Running head: MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Meeting the Needs of Heritage Language Learners
in the Traditional Foreign Language Classroom
Lauren N. Denham
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MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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Abstract
While some K-12 schools are beginning to offer language classes designed specifically for
heritage language learners, many schools continue to place such students in traditional foreign
language programs alongside non-heritage learner peers. In the study of their heritage language,
heritage language learners bring diverse needs to the classroom and even more diverse needs
when compared to traditional foreign language learners. This study investigates ways in which
schools and teachers can better meet the needs of heritage language learners within the
traditional foreign language program. Interviews were conducted with five participants who
were heritage language learners of Spanish in a traditional foreign language program during their
secondary education. Interviews explored the motivation, identification and placement of the
participants within the program, the recognition of the participants' backgrounds by their
teachers, and the instructional and assessment methods used with the participants in the
classroom. Analysis of the responses suggests that schools and teachers are not using methods
consistent with existing research when working with heritage language learners in the traditional
foreign language program. This project reports recommendations for schools and teachers for
working with heritage language learners based on the experiences and suggestions of the
participants.
Keywords: heritage language learners, foreign language education
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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Meeting the Needs of Heritage Language Learners
in the Traditional Foreign Language Classroom
As demographics in the U.S. are rapidly changing, the number of culturally and
linguistically diverse students in schools is increasing. Among such culturally and linguistically
diverse students are heritage language learners. Heritage language learners are those students
who have a previous connection to the language they are studying as a result of their heritage.
Heritage language learners may have varying proficiencies in the heritage language, ranging
from those who were raised speaking only the heritage language in the home to those whose
connection to the language is only a faded childhood memory. In the formal study of their
heritage language, heritage language learners bring diverse needs to the classroom, and even
more diverse needs when compared to non-heritage learners studying the same language.
In defining heritage language learners, one finds a broad range of definitions, the central
discrepancy among these definitions being the question raised by Wiley and Valdés (2001, p. iii),
"Which is more important, affiliation with an ethnolinguistic group or one's language proficiency
in the target language?" Fishman (2001, p. 81) defines a heritage language as a non-English
language with "a particular family relevance to the learners," seemingly supporting the
importance of affiliation with the ethnolinguistic group. On the other hand, Valdés' (2000)
widely accepted definition places more emphasis on proficiency in the target language. She
defines a heritage speaker as someone "who is raised in a home where a non-English language is
spoken, who speaks or merely understands the heritage language, and who is to some degree
bilingual in English and the heritage language" (p. 1).
Valdés states that her definition is for pedagogical purposes, although limiting heritage
language learners to those who have some proficiency in the language overlooks the fact that the
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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study of language and culture go hand in hand. Those students with even a small cultural
connection to the language may bring an understanding and a desire to strengthen this connection
that those students without such a background do not. Instead, I suggest that teachers do not
limit their definition of heritage language learners and, instead, use the linguistic and cultural
connections students bring to the classroom as a starting point for instruction, no matter how big
or how small those connections may be.
As demographics change, some schools are creating classes designed specifically for
heritage language learners (Rhodes & Pufahl, 2008). Still, the majority of schools do not offer
such courses and these students are placed in traditional foreign language classrooms alongside
their non-heritage learner peers. The curriculum in such classes does not meet the needs of
heritage language learners who bring with them background knowledge and understanding that
their non-heritage learner peers do not. Even when placed into more advanced classes, these
classes fail to meet the specific needs of heritage language learners as heritage language learners
possess different knowledge than an advanced foreign language student (Bateman & Wilkinson,
2010). In order for heritage language learners to reach their full potential within a foreign
language classroom, the classroom teacher must differentiate instruction between both groups of
students to meet the needs of all students in the classroom.
Most foreign language teachers have little training in teaching heritage language learners
(Valdés, 2001). In a survey sent out to all secondary Spanish teachers in Utah, 50% of teachers
of traditional Spanish foreign language classes reported having no special training in teaching
heritage language learners (Bateman & Wilkinson, 2010). The lack of instructional
accommodations for these students reflects this lack of training. Almost half of the teachers with
Spanish heritage language learners in their Spanish classes reported that they rarely or never
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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make accommodations for these students, with only 17% stating that they often or always make
accommodations. The survey also demonstrated that teachers believe that the needs of their
heritage language learners are not being met, as 43% of the teachers who completed the survey
felt that their heritage language learners' needs were being met poorly or very poorly. While
some of these teachers felt these students would be better served in a class specifically for
heritage language learners, others enjoyed having heritage language learners in their class, as
they found their knowledge and experience an asset to the class.
The purpose of this project is to investigate ways in which schools and teachers can better
meet the needs of heritage language learners within the traditional foreign language classroom. It
explores the experiences of interview respondents who were heritage language learners in a
traditional foreign language program at the secondary level and their suggestions for improving
instruction for this specific group. This project documents the strengths and needs of such
students, as well as recommendations for schools and teachers for working with heritage
language learners based on student experiences and suggestions.
This qualitative study consisted of interviews with five participants who were heritage
language learners during their secondary education in a traditional foreign language program.
Interviews explored the motivation, identification and placement of the participants within the
program, the recognition of the participants' backgrounds by their teachers, and the instructional
and assessment methods used with the participants in the classroom. The project compares
student experiences with existing literature and identifies areas in need of further improvement
for schools and teachers when working with heritage language learners. This project offers
recommendations to schools and teachers for identifying, placing and teaching heritage language
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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learners in a traditional foreign language program to help create a meaningful experience for all
students in the classroom.
