Senior Honors Project 1
Running Head: SENIOR HONORS PROJECT ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Senior Honors Project:
What Factors and Theories Help Aid and Increase Second Language Acquisition in the
Classroom?
The University of Akron
Submitted to: Dr. Colville-Hall
By: Joanna Bird
April 11, 2012
Senior Honors Project 2
Abstract
The purpose of this project is to investigate and analyze several pedagogical theories and
their effects on Second Language Acquisition (SLA). This project intends to answer: How do
teachers increase the level of SLA of their students? What are the factors that contribute to SLA?
In addition, this project will review Stephen Krashen’s Five Hypotheses about SLA and how the
theories aid teachers in creating a classroom that is conducive to language acquisition. There are
other factors that aid in creating an environment for SLA to occur. One of these factors is called
Caretaker Speech, which is the way teachers use language to promote acquisition of the foreign
language. Another factor this project will investigate includes Lev Vygotsky’s theory of Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD), or the ability for students to develop independent use of the
foreign language. The final aspect of SLA that this project will investigate includes methods for
increasing or promoting target language (TL) use in the classroom. The most important element
in a FL classroom is to use the TL comprehensibly for the students and to encourage students to
use the TL independently. However, how do teachers achieve this goal of SLA for their
students? As with other content areas, the more time children have in a foreign language
classroom, the more learning will occur.
Introduction
There are several theories and factors that help to increase SLA in students. This project
will review the stages through which language is acquired, how these stages correlate to the
stages of cognitive development and the layers of educational development; additionally what
conditions must be met in order for SLA to occur.
Some of the factors that are applicable to achieving a higher level of SLA include: being
knowledgeable about students cognitive development, students’ previous knowledge of the
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foreign language and of their first language, the students’ educational development stage, the
type of intelligence the student has according to the theory of multiple intelligences and how to
push their students ZPD to increase language acquisition. Furthermore, there is one technique
teachers can use to encourage the development of L2 in their classrooms. This is called caretaker
speech; through the use of language that is comprehensible and meaningful, students are able to
retain more knowledge of the L2. Teachers need to know how to increase and maintain the use of
TL in the classroom. Through the use of TPR & TPRS, visuals, and scaffolding, teachers can
maintain the use of the TL in the classroom.
Furthermore, this project will investigate the role of instructional planning and how it
contributes to student success in the classroom. Some of these instructional planning methods
include thematic planning and backward design. The idea behind these two planning methods
starts with the goal in mind and then creates the lessons theme and plans from that goal.
However, the first element this project will investigate is: What is SLA and why is it important?
What is Second Language Acquisition and what factors create and/or affect it?
Acquisition Vs. Learning
As defined by the American Speech Language and Hearing Association (ASHA),
“Second language acquisition, or sequential language acquisition, is learning a second language
after a first language is already established. Many times this happens when a child who speaks a
language other than English goes to school for the first time” (ASHA, 2012, paragraph 1).
Acquisition is the preferred method to obtaining a second language. However, SLA can only
occur when a first language is already known. Stephen Krashen argues that this is the preferred
method because, teachers “supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing
messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the
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second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that
improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from
forcing and correcting production” (Schütz, 2007, paragraph 2).
Many theorists argue that second languages or L2 are not learned but gained through
various methods. One such theorist is linguist Stephen Krashen. According to Krashen, “it
requires meaningful interaction in the target language--natural communication--in which
speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are
conveying and understanding” (Krashen, 1981, p 1). Acquisition has a foundation in encouraging
independent production of the language, rather than a focus on grammatical structure. Curtain
argues that acquisition is a successful method because, “students are given time to sort out the
language they hear and understand, until they are ready to begin to use it for their own expressive
purposes” (Curtain & Dahlberg, 2010, p. 2). While students are in a safe environment in which
language is used to express opinions and thoughts, language retention and then production
occurs.
“Learning” a second language, is when students study “vocabulary and grammar rules,
and attempt to apply them later to a setting in which they have something to say” (Curtain &
Dahlberg, 2010 p. 2). Learning situations are followed by short abrupt productions of the L2
where the speaker cannot express their opinions or thoughts clearly because they are concerned
with grammar and syntactical structures, rather than using the knowledge of the language that
they already know. Environments where the class focuses on reproduction of memorized facts
rather than production of memorized facts are not conducive for language retention.
As educators, it is important to know the difference between acquiring a second language
and learning a second language because it explains the environments in which students gain
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more knowledge of the language. In addition, it describes for teachers what kinds of situations to
recreate in their classroom so that his or her students will achieve their maximum potential for
language production.
Krashen argues that grammar and syntax are not key components to language acquisition.
Grammar is only one facet to language acquisition that contributes to SLA. Acquisition
encourages production of the language, without preoccupations with grammar rules. By creating
an environment in which language production is not frightening, students are able to practice
their verbal skills in a natural and meaningful setting, after which, retention will occur. This is
the key component to successful language acquisition.
Input Hypothesis
Language acquisition occurs when the L2 is spoken in a way that allows the language to
be understandable or comprehensible to the students. Curtain defines Krashen’s concept known
as Input Hypothesis, “input hypothesis is the idea of comprehensible input, or the amount or
level of language that the student can fully understand, plus a little more: i + 1” (Curtain and
Dahlberg, 2010, p. 2). In order for students to acquire a language, teachers must speak in a way
that uses language or vocabulary that the students already know, but also uses vocabulary that is
unfamiliar. Students will be able to define the new vocabulary by using the previous knowledge
they have of the language to determine the new vocabulary that the teaching has introduced
during the lesson. When students discover the meaning of the new vocabulary, the students are
using acquired language skills from learning their first language and they are applying those
strategies to learning a foreign language.
Krashen argues, “The most important factor in the amount of language acquired by a
learner is the amount of comprehensible input to which that learner is exposed” (Curtain and
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Dahlberg, 2010, p 4). This is one of the most important elements of input hypothesis. The more
students have access to hearing language used in a comprehensible manner, the most students
will retain of the language. The language used by the teacher needs to be conveyed in a mode
that is understandable to the students. If a teacher speaks in the TL in the classroom, but uses
language that is i + 100 the students will not understand because the language is too advanced.
This can lead to students becoming discouraged because they believe that learning a language is
too difficult of a task to achieve.
Affective Filter
Another factor that contributes to SLA is referred to as “Affective Filter.” According to
Krashen, “affective filter highlights the importance of emotions in the language learning process
and the fact that children are known to resist learning when it’s unpleasant, painful, or being
attempted in a punitive environment” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010 p.10). Affective filter and
input hypothesis coincide with each other. If the input is not comprehensible, the filter will
become stronger. One of the most important elements to have in a classroom is to have a
comfortable environment for the students. Without this welcoming environment, affective filters
will go up in the presence of anxiety, lack of self-confidence and/or low motivation. In addition,
students need to be given the tools to communicate their feelings. For example, it is important for
students to be able to ask ‘Could you repeat that again, please?’ Or, ‘I don’t understand.’
(Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 10). With these key phrases, students will be able to express
themselves. When students realize that they have the key to communicating, students will
achieve a higher level or SLA.
Input hypothesis and affective filter explain how to communicate the L2 properly in the
classroom, which helps students develop a deeper understanding of the language. In addition
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these theories help teachers to understand what methods of communicating the language promote
a higher degree of SLA. Furthermore these theories help teachers decide what lessons create
effective SLA situations.
