis provides a good opportunity to address how teams in
organizations can work together toward common goals and the issues
that can arise in these situations as well as how individual behavior
can help or hinder their progress.
The last phase of the learning cycle, Active Experimentation (AE),
allows students the chance to connect their conceptual framework
about how groups and individuals work to actual situations in the
workplace. Students may make plans to examine more closely their
behavior in groups at the office, experiment with different roles, or
alter their facilitation style in project groups. Whatever the students'
plans, as outlined in their individual analyses, group analyses, or
learning journals, the major emphasis is once again on applying new
learning to new situations—not in a haphazard fashion, but in a systematic, reflective, and theoretically sound way. As Carl Rogers observed in 1967, self-discovered learning that leads to changes in
behaviors is the only significant learning—this is the key to students
making the leap from theory to practice.
Figure 2 illustrates the process by which individuals in classroom
groups learn from their experiences and are able to apply their learning back to their group or to teams in the workplace. Each small
group in-class activity or out-of-class meeting, for example, becomes
a Concrete Experience from which to learn. Individual group members may analyze that experience in their learning journals, going
through the cycle from Reflective Observation to Abstract Conceptualization. The learning from this process, the plan for the Active Experimentation, can be applied back to their classroom group or to
teams in which they are involved in the workplace. Later on in the
semester, the combination of learning journal entries and other group
activities is processed by the group in the group analysis paper as
well as by individuals in the individual analysis assignment. Although taken separately these activities are not new to the higher
education community, this holistic and integrative approach to facilitating transfer of learning to the workplace has a multiple and reinforcing effect in learning from experience.
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
Figure 2
Applying Learning in Multiple Situations
Besides the use of Kolb's cycle as the framework for learning from
experience, we employed specific strategies developed from transfer
of learning theory before, during, and after the courses to aid in transferring learning to the workplace. While designing the courses, we researched current workplace issues and incorporated related information,
such as the implications of self-managed work teams and the changing
demographics of the workforce. We utilized a systematic design process
so that the objectives, activities, and evaluation were integrated. The
group project was created with numerous parallels to work groups in
organizations, and the design of the courses included ample time for practice and feedback on team and learning-related skills.
During the courses, we used active learning techniques and varied
class activities and assignments to accommodate different learning
styles. We provided background information about the principles and
Classroom Strategies
55
theories behind the skills we were teaching in order to develop a
deeper and more connected knowledge base. We also made use of both
"on-line" and "off-line" learning experiences (Gillette, 1990) through
experiential in-class activities involving the project groups, such as a
problem-solving task; in-class activities not involving the project
group, such as taking learning style inventories; and out-of-class activities, such as recording non-class events in a learning journal and
relating them to the group experience. The "application work" as described by Thomas (1990) was integrated throughout the courses
rather than left until the end. We, as faculty, discussed our personal
experiences related to learning and group development and continuously encouraged students to share their past experiences and provide
examples of their work situations. These discussions provided multiple
contexts in which students could envision the application of the material. Class activities were discussed, and students were asked to
consider what they learned about themselves, as well as where and
how they might be able to apply what they had just learned. Throughout the courses, we provided opportunities and invited students to
develop informal support groups around areas of interest.
During the second year of the program, after the small groups had
completed their work and they were enrolled in other HRD courses,
we reminded students to use their books and handouts as references
and job aids in their work situations. We also recommended that
they apply their skills as soon as possible and fostered this by providing options to partner with other students on projects or assignments that would provide a work-related experience. Regardless of
the goal or content of each of these projects or assignments, each
student prepared a reflective essay at the conclusion of these assignments in order to again reinforce the value of learning from individual and group experiences. We constantly urged students to share
their application experiences with other students informally as well
as formally through opening "announcements" at each class meeting.
In this program, the second year provided a natural potential support
group, but faculty had to create an environment that would foster
open sharing of successes and challenges.
Discussion
The integration of theories on experiential learning, transfer, and
team learning provided the framework to help students transfer their
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
classroom experiences to the workplace. These courses included online and off-line learning related to group dynamics, group development, and techniques for improving group effectiveness as members
or facilitators of a team as well as understanding how individual and
cultural differences in values, needs, interests, styles, and competencies affect others and the learning process. These courses provided
students with personal insights about their own learning styles and
behavior in groups which they can then apply to their organizations,
where teams are the fundamental learning unit (Senge, 1990).
Overall, both formal and informal student feedback on the reflection-oriented assignments (learning journal, individual analysis, and
group analysis) has been positive. Although some students groan
about having to keep a learning journal, most report afterwards that
the process was valuable because it "forced" them to consider consciously their own and others' behaviors and their relationship to
academic theories and the workplace. A few students have actually
continued keeping the learning journal into the second year of the
program after the assignment is completed. We found, consistent
with Shulman, McCormack, Luechauer, and Shulman (1993), that female students seem to have an easier time beginning to write in
their journals than males and that all students tend to initially focus
more on the concrete experience than on the reflective observation
phase. Students have commented to us about the value of the individual and group analysis papers as well, reporting that they helped
provide closure for the year-long group project and a chance to formally process the learning so as to be better able to apply it to other
situations. Furthermore, many students took advantage of the option
to partner with other students on assignments in the second year of
the program and wrote individual analyses of their learning and applications to the workplace as an addendum to those assignments.