Literature Review
In the past, heritage language maintenance has been in the hands of the heritage language
communities themselves. With the exception of an increase in the teaching of German and
German-English bilingual schools in the late 19th century, schools in the United States
historically have done little to implement education to maintain heritage languages (Fishman,
2001). More recently, however, due to the results of immigration and greater recognition of
diversity within the U.S., there is a new interest in the teaching of heritage languages (Campbell
& Rosenthal, 2000). As the U.S. is becoming more culturally and linguistically diverse, not only
is the number of heritage languages and speakers of these languages rising, but also the demand
for multilingual and culturally aware individuals in the workforce. In order to satisfy this
demand, speakers of heritage languages are now being viewed a resource, as they possess a
knowledge and understanding of the language and culture "difficult to replicate in even the most
advanced second language learner" (Carreira & Armengol, 2001, p. 109).
In addition to the societal benefits of heritage language development, the study of one's
heritage language also has individual benefits to the learner. Tse (1998) cites a number of
studies regarding the effects of heritage language study on student attitudes. Students enrolled in
heritage language programs demonstrated more positive attitudes toward the heritage language,
more confidence using the language and more motivation to further study the language. Students
also demonstrated more positive attitudes toward the ethnic group and identified more closely
with the group. Furthermore, students studying their heritage language had a more positive selfconcept. Tse concluded that students who benefited most were those who studied their heritage
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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language as part of their day school rather than in community programs, supporting the study of
heritage languages in the U.S. K-12 school system.
As more schools are starting to recognize the heritage language learners within their
districts, some schools have begun to offer classes specifically for heritage language learners.
Other schools, as mentioned earlier, are unable to offer such classes. Many of these schools do
not have enough heritage language learners to support separate classes for such students
(Bateman & Wilkinson, 2010). Some schools do not offer classes for heritage language students
due to budgetary limitations or do not have qualified teachers or other resources available to
teach such classes. Other schools that may otherwise be good candidates for offering heritage
language classes may lack support from administration. Regardless of the reason, heritage
speakers in these schools wishing to study their heritage language must enroll in traditional
foreign language classes alongside of foreign language learners who do not have any previous
connection to the language. Given the differences in background of heritage language learners
and foreign language learners, each group brings different needs to the classroom requiring
teachers to differentiate instruction between both groups of students.
The differences between heritage language learners and traditional foreign language
learners are apparent even in their reasons for studying the language. Heritage language learners
typically demonstrate more integrative motivation (Reynolds, Howard & Deák, 2009) with "a
desire to be like representative members of the 'other' language community, and to become
associated, at least vicariously, with that community" (Gardner & Lambert, 1972, p. 14). These
students choose to study their heritage language in order to preserve their home language,
explore their heritage and connect with their heritage community. Foreign language learners, on
the other hand, tend to demonstrate more of an instrumental motivation (Reynolds, Howard &
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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Deák, 2009) with "a desire to gain social recognition or economic advantages through
knowledge of a foreign language" (Gardner & Lambert, 1972, p. 14). These students choose to
study a foreign language in order to reach educational or career goals. In terms of desired levels
of attainment, a study of students enrolled in foreign language classes at the University of
Philadelphia and nearby Drexel University showed that heritage language learners desired to
attain higher levels of proficiency in the language than the non-heritage learners (Reynolds,
Howard & Deák, 2009). While these assumptions may not hold true for every language learner,
it is important for teachers to consider students' reasons for studying a language and their goals
for the course.
For many heritage language speakers, enrolling in a foreign language class at the
secondary level is the first opportunity they have to formally study their native language.
Unfortunately, such foreign language classes are typically designed with the monolingual
English-speaking student in mind (Valdés, 2001). Many foreign language textbooks are
grammar-based, drilling students on basic vocabulary and verb conjugation. Working to
improve students' heritage language in this manner is inconsistent with the knowledge they bring
to the classroom, already having basic vocabulary and grammatical structures internalized. Even
when placing heritage learners in more advanced foreign language classes, teachers will find the
skill sets between the heritage learners and foreign language learners are different. Having
learned the language through social interaction, heritage language learners usually bring more
advanced oral and aural skills to the classroom with more limited literacy skills (Sohn & Shin,
2007). Foreign language learners typically demonstrate the opposite, having learned the
language in a formal classroom setting (Campbell & Rosenthal, 2000).
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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Not even cultural instruction is fitting to heritage language learners. Many textbooks
focus on helping students compare and contrast the target culture to their own culture, which
fails to recognize the perspective of a student who has grown up within the heritage community
(Bateman & Wilkinson, 2010). In other instances, some heritage learners find that foreign
language classes fail to recognize their culture at all. Textbooks often focus on the culture of
countries where speakers of the language are the ethnic majority. They may focus on the
achievements famous people from the target culture, and fail to address the cultural realities of
ethnic minorities living in the U.S (Bateman & Wilkinson, 2010). In these cases, students never
see their own culture reflected in instruction, distancing them from the curriculum and devaluing
their backgrounds.
In planning heritage language instruction, teachers need to consider the background of
the students, both culturally and linguistically. By examining student backgrounds, teachers can
identify student strengths and needs, as well as better understand the heritage of the student. In
reference to heritage learners of Spanish, Roca & Gutiérrez (2001) note that "instruction should
not aim to "'fix' their 'broken' Spanish, but to expand their linguistic repertoires" (p. 27).
Teachers should view students' previous knowledge as a resource and build on existing
proficiencies.