Caretaker Speech
One factor that contributes to SLA is called Caretaker Speech. It is known as the
approach taken by teachers to make language understood. Caretaker Speech is when “ the
teacher provides students with an environment in which they are surrounded by messages in the
TL that communicate interesting, relevant information in language” (Curtain and Dahlberg,
2010, p. 3). Although it is not the job of teachers to entertain students, there is no harm in
making the content interesting to the students. Culture is one of the best aspects of a foreign
language that teachers can include in their lessons. When lessons are related to an idea, concept,
or situation that the students are familiar with, the content of the lesson becomes more relevant.
Some of the characteristics of Caretaker Speech include:
Figure #1 Caretaker Speech 1
1. A somewhat slower rate of speech.
2. More distinct pronunciation.
3. Shorter, less complex sentences.
4. More rephrasing and repetition.
5. More frequent meaning checks with the listener to make sure that he
or she understands.
6. Use of gesture and visual reinforcement.
7. Greater use of concrete referents.
8. Scaffolding. The teacher surrounds the learner with language,
allowing the student to be a participant in dialogue.
Caretaker Speech is one of the factors that teachers can have control over in their
classroom. Caretaker speech can be related to the method that parents and early childhood
educators use to speak to children. Caretaker Speech contributes to language acquisition because
1
Source: Adapted from Curtain, 2010 p. 3
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it creates a guide for the teacher to use to create situations that promote SLA. Figure #1 displays
methods teachers can use to promote language acquisition. Some of these methods include
speaking slower, speaking clearer, using simple sentences and sentence structure and frequent
repetition. In my opinion, method #5, “more frequent meaning checks with the listener to make
sure that he or she understands” is the most important method of the list because a teacher can
use the other seven methods, but if he or she does not make frequent comprehension checks, the
students may become discouraged because he or she missed one vocabulary phrase and has
become lost during instruction. Frequent comprehension checks are important because they
allow the teacher to evaluate their teaching methods and instructions. Frequent evaluations help
teachers improve their teaching strategies and help the students achieve a higher level of SLA.
Conditions Necessary for SLA to Occur in the Classroom
Zone of Proximal Development
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is a theory developed by Russian
psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky defines ZPD as "the distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with more capable peers" (Mcleod, 2010, paragraph 1). Each student has their own individual
level of independent problem solving and their own individual level of potential. However,
students need the assistance of their teacher to achieve their individual level of potential and to
develop a ZPD to acquire the L2. Mcleod states, “Vygotsky believed that when a student is at the
zone of proximal development for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance
(scaffolding) will give the student enough of a ‘boost’ to achieve the task. Once the student, with
the benefit of scaffolding, masters the task, the scaffolding can then be removed and the student
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will then be able to complete the task again on his own” (Mcleod, 2010, paragraph 3). The more
time the students spends in a language class that is comprehensible, relevant and safe the more
independent problem solving skills become greater; the student will need less assistance from the
teacher to accomplish their tasks. Without scaffolding, the student cannot increase their ZPD.
Scaffolding assists students to achieve higher mental functioning or cognitive development. As a
student grows academically, their ZPD increase; with a greater ZPD students are able to
accomplish more complex tasks with the use of minimal to no scaffolding assistance from their
teacher. Young children’s ZPD is significantly smaller than those of adolescents; through
scaffolding and repetition, children’s ZPD will grow.
Figure #2 Zone of Proximal Development 2 Figure #3 Zone of Proximal Development 3
QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Researcher Richard Culatta discusses one of the key components of Vygotsky’s theory:
the significance of social interaction in relation to students’ ZPD. Culatta states, “Full
development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be
developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone”
(Culatta, 2012, paragraph 2). In order to be able to be more self-sufficient, students need to be
2
3
Source: Adapted from Culatta, 2012, p. 1
Source: Adapted from Mcleod, 2007, p. 1
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guided by a more knowledgeable other (MKO). An MKO is “it refers to someone who has a
better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task,
process, or concept” (Mcleod, 2010, paragraph 6). MKOs can be teachers, parents or peers; the
only element necessary is to be more knowledgeable on the topic than the learner.
ZPD is important to language acquisitions because it helps teachers develop instructional
methods that include scaffolding information for their students. Teachers are the MKO in the
classroom, and are able to demonstrate their knowledge of language. Through the use of
Caretaker Speech, teachers are able to convey their use and knowledge of language in a manner
that allows the students to develop their own independent problem solving skills. In addition,
through the use of scaffolding teachers encourage students to become independent problem
solvers and increase their ability to work without the use of scaffolding.
Instructional Scaffolding
As defined by the Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center at Northern
Illinois University, “instructional scaffolds are temporary support structures faculty put in place
to assist students accomplish new tasks and concepts they could not typically achieve on their
own” (FDIDC, 2008, paragraph 1). The use of scaffolding in classrooms helps student to
increase their ZPD. Scaffolding is a technique that teachers use to help students achieve their
fullest potential. “The teacher offers assistance with only those skills that are beyond the
student’s capability. Of great importance is allowing the student to complete as much of the task
as possible, unassisted. The teacher only attempts to help the student with tasks that are just
beyond his current capability” (Lipscomb, 2004, p. 1). Lipscomb’s theory of instructional
scaffolding overlaps with Krashen’s input hypthesis: “the idea of comprehensible input, or the
amount or level of language that the student can fully understand, plus a little more: i + 1”
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(Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010 p. 2). Teachers are the support system that will push the students to
their limit to increase their completion of the task independently.
According to Lange,“there are two major steps involved in instructional scaffolding: (1)
development of instructional plans to lead the students from what they already know to a deep
understanding of new material, and (2) execution of the plans, wherein the instructor provides
support to the students at every step of the learning process” (Lipscomb, 2004, p. 1). The goal of
the teacher is to help students reach their potential, in order to do this, teachers need to plan
lessons that encourage their students to learn, push students ZPD, increase L2 input and
accomplish taskes unassisted by the teacher.
Once scaffolding has been in place and the students begin to need less support, the
teacher will slowly remove parts of the scaffolding, which is known as ‘fading.’ As teachers start
the fading process, the students create their own internal support system, which they can use to
achieve the goal. The San Jose Evergreen Community College District states, “as students begin
to demonstrate task mastery, the assistance or support is decreased gradually in order to shift the
responsibility for learning from the [instructor] to the student” (FDIDC, 2008, p. 1). Research
shows that teachers who utilize scaffolding “become more of a mentor and facilitator of
knowledge than the dominant content expert” (FDIDC, 2008, p. 1). Scaffolding increases
confidence and motivation in students. When students begin to make the connections from the
L1 to the L2, the student realizes that they are in control of their education and they have the
power to succeed in school.
Instructional scaffolding is important because it helps students develop the skills
necessary to work independently. Furthermore, scaffolding allows students the opportunity to
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creatively produce the L2. Instructional scaffolding is important to language acquisition because
it teaches students the skills necessary to retain information from the L2.
Figure #4 Scaffolding4
Figure #5 Benefits and Challenges of Instructional Scaffolding 5
Benefits
Possible early identifier of giftedness
Provides individualized instruction
Greater assurance of the learner
acquiring the desired skill, knowledge
or ability
Provides differentiated instruction
Delivers efficiency – Since the work is
structured, focused, and glitches have
been reduced or eliminated prior to
initiation, time on task is increased and
efficiency in completing the activity is
increased.