This reinforces the experiential learning cycle and shows students
how this process can be applied in a different context.
Feedback on the group project has been generally positive as well.
Some comments from student evaluation forms include:
/ believe the team projects taught us experientially what may
have taken us years to recognize outside the program.
The group projects really helped me understand the value of
teams. While it was highly cumbersome, the strength of the
course was working in a group. There was pain but also a lot
of gain.
Classroom Strategies
57
Measuring the actual transfer of learning to the workplace from any
academic program is challenging. Some comments on the end of
course evaluation forms include:
/ was able to learn and grow in personal experience. This
experience will better able me, through self-knowledge, to be
more effective in team/group experiences.
Content and practical skills to be directly applied in work
situations. [most important thing you've learned]
All of the group projects. Practical exercises that can be
transferred to work experiences. [course strengths]
Beyond this feedback, we tend to rely on self-reports by the students on the application of their learning. In our situation, because
we continue to work with the students in other courses for another
year after the small group experience has ended and because we have
a continuing relationship with alumni, we have an extended opportunity to hear about the students' progress or difficulties in transferring their learning to the workplace. Several students have
commented that one difference in their work team is that the supervisor serves as the "leader" which creates a different dynamic than
they experienced in their "leaderless" academic groups. Numerous
students have related to us that they have used self- or team-assessment instruments, group activities, or facilitation techniques from
class with work groups in their organizations. When students share
stories regarding their transfer of skills to the workplace, this reinforces the prior learning for their classmates and provides additional
avenues for potential future applications for all.
Is the investment by the faculty and university worth the benefits
that students and faculty report? It requires continued dedication on
the part of faculty to coordinate their teaching activities so that assignments are integrated and develop in a systematic fashion, building upon one another as the year progresses. Team teaching is a
labor-intensive process which is often not supported by university
policies or resources. The flexibility and knowledge of the faculty in
innovative, non-traditional and experiential teaching methods may
be a developmental need requiring a long-term commitment by the
university and faculty. But if theories on experiential, transfer, and
team learning as well as observations by faculty and feedback from
students and their organizations are accurate, this educational approach has enhanced students' abilities to make the link from class-
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INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION
room theory to workplace practice—a goal shared by educators and
organizational leaders alike.
Implications
Research on strategies to enhance transfer of learning from a formal educational environment to the workplace will continue to be a
worthy task, especially as the world of work is changing so rapidly
in today's global economy. Research on what skills are necessary to
create and sustain a learning organization will continue to be explored as well as the resultant effects for academic programs preparing the workers for such an environment. With teams becoming
more and more common in the workplace, it is important that students from all disciplines are able to apply their skills to the workplace and continue their learning process individually and as a team
member.
Although normally courses are taught in shorter timeframes than
the year-long format this article described, the process of using the
experiential learning cycle as the foundation from which students
can learn how to learn and how to transfer their learning to the
workplace can certainly be applied in other academic programs. Programs that offer an extensive core curriculum could utilize these
techniques in orientation or capstone courses, as well as in internships or cooperative work assignments. Courses in which the content
is directly related to learning about teamwork, interpersonal skills,
problem-solving, or conflict management would be ideal places to experiment with this format and process. Accelerated weekends for
courses, a common and growing format for undergraduate and graduate education, could also be potential forums since many of the nontraditional students who are attracted to such formats would have
work experience on which to reflect and plan.
Faculty, too, engage in applying the experiential learning cycle to
the concrete experience of designing coursework which emphasizes
transfer of learning (CE). We reflect on the experience and compare
reflections with student feedback at various times and in numerous
forms so we can continuously improve the program (RO). We generalize our reflections to theories on group development, curriculum
design, and adult learning (AC) and make proactive changes in assignments, content, and instructional methods (AE). "If students see
us going to the trouble to make the leap from theory to application
Classroom Strategies
59
in this regard, they might be influenced to do the same" (Wisdom,
1989, p. 76). Obviously, faculty of programs espousing use of the experiential learning cycle for their students must also examine their
own practices and beliefs in order to provide a positive example for
learning from experience.
Conclusions
Transferring learning to the workplace from a formal educational
program is a challenge that must be addressed in light of a rapidly
changing work environment. This article examined activities within
courses designed to ensure that learning can be transferred to a
workplace that is either using groups currently to accomplish many
of their goals or is contemplating such an approach. Using experiential learning, transfer of learning, and team learning as the theoretical framework, we provided students with the opportunity to
process their year-long small group experience so that they could assertively address team development activities in their workplace. Responding to organizations' needs for employees who can work and
learn in teams is a mandate and challenge for all educators.
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