The first step schools must take in meeting the needs of heritage language learners is to
identify students as such and place them within the appropriate level classes. Although I was
unable to find anything in literature that explained the process that schools use for identifying
heritage language learners at the K-12 level, I was able to find literature reporting methods to
determine placement of these students within the foreign language program. Because traditional
foreign language programs are not designed for heritage language learners, placing them in a
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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beginning level class may not be ideal for these students. Heritage learners often bring
background knowledge of the language and culture that make them eligible for a higher-level
class or possibly modified instruction or accommodations in a beginning level class. Schools are
encouraged to award credit to students for classes they test out of, as it shows students that their
skills, knowledge and background are valued (García, 2000).
Various types of instruments may be used to determine placement, including
demographic and language use questionnaires, oral interviews and placement exams. While
commercially designed placement tests for heritage learners are available, Samaniego and Pino
(2000) suggest that schools create their own, as placement methods should align with the foreign
language program at hand. Placement methods should identify gaps in students' linguistic
knowledge and identify differences between the standard or academic dialect and the students'
home variety of the heritage language (Fairclough, 2006).
It is important for placement exams to include a variety of testing procedures, as
demonstrated in a study at the University of California, Los Angeles with a placement exam for
heritage learners of Korean (Sohn & Shin, 2007). The exam consisted of a multiple-choice
section that included listening, grammar, and reading, as well as a composition section. It was
found that the multiple-choice section did not successfully distinguish more proficient students
from less proficient students. When considering the multiple-choice scores alone, students
placed higher within the Korean program than they did based on their composition scores, which
had more variability. The study also concluded that because heritage language learners typically
have higher developed oral and aural skills, it is important to assess literacy and cognitive
academic language ability for placement using authentic materials.
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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Another study at the University of Houston analyzed a placement exam for heritage
learners of Spanish that also consisted of two parts (Fairclough, 2006). The first section assessed
knowledge of verb morphology using cloze passages while the second section consisted of four
short essays. The cloze section allowed the university to determine which linguistic structures
students had already mastered and which structures they were less familiar with. This type of
information can be used not only to place students in the foreign language program, but also to
guide instruction in the foreign language classroom. The placement exam helped to identify
students' strengths and areas in which they still need further development.
While placing students within the appropriate level foreign language class is crucial,
placement alone does not guarantee that heritage language learners' needs will be satisfied in the
classroom. When planning instruction for heritage language learners, teachers should analyze
student backgrounds in order to identify the strengths and needs of each individual student, as
heritage language learners are a diverse group in and among themselves. Heritage language
learners may be recently arrived immigrants or migrants, foreign-born students who arrived at an
early age and have received the majority of their schooling in the U.S., or U.S.-born students
with ethnic heritage (Wang & Green, 2001). Heritage language learners bring a variety of
cultural backgrounds, language varieties and proficiencies, and attitudes to the classroom, all of
which must be considered in the instructional design.
Heritage language learners may speak different varieties of the heritage language
depending on their background. Many heritage speakers use a variety of the heritage language
influenced by the regional dialect of the area from which the speaker's family emigrated. In
addition, heritage language students in the U.S. often speak a variety of the heritage language
influenced by English. Valdés (1988) explains three ways that Mexican American Spanish is
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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influenced by English. The first of these is semantic extension, in which Mexican American
speakers use Spanish words that take on new or additional meanings based on the English
language (e.g., the Spanish word niñera, meaning "servant who lives (or works full-time) in a
household and takes care of children," is used in place of the U.S. concept of "babysitter") (p.
122). In addition, speakers may adapt English words to fit the Spanish morphological system,
known as borrowing. Lastly, many Mexican American speakers use code-switching, in which
they speak combining both Spanish and English while maintaining the original forms of both
languages.
In addition to varying regional dialects, heritage learners also differ in the social dialects
that they know and use. Their language may be influenced by the social class background of
their family in the area from which they emigrated, as well as their social class background
within the U.S. Moreover, there may be evidence of diglossia, "the functional differentiation of
languages," in students' heritage language (Valdés, 2001, p. 45). Valdés explains that "the high
registers of English are used to carry out all formal/high exchanges, while heritage languages and
the informal registers of English are used as the low variety appropriate primarily for casual,
informal interactions" (p. 45). Heritage speakers typically have few opportunities to hear the
higher registers of their heritage language and without these models they often do not develop
the language needed for more formal academic contexts. (Roca & Gutiérrez, 2001).
Within students' own language varieties they will also have varying levels of proficiency
in the heritage language. In general, bilingualism among U.S. immigrants follows a pattern, with
each generation losing some proficiency in the heritage language until English eventually
becomes both the dominant and preferred language (Valdés, 2001). Because many heritage
speakers are only exposed to the heritage language in limited contexts, students may have
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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unbalanced skills in the four language domains of listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Heritage learners are typically more proficient in the domains of listening and speaking and have
less developed skills in reading and writing. This is because many of these students have grown
up hearing and speaking the language, but have only ever had formal schooling in English.
These students develop literacy skills in English at school, but never have the opportunity to
develop literacy in their heritage language (Wang & Green, 2001). In addition, heritage
language learners often lack formal grammatical knowledge. In many instances the heritage
speaker "knows the language and uses a set of internalized grammar rules, but does not have the
metalanguage to talk about the grammatical system itself" (Valdés, 2001, p 47).