Creates momentum – Through the
structure provided by scaffolding,
students spend less time searching and
more time on learning and discovering
resulting in quicker learning
Engages the learner
Motivates the learner to learn
Minimizes the level of frustration for
4
5
Source: Adapted from FDIDC, 2008, p. 1
Source: Adapted from Lipscomb, 2004, p. 1
Challenges
Very time consuming
Lack of sufficient personnel
Potential for misjudging the zone of
proximal development; success hinges
on identifying the area that is just
beyond but not too far beyond students’
abilities
Inadequately modeling the desired
behaviors, strategies or activities
because the teacher has not fully
considered the individual student’s
needs, predilections, interests, and
abilities (such as not showing a student
how to “double click” on an icon when
using a computer)
Full benefits not seen unless the
instructors are properly trained
Requires the teacher to give up control
as fading occurs
Lack of specific examples and tips in
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teacher’s editions of textbooks
the learner
Why Should Teachers know about the Different Stages of Acquisition and Cognitive
Development and their relation to Characteristics of Learners?
Stages of Second Language Acquisition
The stages of SLA are important to know because the stages help teachers recognize the
pattern through which languages are acquired. Teachers who know what stage their students are
in helps the teacher create better instructional planning and lessons that are appropriate to the
stage of the learner. Native language development occurs in a set pattern of stages, second
language acquisition occurs in a similar pattern.
Figure #6 Stages of Language Acquisition 6
Stage
(Amount of Instruction)
Preproduction
0-6 Months of Instruction
Early Production
6 Months – 1 Year of
Instruction
6
Characteristics
(Abilities of the Student)
Has minimal
comprehension
Does not verbalize
Nods “Yes” and
“No”
Draws and points
Has limited
comprehension
Produces one- or
two-word responses
Participates using
key words and
familiar phrases
Uses present-tense
verbs
Source: Adapted from Hill, 2006, paragraph 3
Teacher Prompts
Show me...
Circle the...
Where is...?
Who has...?
Yes/no questions
Either/or questions
One- or two-word
answers
Lists
Labels
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Speech Emergence
1 – 3 Years of Instruction
Has good
comprehension
Can produce simple
sentences
Makes grammar
and pronunciation
errors
Frequently
misunderstands
jokes
Why...?
How...?
Explain...
Phrase or shortsentence answers
Intermediate Fluency
3 – 5 Year of Instruction
Has excellent
comprehension
Makes few
grammatical errors
What would
happen if...?
Why do you
think...?
Advanced Fluency
5 – 7 Years of Instruction
The student has a nearnative level of speech.
Decide if...
Retell...
The first stage of SLA is called the preproduction or “silent stage.” Many students in this
stage will know many words in the L2 but do not feel comfortable speaking. According to
Haynes, an ESL specialist, “language learners may have up to 500 words in their receptive
vocabulary but they are not yet speaking. Some students will, however, repeat every thing you
say. They are not really producing language but are parroting” (Haynes, 2005, paragraph 1).
Some students in this stage may be able to copy words off of the board, but may not be able to
reproduce them. During this stage, it is important to use visuals, pictures, gestures and other nonverbal ways of communication. One of the best instructional models to use is Total Physical
Response (TPR), which will be further explained later in this paper. It is important for teachers to
speak slowly, repeat words often, and make frequent comprehension checks.
The second stage of SLA is called “early production.” According to Haynes, “during this
stage, students can usually speak in one- or two-word phrases. They can use short language
chunks that have been memorized although these chunks may not always be used correctly”
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(Haynes, 2005, paragraph 4). While assessing in this stage, teachers should accept one to two
word answers, ask yes or no and either or questions. Visuals and TPR are strong methods of
instruction during this stage.
The third stage of SLA is called “speech emergence.” Students in this stage can phrase
short sentences, which are often grammatically incorrect, but are understandable. In addition,
these students can begin to speak in the L2 with their classmates. According to Haynes, students
should be able to “complete graphic organizers with word banks. Understand and answer
questions about charts and graphs. Match vocabulary words to definitions. Study flashcards with
content area vocabulary. [And] Participate in duet, pair and choral reading activities” (Haynes,
2005, paragraph 6). In this stage, students should be able to start working on their own to
accomplish tasks. During this stage, teachers begin to decrease their use of scaffolding
instruction.
The final two stages of SLA are called “intermediate fluency” and “advanced fluency.”
During the fourth stage of SLA, students will begin to use more complex sentences to express
their thoughts and opinions. At this stage, students will begin to transfer reading and writing
skills from their L1 to L2. In addition, learning strategies can transfer from one language to the
other, but this transfer does not always occur. For the transfer to occur, the teacher needs to
encourage students to recognize their learning strategies and teach students how to transfer these
skills to the L2. In this stage, students will often translate phrases word for word, rather than
understand syntax rules and idiomatic phrases. Students in this stage will be able to ask for
clarity. According to Haynes in the fifth stage, “it takes students from 4-10 years to achieve
cognitive academic language proficiency in a second language. Student at this stage will be near -
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native in their ability to perform in content area learning” (Haynes, 2005, paragraph 11). In this
stage, students will need assistance and support from their teacher in the writing area.
For teachers, it is important to know the stages of language development and acquisition
because it helps the teacher tailor lesson plans to the acquisition stage of their students. Each
stage has suggested instructional techniques and lesson planning. Teachers will be able to use
these strategies to best plan their lesson that will help their students achieve a higher level of
SLA. Knowing the different stages of language development will help teachers understand what
struggles the students are having with language learning. The stages will give teachers guidance
on what activities are appropriate for each stage. Without the knowledge of these stages, the
teacher cannot set their student up for success to achieve a higher level of SLA.
Stages of Cognitive Development
One of the theories that Curtain and Dahlberg (2010) argue teachers should be cognizant
about includes the characteristics of their learners. One of the characteristics of learners that are
important for teachers to know is the stage of cognitive development, developed by Jean Piaget.
The stages of cognitive development proceed according to predictable stages, like SLA, and
those stages of cognitive development coincide with L1 acquisition. It is important for teachers
to know about the stages of cognitive development because it allows teachers to better
understand the development of their learners, which helps the teachers recreate situations that
increase SLA.
Figure #7 Stages of Cognitive Development 7
7
Source: Adapted from The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2002, paragraph 11
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The first stage of development is called “sensory-motor intelligence” which occurs from
ages 0 to 2 years. During this stage, the child primarily uses motor skills; children are able to
differentiate themselves from objects. According to Edwards, Piaget believed that “during the
Sensory Motor Stage, knowledge about objects and the ways that they can be manipulated is
acquired. Through the acquisition of information about self and the world, and the people in it,
the baby begins to understand how one thing can cause or affect another, and begins to develop
simple ideas about time and space” (Edwards, n.d., paragraph 1). In this stage, it is important to
surround children with objects to stimulate their senses. Stimulation is one of the key
components to cognitive development in this stage. During this stage, teachers should use visuals
to help stimulate their students, increases cognitive development, and increase SLA. With the
knowledge of this stage, teachers are able to build a solid foundation of the L2 in their students.