Beyond students' diverse linguistic backgrounds, students also bring a range of attitudes
to the classroom. Students may respond with different feelings toward the specific language
variety or cultural topics being taught when they differ from their own. Some students may lack
self-esteem as related to their own language and culture. These students may reject their identity
has a heritage speaker as they want to be seen as more "American" (as cited in Wang & Green,
2001, p. 174). Other students may demonstrate what Krashen has labeled as "language shyness"
(1998). Students with language shyness may be hesitant to speak in their heritage language out
of fear of making mistakes in front of those more proficient than themselves.
Some instructional methods used in traditional foreign language classes may cause
language shyness and lower the self-esteem of heritage language learners. Some traditional
foreign language classes present grammar in such a way that heritage learners, although they
have the grammatical structures internalized, may perform worse than the traditional foreign
language learners, causing heritage learners to lose even more confidence. Krashen (1998) notes
that some heritage learners feel as if they are in a no-win situation in a traditional foreign
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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language class. Even if these students do well in the class, teachers and peers tend to attribute it
to the fact that they are heritage speakers and that high performance is expected as it comes easy
for them. In reality, these students may be working very hard to perform at this level.
In order for teachers to provide effective differentiated instruction for heritage language
learners, they must consider all of the aspects of the students' backgrounds and build on existing
proficiencies. While instruction must be individualized based on students' backgrounds,
strengths and needs, some general recommendations hold true for most heritage language
learners.
Foreign language teachers must first recognize the background of their heritage language
learners and demonstrate that this background is valued. Heritage language students are more
motivated in the classroom when they feel that teachers value the language and culture they
bring to the classroom (Wang & Green, 2001). Teachers should take the time to get to know
students and their cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Teachers should design instruction that
incorporates students' home language and culture into activities and assignments (Samaniego &
Pino, 2001). When teaching students a standard dialect of the heritage language that is different
from the students' home language, teachers should justify to students the importance of the
standard dialect while still recognizing that the dialect they already knows is still appropriate for
many everyday, casual social situations. Teachers should never devalue what students bring to
the classroom as students may develop negative attitudes toward the teacher and curriculum or
negative attitudes toward their own language and culture.
Teachers should also modify instruction and assessment for heritage language learners to
accommodate their different needs within the traditional foreign language class. In order to
prepare these modifications, teachers should view students' previous knowledge as a resource
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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and work to expand what they already know. Students should not be drilled on verb
conjugations and basic vocabulary that they have already internalized, but work to fill linguistic
gaps. Students should learn to use their language in a variety of contexts within the four
language domains of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Many textbooks now provide
suggestions for accommodations for heritage learners, but according to Bateman and Wilkinson's
(2010) survey of secondary Spanish teachers in Utah, more than half of teachers with heritage
learners rarely or never use them.
Many heritage language students come to the foreign language class with well-developed
speaking and listening skills; however, this does not mean that these students do not need
instruction in these areas. Because many heritage learners only hear and speak their heritage
language in informal conversation among family and friends and have little exposure to higher
registers used in formal contexts, Samaniego and Pino (2000) suggest that students participate in
a variety of authentic listening activities that reflect both formal and informal contexts, such as
songs, theater, speeches, newscasts, documentaries and soap operas. Students can practice
modeling different registers in role-plays, debates and speeches and become more comfortable
using these registers while at the same time increasing their vocabulary and fluency.
Because many heritage language learners have limited literacy skills in the heritage
language, Samaniego and Pino (2000) suggest that reading and writing instruction should be
taught similar to English language arts, teaching students to use reading and writing strategies.
By the time many students enter into a foreign language program in the U.S., they have already
mastered reading and writing strategies in English. Teachers must work to help students transfer
these skills from English to Spanish (Campbell & Rosenthal, 2000). Reading is a good way to
expand heritage speakers' vocabulary and should include a variety of genres (Samaniego & Pino,
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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2000). Teachers may also find that reading is a good form of comprehensible input for shy
students (Krashen, 1998).
Schools and teachers must carefully consider many aspects of student backgrounds when
placing and providing instruction for heritage language learners in a traditional foreign language
program. Providing students with an appropriate placement based on their strengths and needs
works as a foundation to expand students' proficiencies in the language. Once in the classroom,
teacher must recognize and incorporate the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of the heritage
learners into the curriculum. They must also provide students with modified instruction and
assessment and accommodations that focus on the specific needs of the heritage language
learners. This study compares the actual experiences of heritage language learners with current
research to identify areas still in need of improvement for schools and teachers, as well as
possible solutions based on student experiences and suggestions.
Methodology
The purpose of this qualitative study is to investigate ways in which schools and teachers
can better meet the needs of heritage language learners within the traditional foreign language
classroom through examining the experiences of students who studied Spanish as a heritage
language in the U.S. K-12 school system. Data was collected from live interviews with
participants who were heritage language learners of Spanish during their secondary education.
The interviews investigated the motivation, identification and placement of the participants
within the traditional foreign language program, the recognition of the participants' backgrounds
by their teachers and the instructional and assessment methods used with the participants in the
classroom. The goal was to identify common themes among student experiences and determine
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
17
the areas in which their heritage language study could be improved and possible solutions for
schools and teachers.
Interview questions for the study were created, reviewed and sent to the University of
Akron’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) where the study received approval. Upon receiving
approval, I contacted the directive members of an on-campus organization of Hispanic students
at the University of Akron to put me in contact with people who had studied Spanish as a
heritage language during their secondary education in the U.S. and would be interested in sharing
their experiences. Interested volunteers contacted me and participated in live interviews.
Individual interviews took place at mutually agreed upon locations at the University of
Akron's campus. Before each interview, participants read and signed the consent form, which
explained the study and their role in the research. The participants were then read an
introductory statement explaining the format of the interview and proceeded to the interview
questions (see Appendix). Interviews were recorded, transcribed and analyzed for common
themes among responses.
The participants in this study are of Hispanic decent and are second-generation in the
U.S. Each participant was raised speaking Spanish to some degree either at home or with family.
All of the participants were enrolled in Spanish foreign language classes during their secondary
education, making them heritage learners of the language during that time. Only one participant
ever had any formal education in Spanish before studying it at the secondary level. The
following provides self-reported background information on each participant. Pseudonyms have
been used.
Amanda is a current university student. Her father is a first generation immigrant from
Mexico. While she was raised speaking mainly English at home with her parents, she often
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
18
communicated with other relatives in Spanish and made frequent trips to Mexico. She studied
Spanish I, II, III, IV and took AP Spanish as an independent study in high school from 2006 to
2010.
Carlos is a current university student. Both of his parents are first generation immigrants
from Mexico and he was raised speaking only Spanish in the home. He participated in a
bilingual (Spanish/English) program at a bilingual school until fourth grade when he transitioned
to an English-only class. He studied Spanish I and II in high school from 2004 to 2006.
Eric is a current university student. Both of his parents are first generation immigrants
from Mexico. He was raised speaking primarily Spanish at home. Eric took Spanish II, III and
AP in high school from 2003-2007.
Angela is a high school Spanish teacher. Her mother is a first generation immigrant from
Puerto Rico and her father was born in Texas, but raised in Mexico. She was raised speaking
Spanish at home. Angela studied Spanish I, II, III and IV in high school during the late 80s.
Sandra is a university Spanish professor. She was born to a German mother and Mexican
father, making her a heritage learner of both languages. She took both German and Spanish
simultaneously in high school in the late 60s. The interview inquired about her experiences as a
heritage language learner in both her Spanish and German foreign language classes.
Results
Of the five respondents, four elected to study Spanish themselves. Two of these
participants decided to enroll in Spanish because of its connection with their lives, stating that
they felt that the language was a part of them and they wanted to learn more about themselves
and their family. One participant chose to study Spanish because he wanted to perfect his native
language that he said had not been fully developed. Another participant cited that he chose to
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
19
take Spanish because he believed it would be an easy course for him. The remaining participant
responded that enrolling in Spanish was not a decision of her own, but that of her mother. When
asked what the participants hoped to learn in their Spanish classes, most mentioned grammar and
literacy skills.
All five of the participants were initially placed into Spanish I (Sandra was also placed in
German III in addition to Spanish I). Eric was placed in Spanish II about a month into the school
year and Carlos was given the option to move up to Spanish III a couple of weeks into the school
year, but declined the offer. The other participants never had the option of being placed higher
than a first-year Spanish class. As each participant had a very different experience with the
placement process, each experience will be described in detail.
Angela was placed in Spanish I her freshman year and was never given an opportunity to
be placed any higher. Angela notes that while some aspects of her Spanish classes were
informative, such as the cultural topics and grammar instruction, in general the classes were not
challenging enough and lacked serious students. In her junior year she went to both her Spanish
teacher and guidance counselor requesting to be placed into university-level Spanish for her
senior year, but her teacher and counselor never responded to her request even after multiple
attempts. Angela was very disappointed that her teacher and counselor did not take her request
seriously and feels she would have benefited more from the university-level Spanish class than
the class she took her senior year.
Amanda was placed into Spanish I her freshman year not knowing that her school offered
a placement exam for heritage language learners. She was not made aware of the placement
exam until her second year of Spanish when her Spanish II teacher asked her why she had not
taken it the previous year. Amanda feels that she should have been placed at least in Spanish II,
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
20
as her first-year class did not present her with enough of a challenge. Amanda finally felt
adequately challenged in her AP class, which a teacher encouraged her to take as an independent
study.
Carlos was initially placed into Spanish I, but within a couple weeks of starting the class
the teacher realized he was a heritage language learner and pulled him aside for an informal, oral
interview. Based on the results of the interview she told him he could be placed as high as
Spanish III if he would like to move up. Carlos chose to remain in his Spanish I class because he
had already settled into his class and had friends there. Looking back, Carlos realized it would
have been more beneficial for him to accept the higher placement. He believes that if the school
would have given him a placement exam before he started the class he may have made the
decision to be placed in Spanish III.
Eric was initially placed into Spanish I, but about a month into the course, after the
teacher realized he had some proficiency in the language, the school moved him up to Spanish II
(he did not receive credit for Spanish I). He said that he felt Spanish II was an appropriate level
for him. He did recognize that there was some material taught in Spanish I that he did not know
that his peers in Spanish II did know, but he believes this just helped to give him a little bit more
of a challenge. He does feel that schools should have more formal placement methods that are
administered at the beginning of the year to assess what heritage learners know and the
appropriate level for them.
As a heritage learner of both Spanish and German, Sandra's situation is unique because
she was placed in Spanish I and German III. She is unsure how the school placed her and does
not know how much the school knew about her background. She feels that her placement in
Spanish I and German III complemented each other. German III was challenging for Sandra,
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
21
specifically in terms of grammar and writing. She noted that the grammar instruction in Spanish
I often helped her to make sense of the grammar in German III.
All of the participants but one agreed that the Spanish taught by their teachers sometimes
differed from the Spanish they were familiar with. These four participants noted that the Spanish
they were taught in class sometimes contained different pronunciations, vocabulary and
expressions than the language they used at home and with family. While most of their teachers
acknowledged the fact that their Spanish was different, not all teachers accepted their students'
own language varieties in the classroom. Students whose home language was accepted in the
classroom reported more positive experiences in their classes.