The second stage of development is called “preoperational thought” and occurs from ages
2 to 7 years. According to Curtain, “this stage is characterized by the development of language
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and other forms of representation and rapid conceptual development” (Curtain and Dahlberg,
2010, p. 15). During this stage, children are able to focus on one aspect of a given situation. In
addition, children develop their own thought process and children have a tendency to be
egocentric. When children are egocentric, “they are only able to consider things from their own
point of view, and imagine that everyone shares this view, because it is the only one possible”
(Edwards, n.d., paragraph 8). As children develop cognitively they lose a sense of egocentrism
and begin to realize that they are not the center of the world. This idea is called de-centering.
Children begin to see that there are multiple perspectives for every situation.
One of the more interesting concepts about the second stage is called animism. Piaget
defines animism when, “a person has the belief that everything that exists has some kind of
consciousness. An example of this is that children often believe that a car won't start because it is
tired or sick, or they punish a piece of furniture when they run into it, because it must have been
naughty to hurt them. A reason for this characteristic of the stage is that the Pre-operational child
often assumes that everyone and everything is like them. Therefore since the child can feel pain,
and has emotions, so must everything else” (Edwards, n.d., paragraph 9). Children in this stage
begin to understand the idea of negative and positive actions. They begin to follow the “set
rules” for good and bad behavior. Students are greatly influenced by the actions of others.
During this stage, scaffolding has great impacts and when used properly the student can achieve
academic success.
The third stage of development is called “concrete operations” and occurs from ages 7 to
11 years. In this stage, “the child develops the ability to apply logical thought to concrete
problems. Hands-on, concrete experiences help children understand new concepts and ideas”
(Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 15). During this stage, students begin to develop a more rational
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or “adult-like” thought processing system. Students begin to understand the consequences for
their actions. One of the most important aspects of this stage is characterized by how children
perceive objects. In the concrete operational stage, “children gradually develop the ability to
'conserve', or learn that objects are not always the way that they appear to be. This occurs when
children are able to take in many different aspects of an object, simply through looking at it.
Children are able to begin to imagine different scenarios, or 'what if' something were to happen.
This is because they now have more 'operational' thought” (Edwards, n.d., paragraph 14).
Through their new thought process, children begin to see the word with its many dimensions and
facets rather than seeing the world revolve around them.
The fourth stage is called the “formal operations” which occurs from age 11 to 15 years.
According to Curtain, “during this stage, the child’s cognitive structures reach their highest level
of development. The child becomes able to apply logical reasoning to all classes of problems,
including abstract problems either not coming from the child’s direct experience of having no
concrete referents” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 15). There are two main characteristics in
this stage: hypothetical deductive reasoning and propositional in nature. Hypothetical deductive
reasoning can be defined as seeing a problem, creating a possible hypothesis, creating possible
solutions, and systemically choosing the best possible solution (Edwards, n.d, paragraph 15.).
Propositional in nature is finding a solution to a problem without applying it to a concrete or
real-life circumstance (Edwards, n.d., paragraph 15).
For teachers it is important to know these stages because like the stages of SLA, each
stage builds upon the previous stage’s knowledge and development. As a result of being
knowledgeable about cognitive development, teachers are better prepared to develop lessons and
activities that are appropriate for their learners. In addition, teachers are suited to create lessons
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that will challenge their students, but with properly scaffolding, the students will succeed at the
task, increase their ZPD, become more independent problem solvers and increase their SLA.
Layers of Educational Development
Another theory that will help teachers’ to understand child development is called the
Layers of Education Development. Canadian educator Kieran Egan created this theory to help
describe the characteristics of learners and how learners understand the world. Like Piaget’s
theory, Egan has four levels which he calls “layers” of development. According to Curtain,
“educational development [is] a process of accumulating and exercising layers of ability to
engage with the world. As individuals develop, they add new layers of sophistication without
leaving behind the qualities characteristic of earlier layers” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 15).
Each layer is a building block for the next layer. In order to understand the characteristics of
learners in one layer, teachers must know the characteristics of all layers. Being knowledgeable
about all of the layers is important because it allows teachers to develop activities that are
appropriate for the learners in their classroom; with these appropriate activities, students will be
able to retain more L2 and be able to produce the L2 independently.
The first layer is known as the Mythic Layer, which occurs from ages 4 or 5 to ages 9 or
10. This stage is centered on emotions. Students make understand their world through their
emotions. In this stage, students have a warped view of the world; for students, “the world of
imagination is vivid and real to these children… [They] believe that the world thinks and feels as
they do” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 16). Teachers should use imaginative activities for their
students in this age group. Children in this age group accomplish task in a magical work very
easily and readily. Furthermore, activities that involve props or visuals help to stimulate children
and to create retention of information, a key component to SLA.
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The next layer is called the Romantic Layer, which occurs from ages 8 to 9 through 14 to
15 years old. Students in this layer begin to establish a sense of identity in the world. Children
realize that the world does not think and feel as they do. In addition, students are good at
memorizing information and enjoy learning about topics of their choosing. During this layer,
students view the world as fascinating and frightening. Students are fascinated with extremes and
details that the world provides to them. The world is frightening to students but they “learn best
when new information incorporates and emphasizes qualities that can overcome the threat—
‘transcendent’ qualities such as courage, nobility, genius, ambition, energy, and creativity”
(Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 16). Teachers should use interactive stories for lessons. During
this stage, students begin to reproduce the language that they have memorized, stories allow
students to use the knowledge they have memorized to perform skits, tasks, plays and oral
presentations. By creating language confidence in the students, the students will begin to produce
the language and not reproduce the language that is memorized.
The third layer is called the Philosophic Layer, which occurs from ages 14 to 15 through
19 to 20 years old. During this stage students begin to realize that their world is part of the larger
outer world. Students now begin to view the world as a unit, in which they have a role. In this
stage, “learners [begin] to organize the facts and details they [have] collected in the Romantic
Layer [and begin to create] their own systems for making sense of the world…Once they have
developed a system of organization, these learners tend to believe they have found the system,
and they become (over) confident that they know the meaning of everything” (Curtain and
Dahlberg, 2010, p. 17). Students in this stage believe that they know all the answers to every
question in the world and that their education is complete. However, teachers need to continue
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scaffolding during their lessons because students still need guidance in proper use of the
language.
The final layer is called the Ironic Layer and occurs from ages 19 to 20 through
adulthood. In this stage, students realize that their beliefs from the Philosophic Layer are wrong
and that their education is incomplete and they do not have the answers to everything. According
to Curtain, “the learner recognizes that no one system is adequate to organize all knowledge, but
that systems are necessary to make sense of information. If one system does not work well, it can
be discarded in favor of another one…This is the mature, adult learner” (Curtain and Dahlberg,
2010, p. 17). During this stage, teachers can begin to remove their scaffolding assistance;
students begin to feel confident in their production of the language and will begin to test their
language abilities. Activities that teachers should include in lesson planning include creative
activities that allow the students to flourish in their language abilities.
The layers of educational development help teachers create activities that allow the
students to produce the language originally and independently. Teachers should know the layers
of educational development because knowing the layers will help teachers plan lessons that are
appropriate for their students; teachers will know if their lessons are to advanced or are not
challenging the students. When students are challenged in a positive classroom, their acquisition
increases because their confidence in their language skills increases.
Multiple Intelligences
Students do not learn the same material in the same manner. The works of Howard
Gardner and applications by Thomas Armstrong support this idea that all students do not acquire
language by the same means. However, according to Gardner (1983) and Thomas (2009),
students do follow a specific pattern in acquiring a second language. Gardner developed the
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theory of multiple intelligences (MI). Gardner defines MI as, “the extent to which students
possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in
different ways” (Lane, n.d., paragraph 1). This is one of the great breakthroughs of modern
education; the revelation that students may learn in ways other than visually or audibly has
revolutionized instructional theory and planning.
Often, educators believe students are visual learners or audio learners. Gardner believes
that there are not two but several types of learners. He argues, "we are all able to know the world
through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, and
the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals,
and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these
intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences
are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in
various domains" (Lane, n.d., paragraph 1). It is important for teachers to know the several
categories of learners because knowing the MI will help the teacher to create lessons better
suited for their students. Although it may be difficult to create lessons catered to different types
of learners, not every lessons needs to be catered to every type of intelligence. During a class
period, it is important to create lessons that accommodate different but not all types of MI.
Teachers who are knowledgeable about the different types of learners will have far more
success in student achievement because they will know how to change their lessons plans to
accommodate different learners. Dr Gardner argues this theory will “challenge an educational
system that assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a
uniform, universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our
educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and,
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to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well” (Lane, n.d., paragraph
2). It is important as educators to think outside the box. Students cannot be placed inside a box to
learn, so teachers should not teach within that same box. Although it may be difficult at first to
break the teaching planning and instruction mold, student success with the language production
and retention will be increased greatly.
Dr. Thomas Armstrong continued Gardner’s research by adding one more ‘intelligence’
to Gardner’s list: naturalist. Dr. Armstrong based his theory on Gardner’s idea that “suggests that
the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited” (Armstrong, 2011,
paragraph 1). Dr. Armstrong argues that teachers need to encourage all eight types of
intelligences, especially in their classroom. “As language teachers…we are in a good position to
support other kinds of intelligence” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 12). “Some teachers…lay
out all the intelligences on a grid and systematically include some activity for each type of
intelligence. Such an approach respects the value of all the intelligences and encourages students
to do their best work at all times” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 12). Students need to be
encouraged to flourish in their type of intelligence. Unfortunately, many students who are not
audio or visually learners are labeled as ADD or learning disabled. Teachers can help students to
create strategies that build upon their strengths in areas in which their skills are lacking.
The theory of MI promotes teachers to create activities that encourage all students to
participate. By creating different types of lessons, the students are stimulated by the information
given during class. Through this stimulation, the information retention rate will increase because
the information is more relevant and applicable to the students’ life. When information is more
relevant to students, the retention rate increase because students are able to see how the
information is applicable to their lives outside of the classroom. In addition, when the teacher
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creates different types of activities, the lessons encourage different types of thinking of the
students, so all of the MI can succeed. When students are able to see their accomplishments in
the classroom, this encourages them to continue their language learning.
Figure #8 Multiple Intelligences and Their Applications to the Language Classroom 8
Types of Intelligence
Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical
Spatial
Students Excel at
Reading, writing, telling
stories, playing word games,
etc.
Experimenting, questioning,
figuring out logical puzzles,
calculating, etc.
Designing, drawing,
visualizing, doodling, etc.
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Dancing, running, jumping,
activities adding motions to
songs and chants
Musical
Singing, whistling, humming,
creating melodies for favorite
rhymes
Interpersonal
Leading, organizing, relating,
manipulating, mediating,
partying, etc.
Intrapersonal
Setting goals, mediating,
dreaming, planning, being
quiet
Naturalist*
Understanding, categorizing,
explaining things in the world
of nature
*Intelligence added by Dr. Armstrong
Language Application in the
classroom
Almost everything we do in
class!
Surveys, making charts and
graphs
Illustrating a Gouin series;
creating a picture of an object
by writing the word for the
object over and over
Total Physical Response
(TPR), building, touching,
gesturing, etc.
Using songs and rhythmic
chants, tapping feet and hands,
listening, etc.
Small group and partner work
Journaling, portfolio building
Photography, field trips,
classifying
What role does Instructional Planning play in SLA?
Thematic Planning
Thematic planning (TP) is important in an FL classroom because planning creates the
foundation for language learning. For TP, it is important integrate connections to other content
8
Source: Adapted from Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 13
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areas and it is necessary to use activities that coincide and connect different content areas. For
example, in the FL classroom, a teacher could teach a unit of planets in the universe. This is an
example of connecting the science content area with the FL content area. However, when
connecting two different content areas, teachers need to introduce and maintain the lesson in the
TL. Furthermore teachers must check to make sure students understand the new material. One of
the most important aspects of TP is that it avoids the use of isolated exercises with grammatical
structures, practiced out of context. When grammar is used out of context, students will not be
able to produce the correct grammar when they are expressing their opinions in the TL.
According to Theorist Eric Jensen (1996), there are three main components that promote
SLA: emotion, relevance, and context & patterns. Jensen suggests, “a carefully designed theme
can incorporate emotion; relevance is a critical motivator for language learning; and rich context
brings language learning to life and activates pattern-making functions of the brain” (Curtain and
Dahlberg, 2010, p. 150). TP works for all ages because schools are making a conscious effort to
connect the different areas. Foreign languages can have connections to every content area. The
most important element in thematic planning is to make the information meaningful for the
students. Without meaning, the students will not make the connections and will retain less
information because they do not understand how the information is applicable to their life
outside of the classroom.
TP “makes instruction more comprehensible because the theme creates a meaningful
context” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 150). Students are able to decode the new language and
new information on the basis of their own background knowledge. T.P. encourages transferring
learning skills from the L1 to the L2. T.P. creates a safe environment because it takes the focus
off the grammar and refocuses on the use of language to achieve meaningful goals. According to
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Curtain, “in thematic instruction, we focus on using the language to communicate something
related to a theme, rather than repeating words in isolation with no connection to the classroom
or the student” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p.15). Curtain argues that instruction should be
based on how to communicate the meaning clearly, rather than focusing the lesson on
pronunciation. By creating a safe environment students are more likely to participate in class
activities. The more students participate, the more natural acquisition will occur.
T.P. teaches students survival strategies and encourages students to those survival
strategies in the classroom to stay in the TL. One of these strategies is called circumlocution.
Circumlocution is also known as paraphrasing; if the student does not know the correct word to
use, the student can describe the word to make their point clear. For example, if a student is
trying to describe a garage, they could say ‘the place where one parks their car.’ In addition, T.P
also provides students with real language use in a variety of situations, modes, and text types.
Providing students with real-life situations helps to build students confidence in their speaking
abilities. TP should involve activities that engage and encourage the learner in complex thinking
and a more sophisticated use of the language. Students have the ability to use the language they
know to communicate their feelings or opinions about any topic. This added confidence allows
students to reach a higher level of SLA.
Backward Design
Backward Design (BD), a theory created by Wiggins and McTighe (2005), is a planning
approach to create a new form designing lesson plans. The creators agree that teachers should
start their planning with the desired out come, and work ‘backwards’ from that point. Teachers
need to look at the big picture before starting their lesson planning for their class. Stephen R.
Covey stated, “To begin with the end in mind means to start with a clear understanding of your
Senior Honors Project 28
destination. It means to know where you're going so that you better understand where you are
now so that the steps you take are always in the right direction” (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005, p.