Students whose teachers accepted the language of the students often allowed these
students to contribute their variation of the language to the class. Amanda reported a positive
experience with one teacher who frequently asked Amanda to contribute new vocabulary to the
class and would add her words to the vocabulary lists for all of the students. Eric reported that
the Spanish taught in his class was always very diverse and the teacher would often explain the
different dialects of different areas. He remembers listening to audiotapes of native speakers for
listening comprehension practice that had speakers from multiple Spanish-speaking countries.
Sandra remembers her German teacher trying to correct her pronunciation until he realized her
mother was from northern Germany and that Sandra was speaking with a northern German
accent. Although he came to accept her northern accent, Sandra often used the southern accent
in class as she felt this was polite.
Sandra had a very different experience in her Spanish class. Sandra's Spanish teacher
was from Spain and taught mainly Castilian, which varied greatly from the Mexican Spanish
Sandra was familiar with. When Sandra would use Spanish that varied from the Castilian
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
22
dialect, her teacher would tell her she was wrong. Sandra spent a long time believing that this
was true and that it was a reflection of her family's uneducated migrant worker background. It
was not until Sandra studied in Spain that she realized where this misunderstanding was coming
from. Looking back, Sandra believes that her Spanish teacher was sincerely unaware that Sandra
was speaking a different dialect of the language.
Amanda had two teachers who, although they were aware that Amanda spoke a different
variation of the language than was sometimes taught in class, would not give her credit for using
the Spanish she was familiar with. Her teachers did not want her to use the Spanish she knew
because, they told her, she would "confuse the class." Amanda found this very disappointing and
did not believe this was true, as it was not the case in her classes where she was allowed to
contribute her vocabulary to the class. Carlos, who also had a teacher who taught a different
dialect of Spanish, also noted that it can be difficult to accept language that is unfamiliar.
Most of the participants responded that a variety of cultural topics were presented in their
classes and, therefore, they had opportunities to see their own cultural background reflected in
the curriculum. For example, Carlos specifically remembers seeing his own cultural background
reflected when his class tried traditional Mexican foods. While classes did touch on the Mexican
and Puerto Rican background of the participants interviewed, many of them agreed that more
could have been done to make this experience more personal for them. Many of the respondents
reported that they enjoyed opportunities to share their own culture with the class. Carlos noted
that his teacher would sometimes ask him to teach about Mexican culture and share his own
experiences with the class, as she recognized he had more experience with the culture than she
did. Carlos welcomed these opportunities and would have liked to do this more frequently.
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
23
Amanda had one Spanish teacher who always encouraged Amanda to share her
background and cultural experiences with the class, but two of her other Spanish teachers did
not. Amanda remembers how her one teacher would always expect her to share with the class
each time she returned from a trip to Mexico and Amanda always appreciated these
opportunities. She was disappointed that she had more than one teacher who would not let her
do projects related to Mexico because they said she was already too familiar with the country and
culture. While she noted that she understood that these teachers wanted her to learn about
cultures different from her own, she still felt that she had so much she could have contributed to
the class and never got the opportunity to share it.
Sandra once again had very different experiences in her two language classes. In her
Spanish class Sandra rarely saw her own culture reflected in the class as her teacher was from
Spain and her Castilian-based textbook reflected mostly the culture of Spain. Her teacher did not
spend much time teaching about other Spanish-speaking cultures and did not ask Sandra to share
with the class. In her German class Sandra remembers her teacher bringing in stories from
northern Germany that she knew from her childhood. The teacher also taught many songs in
German the class and would ask Sandra about songs she knew and would learn to play these
songs on the guitar to share with the class.
Students whose language and culture were reflected in the class reported more positive
experiences in their foreign language classes. Eric, who mentioned that his Spanish classes were
always very linguistically and culturally diverse, stated that he developed more respect for his
own background as a result of his classes. Sandra reported the same proud feeling from her
German class and believes this is what helped her to be successful in the class. She contrasted
this with her experience in Spanish where she became embarrassed of what she believed was her
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
24
uneducated Spanish and became less talkative in the class. Sandra believes she did not develop
as much in this class as a result of this misunderstanding. She stated the way the teacher taught
the language still made the language seem foreign to her, when it should have been something
very close to her.
Participants were also asked what they feel could have been done to better validate their
linguistic and cultural backgrounds in their foreign language classes. In terms of their linguistic
backgrounds, participants stated that teachers should explain the differences between the
variation of the language being taught and the home language of the student and give credit for
use of the home variety of the language when appropriate. They also enjoyed sharing their
language variety with their classmates and seeing their language variety reflected in class. As for
students' cultural backgrounds, participants suggested that teachers should bring the students'
cultures into the classroom and allow students to share their own cultural experiences with the
class.
When asked about modified instruction and assessment, only two of the five participants
reported ever receiving any modified instruction or assessments in their Spanish classes (Sandra
did report receiving some accommodations in her German class). These students who received
modified instruction and assessment received it in different ways. Carlos's teacher attempted to
give Carlos some alternate and additional assignments at the beginning of the year; but after
doing a couple, he was no longer interested in doing them and the teacher stopped giving them to
him. Carlos felt that his class was not challenging enough, but this is because he chose not to
receive modified instruction. Looking back, Carlos wishes he had received more encouragement
to challenge himself.