1). B.D. helps to refocus lesson planning on the big picture of the lessons and gives students a
visible goal that they will achieve by the end of the thematic unit.
Wiggins & McTighe (p.1) argue that teachers should start their lesson planning with a
question in mind, such as, what do I want my students to be able to do at the end of this unit or
what is the goal of the unit? After answering their question(s) teachers should plan accordingly
to achieve the goal of the question. Before B.D teachers created the assessment after they have
created a unit. B. D. is a process of three stages: identify the desired results; determine
acceptable evidence; and plan learning experiences and instruction.
In Stage 1, teachers identify what the desired results, or what are the goals for the unit of
study. Kieran Egan (1997) identifies what teachers need to ask them before starting Stage 1,
“What should students know, understand, and be able to do? What is worthy of understanding?
What enduring understandings are desired?” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 162). This stage
defines what students should be able to do at the end of the unit of study. Starting from the end
helps to create a big picture and set realistic goals for the teacher. By creating a unit with the goal
in mind, the teachers are better prepared for creating lessons essential for student success.
During Stage 2, the educator “determines acceptable evidence that students have
achieved the desired results and met the standards” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 162).
Wiggins and McTighe argue that, “because understanding develops as a result of ongoing
inquiry and rethinking, the assessment of understanding should be thought of in terms of a
collection of evidence over time instead of an event—a single moment-in-time test at the end of
instruction—as so often happens in current practice” (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005, p. 1).
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Although tests serve their purpose in the classroom, other forms of assessment should be used to
determine if the students have achieved the goals of the unit. When teachers start their planning
with the goals in mind, planning becomes better suited to help students attain those goals.
In Stage 2, it is important that, “[the] continuum of assessment methods includes checks
of understanding (such as oral questions, observations, and informal dialogues); traditional
quizzes, tests, and open-ended prompts; and performance tasks and projects. They vary in scope
(from simple to complex), time frame (from short-term to long-term), setting (from
decontextualized to authentic contexts), and structure (from highly to nonstructured)” (Wiggins
and McTighe, 2005, p. 1). Wiggins and McTighe argue that evidence of understanding comes
from various forms of tests, not the end-of-the-unit one-time test. It is important that teachers use
performance tasks or projects to evaluate their students. According to Wiggins and McTighe,
“our unit or course will be anchored by performance tasks or projects—these provide evidence
that students are able to use their knowledge in context, a more appropriate means of evoking
and assessing enduring understanding” (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005, p. 1). Students need to be
given assessments that properly evaluate their understanding of a concept, not assessments that
induce stress and panic.
During Stage 3, teachers plan learning experiences and instructional activities to help
students reach the goal. When planning activities, teachers need to ask the following questions:
“What enabling knowledge (facts, concepts, and principles) and skills (procedures) will students
need to perform effectively and achieve desired results? What activities will equip students with
the needed knowledge and skills? What will need to be taught and coached, and how should it
best be taught, in light of performance goals? What materials and resources are best suited to
accomplish these goals? Is the overall design coherent and effective?” (Wiggins and McTighe,
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2005, p. 1). Once teachers have asked these questions, they will be able to properly choose
activities and experiences that will help students achieve the goal set in Stage 1.
During the practice of B.D. it is important to make checks for understanding, so that
students can reach their fullest potential. Teachers need to include authentic materials that are
meaningful and will engage the students. When students are active in their learning, their
retention rate of information increases. B.D. is important for teachers because lesson planning is
focused on setting students up to attain the desired outcome of the unit. As students begin to
succeed in language learning, their confidence in the language skills increases, as does their
acquisition of L2. B.D. allows teachers to recreate situations in which acquisition occurs.
Figure #9 The Big Picture of a Design Approach9
Key Design Question
Stage 1. What is
worthy and requiring
of understanding?
Design
Considerations
National standards.
Filters (Design
Criteria)
Enduring ideas.
State standards.
Opportunities for
authentic, disciplinebased work.
District standards.
Regional topic
opportunities.
What the Final
Design Accomplishes
Unit framed around
enduring
understandings and
essential questions.
Uncoverage.
Engaging.
Teacher expertise and
interest.
Stage 2. What is
evidence of
understanding?
9
Six facets of
understanding.
Valid.
Reliable.
Continuum of
assessment types.
Sufficient.
Source: Adapted from Wiggins and McTighe, 2005, p. 1
Unit anchored in
credible and
educationally vital
evidence of the desired
understandings.
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Authentic work.
Feasible.
Coherent learning
experiences and
teaching that will
Hook the students.
evoke and develop the
Essential & enabling
desired
Explore and equip.
knowledge and skill.
understandings,
promote interest, and
Rethink and revise.
make excellent
performance
more
Exhibit and evaluate.
likely.
Teaching Methods that Increase Target Language Use in the Classroom
Stage 3. What learning
experiences and
teaching promote
understanding, interest,
and excellence?
Research-based
repertoire of learning
& teaching strategies.
Student friendly.
Where is it going?
Figure # 10 Effective Teaching Principles10
Ellis, Worthington and Larkin’s (n.d.) Executive Summary of the Research Synthesis on
Effective Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators
Students learn more when they are engaged actively during an
Principle 1
instructional task.
High and moderate success rates are correlated positively with
Principle 2
student learning outcomes, and low success rates are
correlated negatively with student learning outcomes.
Increased opportunity to learn content is correlated positively
Principle 3
with increased student achievement. Therefore, the more
content covered, the greater the potential for student learning.
Students achieve more in classes in which they spend much of
Principle 4
their time being directly taught or supervised by their teacher.
Students can become independent, self-regulated learners
Principle 5
through instruction that is deliberately and carefully
scaffolded.
The critical forms of knowledge associated with strategic
Principle 6
learning are (a) declarative knowledge, (b) procedural
knowledge, and (c) conditional knowledge. Each of these
must be addressed if students are to become independent,
self-regulated learners.
Learning is increased when teaching is presented in a manner
Principle 7
that assists students in organizing, storing, and retrieving
knowledge.
Students can become more independent, self-regulated
Principle 8
learners through strategic instruction.
10
Source: Adapted from Lipscomb, 2004, p. 1
Senior Honors Project 32
Principle 9
Principle 10
Students can become independent, self-regulated learners
through instruction that is explicit.
By teaching sameness both within and across subjects,
teachers promote the ability of students to access potentially
relevant knowledge in novel problem-solving situations.
TPR & TPRS
Total Physical Response or TPR is an instructional technique that was developed in the
late 1960s by James Asher. TPR can be defined as, “[the] strategy [that] uses movement to help
establish meaning and set a purpose for language use” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 61). Berty
Segal Cook adds, “TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological program
for acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf. The process
is visible when we observe how infants internalize their first language” (Segal Cook, 2012,
paragraph 3). The realization that students need to comprehend the FL before they can produce
the FL has been a modern revolution of instructional techniques.
During a TPR lesson, teachers say the word in the FL then show the students a picture of
what they are describing or the teacher can show a movement to demonstrate the word they are
describing to the class. Through these physical movements, students are able to comprehend the
material in a less stressful environment. Another form on TPR is when the teacher says a
command, and the students respond by doing the said command. This shows the teacher which
students understand and which students do not understand the material. Students demonstrate
their comprehension through physical response. Dr. Asher (1969) calls this phenomenon,
“‘language-body conversation’ because the parent speaks [in our case the teacher] and the infant
[the students] answers with a physical response such as looking, smiling, laughing, turning,
walking, reaching, grasping, holding, sitting, running, and so forth” (Segal Cook, 2012,
paragraph 4). Through these interactions, students begin to retain the FL at a higher rate than in a
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traditional classroom. TPR lessons create a safe and non-intimidating environment for students
learn, a key factor in language acquisition.
Asher’s theory explains why children who live in a foreign country adapt more quickly to
the FL than their parents. These children associate unknown words with actions. These children
begin to create a link or connection, what Asher calls a ‘fact’ between the unknown words and
the corresponding actions. When students create facts it is easier for their brain to remember the
information. Asher states, “Your students are silent. They listen to a direction in the target
language (without translation) and perform an action. They have just created a fact, and facts are
more difficult for the left brain to reject” (Davidheiser & Davidheiser, 2006, paragraph 6). This
is why in traditional classroom students have difficulty remembering vocabulary and grammar
because its instruction is one-dimensional. When teachers incorporate more than one function of
the body, this triggers a connection in the brain and it remembers the word and action. It is
important to promote the use of TPR in our classrooms because it will help our students reach a
higher level of SLA because students are learning language in a stress-free environment that
promotes language retention. TPR promotes language retention because students are associating
the FL words with pictures or motions, rather than the word in English.
When starting this type of teaching instruction method, it is important to pronounce the
commands slowly and clearly the first time, and as the lesson progresses, the teacher can use a
more native rate of speech. Curtain suggests that, “when giving a command for the first time, the
teacher models the desired behavior, removing the model after several repetitions of the same
command” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 62). After several repetitions of the initial command,
students have developed a confidence level in the activity, the teacher should then begin to
combine and alter commands. This new activity allows students to build confidence and realize
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that they can understand the FL when someone is using known words but in a different
combination.
One of the most important elements of TPR is that students are not expected to respond
orally until they are ready. The only “early orally responses” activities include role reversal, yes
or no questions, and one-word replies. These activities increase SLA because, “[it] involves little
or no pressure to speak in the early stages” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 62). It is important
for teachers to create a safe and welcoming environment because when students are comfortable
speaking in the FL they will do so on their own, without teacher prompts. In short, “TPR seeks to
teach new concepts through the body… Students discover that they can make the connection
themselves between new language and it’s meaning, without translation into English or
explanation by the teacher” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 62).
Figure # 11 TPR 11
Steps
1. Give a command while modeling the
action.
a. Start with actions using the
body.
b. Give Commands involving
objects.
c. Use commands relating to
pictures, maps, charts, etc.
2. After several repetitions of the
command while modeling, the teacher
removes the model. If students can
respond without the model, give the
command a few more times. Mix up
single commands and give them in a
different order.
3. After students can respond successfully
and confidently to a number of single
11
Examples
a. “Raise your hand.” “Put your hand on
your foot (knee/head/elbow.) “Turn
around.” “Put your hand on the floor.”
b. “Pick up your Pencil and lay it on the
floor.”
c. “Got to the whiteboard and draw a
dress.” “Go to the (picture of the)
bedroom and comb your hair.”
“Put your hand on your elbow.”
“Raise your knee.”
“Turn around.”
“Jump backwards three times.”
“Put your elbow on your knee and turn
around.” (new combination)
Source: Adapted from Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 62
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commands, combine them in original
and unexpected ways. Surprise and
humor help to keep TPR fresh and
engaging.
4. Call on volunteers to respond to
commands of increasing length and
complexity (often silly), using familiar
language in new combinations.
5. String commands together to tell a story
or create a sequence that has a
beginning, middle, and end.
6. Invite student volunteers to “play
teacher” and give commands to the rest
of the class (role reversal). It is
important that students volunteer for
this step and not be called on randomly.
7. (optional) After step 6, TPR can be
extending into experiences with
reading/writing.
Who can do this: Raise your hand. Walk
backwards to the map, put your left hand on
your head and put your right elbow on South
America. All right, Maria.”
“ Angie, hold the (stuffed animal) monkey
with your right hand. Mario put your right
elbow on the monkey’s head. Kim, put your
elbow on the monkey’s nose (and so on using
body parts of class and the monkey and finally
creating a kind of silly picture). Class, take out
your (imaginary) cameras and take a picture of
the monkey and his friends. Smile!”
“Who would like to be the teacher today?”
“What was the hardest command Mary gave
you today? Let’s write it down on the board.”
“Who can do the command I just wrote on the
board?”
Total Physical Response Storytelling (TPRS) as defined by Curtain, “is an approach to
combining language with actions and story” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 64). Introduced in
1990 by Blain Ray, this theory was “based on TPR and the Natural Approach, TPRS embeds
new vocabulary and structures as functional chunks in a story line and provides extensive
listening practice before students are expected to speak” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p.64). As
stated above, in order for students to succeed in FL classrooms students need to comprehend the
information before they can produce the FL. The first step in comprehension is TPR. TPRS has
to have a base of TPR before it will work in the classroom.
TPRS has undergone many variations; one such variation by Janet Glass called “Stories
with Gestures,” which is a 5-step process of how to effectively use TPRS in the FL without the
Senior Honors Project 36
need for translations. Glass argues that the story being told must fit within her thematic units, in
order for the material to be meaningful. TPRS helps to bring authentic material into the
classroom because TPRS can be used with stories written in the L2 (normally written for
children). Students of all ages can participate in TPRS lessons. Using the country of the FL’s
version of a common fairy tale has positive TPRS results. For example, Little Red Riding Hood
has a different ending in the Spanish version than in the English version. The students were
intrigued by the differences and then were able to analyze and discuss those differences in the
TL.
In Step 1 of TPRS, teachers need to identify the key vocabulary from the story. Then,
teachers will need to create drawings with assigned motions. The teacher will model each
vocabulary word and action for the students. After the teacher has modeled the action several
times the students will join the teacher with the action. The teacher will perform this with all of
the new vocabulary words. The teacher must make frequent understanding checks, so that the
students do not become lost and/or overwhelmed by the new vocabulary.
In Step 2, “the students work in pairs to say or read the vocabulary words to each other
and see whether or not they can do the actions. Then the process can be reversed” (Curtain and
Dahlberg, 2010, p. 64). Step 2 is another understanding check for the teacher. While the students
are in their pairs, the teacher can walk around the classroom to observe how the stu dents are
accomplishing the task. Steps 1 and 2 should be repeated until the class feels comfortable with
the new vocabulary words. However, Step 2 should be repeated with different partners.
In Step 3, after the class is confident with the vocabulary, the teacher will combine the
new words and actions as he or she beings to tell the story. The teacher should retell the story
several times. According to Curtain each time the teacher retells the story, “[it] should provide an
Senior Honors Project 37
opportunity for students to participate and for the teacher to check for understanding: the
students provide gestures; the teacher leaves pauses for the students to fill in words; the teacher
makes mistakes and the students correct them; the teacher uses yes—no and either—or questions
as the story progresses” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 66). Students need to participate in the
story in order to better understand the new vocabulary. In addition, when the students participate
in a story, it helps to create ‘facts’ in their brain, which helps the brain to process the new
information.
During Stage 4, the students find a partner and practice retelling the story to their partner.