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
25
While Amanda never received alternate or additional assignments, she had one teacher
who always challenged her to perform at the highest level she was capable of, which was often at
a higher level than the rest of the class. This was the same teacher who encouraged Amanda to
take AP as an independent study her senior year. It was not until taking the AP class that
Amanda really felt appropriately challenged in her study of Spanish, a decision that could be
labeled as both effective placement and effective modified instruction. Amanda did not receive
any modified instruction from any of her other teachers, as is reflected in her feeling of not being
challenged in these classes.
Sandra saw accommodations made in the grading of assessments in her German class.
These accommodations were unlike those of the other students as they did not raise expectations,
but rather lowered them. This is because Sandra was placed into German III and lacked some of
the skills her peers had gained from German I and II, specifically in grammar and writing. She
believes her German teacher modified his grading on writing assessments to make up for the fact
that she had difficulty writing in the language. He also gave her extra time to complete difficult
grammar assignments.
All of the participants recognized that they were often on different levels than most of
their peers and majority of them would have preferred to receive modified instruction to better fit
their needs. Most of the students said that in some areas they could have been challenged mor e
and perhaps given alternate assignments. Many of the students also noted being more advanced
in listening and speaking than most of their peers and needing to develop more literacy skills.
When the participants were asked if they learned what they hoped to learn in the class, three
responded that they did, while the other two participants said they did not. The reason for this,
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
26
they believed, is that the classes did not reach an advanced enough level for them to be able to
make further progress in their heritage language.
Eric recalled feeling bored when the teacher would play videos or audio recordings for
listening comprehension several times because most of the students in the class needed to hear it
several times to comprehend it, while Eric did not. Eric believes that teachers should use more
pre-assessments to assess the strengths and needs of students and to give more individualized
assignments based on these needs. He experienced this in a university-level Spanish course
where his professor had the students write an essay that she proofread and provided each student
with resources and assignments based on the student's greatest needs. He suggested
implementing these alternate assignments and activities during times when the rest of the class is
learning something in which the heritage language learner already is proficient.
While Sandra's German teacher did modify his grading on some of her assignments, he
could have offered Sandra more support with some of the skills she lacked that her peers gained
from the earlier German classes she bypassed. She said it would have been beneficial for the
teacher to pull her aside teach her some basic concepts, such as explaining how verb
conjugations worked. It also would have helped her if the teacher would have explained to her
that the way she learned German was different than the way the other students had learned it in
their classes and because of this she would have different strengths and needs than her peers.
Angela never received any modified instruction or assessment, but she does not feel that
her teacher could have provided this for her. This is because she feels that her Spanish teacher,
who was not a native speaker, was not proficient enough in the language to do so. She realizes
that if her teacher had given her alternate assignments or assessments that her teacher would
have also needed adequate language proficiency to make corrections to her work. Angela
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
27
believes that teachers should modify instruction and expect more of heritage language learners,
but they must also have adequate language proficiency to do so.
When asked if the respondents had any further advice for teachers working with heritage
language learners in traditional foreign language classrooms, they responded with similar
suggestions that can be reduced to the following list:
Allow heritage learners to contribute their own cultural backgrounds to the class. Allow
them to help teach the class through their own experiences.
Encourage heritage learners to challenge themselves and provide students with modified
instruction and assignments based on their needs. Take advantage of materials created
specifically for heritage language learners.
Do not overestimate students' proficiency in the language and be aware that students may
speak different varieties of the heritage language. Explain the differences between the
student's home variety and the variety taught in class.
CONCLUSION
The various experiences of the heritage language learners in this study suggest that not all
schools and teachers are using consistent, research-based methods with heritage learners in
traditional foreign language programs. It also demonstrates the variety of needs that exist among
learners of this same group. While the heritage learners have different needs, the participants
demonstrate that schools and teachers can meet these needs by considering placement,
instruction and assessment that is designed around the strengths and needs of the students. When
presented with instruction that recognizes their culture and is designed to expand their
proficiencies, heritage language students have an enjoyable classroom experience from which
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
28
they can deepen their understanding of their own culture and broaden their skills in their heritage
language.
Motivation among the heritage language learners seemed to be consistent with current
research. Two participants chose to study the language because of the connection to their life
and wanted to learn more about their background. Another student wanted to further develop his
native language. These participants seem to demonstrate more integrative motivation, as is
typical of heritage language learners (Reynolds, Howard & Deák, 2009). None of the
participants demonstrated instrumental motivation, typical of traditional foreign language
learners, in their decision to study Spanish as none of them mentioned any academic or career
goals they hoped to achieve from learning the language. It is important for teachers to note that
not all students study a language because they want to, as was the case with Angela whose
mother made this decision for her. There also may be students such as Carlos, who take the
foreign language class because they believe it will be easy for them.
Sandra was the only student identified and placed as a heritage language learner before
the start of the school year. She is unaware of how the school knew that she was a heritage
language learner or how her placement was determined. The other students were either
identified and offered alternate placement options after the start of classes, were not notified of
possible placement options, or the school did not offer alternate placement options. This
evidence, as well as the lack of information on identification methods in existing literature,
suggests that many K-12 schools have not developed concrete methods for identifying students
as heritage language learners.
As the U.S. Department of Education (2000) requires schools to identify students who are
Limited English Proficient, many states use a home language survey to identify students who
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
29
have a home language other than English. Schools then test these students' English language
proficiency to determine whether they are in need of English language services. The home
language survey suggested to Ohio school districts by the Ohio Department of Education (2010)
collects information such as languages the student first learned, languages the student uses at
home, and languages used by others living in the home. Answers to these same questions could
also serve schools when identifying heritage language learners as they enroll in foreign language
classes, possibly making the home language survey of further interest to schools for this purpose.