According to Glass, there are several variations of how this stage can proceed within the
classroom. Students can retell the story with a partner then switch roles; students can act out a
variation of the story for the class; and students can act out the story while other students narrate
it. The goal for this stage is to have optimal class participation.
The final stage, Stage 5, could be called the creative or poetic license stage. During this
stage, the students could come up with an alternative ending or add new characters or vocabulary
to the story. The teachers encourage students to be creative with the new story ending. Students
can use the work from this stage to add to their portfolio or to present to the class. This is a good
activity to show parents during parent teaching conferences; this will show the parents what the
students have learned and what they are capable of doing with a FL.
TPRS is a valuable resource that combines stories with gestures that help students create
‘facts.’ TPRS units helps, “students build both vocabulary and structure resources that are readily
available for future use” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 67). During a TPRS unit, students
become confident with their abilities in a FL, which in turn helps to motive the students to
continue their FL education. Janet Glass said, “One thing I know from experience—the students
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remember it long term. I think it’s the simultaneous combination of seeing the pictures, hearing
the words, doing the gestures, having the repetition, and enjoying the story. They really like
making one up with slight variations and sharing them. This gives them a lot of changes to hear
and speak the language” (Curtain and Dahlberg, 2010, p. 67). If teachers are able to create an
environment in which their students enjoy learning and want to practice the language, SLA will
occur. TPR and TPRS lessons create environments for creativity, learning, language production
and retention. These two strategies are instructional methods that increase SLA because they
help the students create facts, analyze information, which helps the students retain the
information.
Visuals
Visuals are an important part in the educational process because they aid in language
acquisition through TPR and other teaching methods. Visuals can be defined as “the visual
elements that specifically illustrate or aid learning. We are talking about visuals that directly
illuminate and enhance the comprehension of content. Examples: Diagrams, charts, graphs,
illustrations, drawings, photographs etc” (Rajamanickam, 2001, paragraphs 3-5). Visuals are
important in the classroom because they are “materials that will provide the means for creating
the concrete context that is so necessary for meaningful communication” (Curtain and Dahlberg,
2010, p. 335). Visuals are especially important in the first years of language learning because
they provide real connections to the students. Visuals help students to create facts, which aids in
language retention and acquisition.
Teachers need to include visuals that are authentic materials. Obtaining these supplies
can be difficult. When traveling to a country where the TL is spoken, teachers can find materials
in “toy stores, bookstores, media stores, and novelty and souvenir shops” (Curtain and Dahlberg,
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2010, p. 336). Children’s books and toys are especially good “finds” in a foreign country; one of
the best qualities about children’s materials is that they can be used in all ages and ranges in a FL
classroom. “Language teachers who are able to travel abroad collect items ranging from empty
packaging for candy and soft drinks to menus, coins, and ticket stubs” (Curtain and Dahlberg,
2010, p. 337). Some of the best items to collect when traveling include daily items, food
packages, magazines and books, music, DVDs and other items that people use on a daily basis.
Those teachers who cannot travel abroad may find supplies on the Internet through travel
agencies, companies, airlines or businesses that will have contact in or with foreign countries.
Using these items in the classroom will help to create the environment of the foreign country.
Furthermore, these items allow the teachers to use the TL in the classroom, and give students
more opportunities to practice their language production and give them an opportunity for
natural communication. Through the use of visuals students are able to see and use daily items
that students in foreign countries use in their classrooms.
Manipulative, charts, props, visuals and other means of concrete presentations are
important in early language learning because they create a context for communication. In early
learning, students continue to learn best from concrete situations; the more frequently the
manipulation of actual objects can accompany language use, especially when objects represent
the culture being taught, the greater the impact of language itself. For early language learners, the
more senses that are involved, the more likely students are to retain the language. The types of
concrete presentations previously listed utilize more than one sense and are especially effective
for language learners because visuals help to create a context in which language is used more
meaningfully. In addition, the information is more relevant to students if the language is used in
a meaningful context in which students can relate to the new information. These presentations
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are used to make a lesson plan more exciting. In my personal experience, I have found that in
early language learners, the more concrete presentations, along with TPR, has helped my
students reach a higher level of SLA.
Figure # 12 The Five Principles of Information Display 12
Title
1. Show Cause and Effect.
2. Make Comparisons.
3. Make displays Multidimensional.
4. Integrate Words, Numbers and
Images.
12
Content
When we try to comprehend something,
we are looking for information to
understand the underlying mechanisms.
Reasoning is about examining causality.
Hence your visual should not merely
provide descriptive narration; instead it
should explain the cause and effect.
To be persuasive, which is the ultimate
goal of communication, together with
what is the cause, and what is the effect,
the third important question that needs
to be answered is, compared to what?
Visuals need to be displayed in manner
that engages the students. Through the
use of 3-D models, students can be
engaged with the visual.
The importance of telling a "coherent
story". This means avoiding references
for figures and examples, which are
physically removed from the flow of the
text.
Also information for comparison should
be put side by side. That is, within the
eye span, not stacked in time on
subsequent pages
Source: Adapted from Rajamanickam, 2001, p. 1
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5. Effectiveness of Visual Design depends
upon the Quality, Relevance and
Integrity of the Content.
Good design is clear thinking made
visible. Tufte shows a book by Galileo
published in 1613, which reported the
discovery of sunspots and the rings of
Saturn for the first time.
Galileo wrote in Italian, not Latin,
because he wanted to reach a wider
audience than the scientific elite. His
tone of writing is wide-eyed,
straightforward, undiplomatic, sardonic
and sounds a lot like the modern voice
of Richard Feynman. The report of the
discovery of sunspots has a simple
drawing of the sun on each page to show
daily observations. From these
observations he learned that the sun was
rotating as the spots moved across the
page and changed apparent shape at the
edges due to foreshortening.
Conclusion
As a result of my research, I have concluded that there are several factors that help aid
and increase language acquisition in the classroom. These reasons include but are not limited to:
when language is used in a more meaningful context, students retain the information; when
grammar is not taught in isolated sections, but included in a thematic unit, students retain the
information; and when the context of the lessons are relevant to students background, students
retain the information.
Teachers can use various methods to recreate situations that increase acquisition in the
classroom. These methods include but are not limited to: the use of TPR helps the classroom stay
in the TL and not resort to the L1; through the use of visuals that do not list the meaning in the
L1; through the use of Krashen’s input hypothesis, teachers use i + 1 to increase the students’
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vocabulary in the TL; and through the use of caretaker speech, students are able to comprehend
the language used by the teacher.
There are other aspects of the classroom that teachers need to consider to increase SLA.
The first step to increasing SLA in a class starts with instructional planning. Backward design
supports SLA because it allows teachers to design a unit with clear and obtainable objectives.
When instructional planning starts with the outcome, teachers create a big picture that is
understandable for the students. In addition, by creating the unit from the end, students are able
to see their goals and are able to attain those goals. Students are able to attain the goals set by the
teacher, because the teacher has created activities that recreate natural language communication,
which in turn helps students retain the L2.
In conclusion, SLA is obtainable through various methods, resources, and means.
However, the teacher and his or her FL curriculum staff need to be committed to recreating
situations that promote acquisition in the classroom. Through the support of his or her staff, a FL
teacher can create a community in their school/district that supports FL learning and encourages
FL use outside of the classroom. An environment that encourages FL use creates students who
achieve higher levels of SLA. The main goal as FL instructions is to increase SLA and create
world citizens.
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