With such identification methods in place all heritage language learners could be notified of
placement options before starting classes.
The results of the interviews demonstrate that not all schools have concrete placement
methods for placing heritage language learners. Sandra was placed into Spanish I and German
III without knowing how this was determined. Carlos's placement was based on a short,
informal interview with the teacher a couple of weeks into the school year. Eric never took a
placement test, but after a month of performing well in Spanish I was moved to Spanish II.
Angela was never given the option to be placed any higher than a first-year class.
Heritage language students would benefit more from the placement process by taking
placement exams that use a variety of testing procedures that also include the assessment of
literacy skills (Sohn & Shin, 2007). These tests should identify gaps in students' knowledge and
differences between their home variety and the standard variety of the heritage language
(Fairclough, 2006). Schools can compare the results of these tests with their goals for the foreign
language program at each level and decide at what level the student is able to succeed, yet still be
challenged with opportunities to further develop the heritage language. Teachers can also use
these results as a foundation for modified instruction for heritage language learner, following
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
30
what Eric suggested when he stated teachers should provide more modified instruction based on
pre-assessments. The results of a placement exam that assesses listening, speaking, reading and
writing can provide teachers with a starting point to provide heritage language learners with
instruction that will help to expand their already existing proficiencies in the language.
When asked how the heritage learners' teachers could better validate their linguistic and
cultural backgrounds, the most common responses were for teachers to recognize and accept
differences, as well as to allow students to share their own linguistic and cultural backgrounds
with the class. Students with teachers who embraced the diverse backgrounds of heritage
language learners reported more positive experiences in their foreign language classes, as also
reported by Wang and Green (2001). Participants in this study suggested that teachers ask
heritage learners to share their own cultural experiences, as it makes them feel good about their
background and is beneficial to their classmates who are interested in learning about the real-life
experiences of their peers. While the participants in this study were eager to share their culture
with the class, it is important to keep in mind that not all students may wish to be identified with
their heritage group (as cited in Wang and Green, 2001). Teacher should remain sensitive to
students' feelings and allow such students to share only what they are comfortable sharing.
This study demonstrates that not all schools are providing heritage language learners with
modified instruction, although all of the participants believe it is beneficial for heritage language
learners. Modified instruction for heritage language learners should work in two ways, as shown
by the experiences of the participants. Students should be challenged in their strengths and
supported in their needs. Placing a heritage learner past a beginning level in a foreign language
program will often leave the student more proficient than their peers in some aspects of the
language, and less proficient in others as was the case with Sandra in her German class. While
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
31
teachers should never overestimate the language proficiency of their heritage language students,
they should encourage these students to challenge themselves and provide them with alternate
activities and assignments when they know the student is already proficient in what the rest of
the class is learning. Many foreign language textbooks now include accommodations for
heritage language learners that many teachers still are not using (Bateman & Wilkinson, 2010).
Angela adds an important point to the discussion, calling attention to the fact that in order
to provide instruction that meets the needs of heritage language learners, it is beneficial that the
teacher have adequate proficiency in the language. Foreign language teachers who are nonnative speakers of the language must continually challenge themselves to maintain and advance
their language skills. Teachers whose language proficiency may be lower than their students' in
some aspects must find ways to allow their formal knowledge of the language to complement the
more informal knowledge of their heritage language learners.
Heritage language learners are growing population in the U.S. that cannot be ignored. As
long as there are schools that place heritage language learners in traditional foreign language
programs, there will be a need to differentiate instruction for this group of students. Schools and
teachers need to use more research-based methods when working with these students so that
heritage speakers may benefit from these classes just as much as their traditional foreign
language learner peers. Schools and teachers must consider every aspect of the foreign language
program from identification to assessment of the heritage language learners in order to identify
and satisfy their needs in such a program. I hope that the experiences of the heritage learners
who were a part of this project help to demonstrate to schools and teachers the importance of
considering the needs of the heritage language learner population in their schools and
classrooms, as well as open the door to further research in this area.
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
32
References
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MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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Appendix
Heritage Language Learner Interview
To complete my study on how teachers can better meet the needs of heritage language learners, I
am going to ask you some questions about your background, motivation to study Spanish at the
secondary level, your placement in Spanish class, recognition of your background by the teacher,
and instructional adequacy in the Spanish class.
Background
What is your educational background?
What is your ethnic background?
What was your background with Spanish language and culture before studying it at the
secondary level?
What years and ages did you study Spanish (K-12):
What Spanish classes did you take?
Motivation
Why did you want to study Spanish?
What did you hope to learn in your Spanish class, in terms of both language and culture?
o As an end result, do you feel that you learned what you hoped to learn?
Did your motivation to take Spanish change after starting classes?
o What (if anything) either caused you to lose motivation or increased your
motivation?
o What else do you feel the teacher could have done to increase your motivation?
When did you stop taking Spanish and why?
Placement at the Secondary Level (includes middle & high school)
What level of Spanish class were you placed in?
o How was this determined?
o Did you receive credit for any classes based on your placement?
Do you feel you were placed in the appropriate level?
o If not, what level do you feel you should have been placed in and why?
Were their other heritage language learners (individuals with Hispanic heritage) in your
class?
What do you feel could have improved the placement process at your school?
Recognition of Background
How familiar was the teacher with your background, both linguistically and culturally?
In your classes, was the Spanish taught by the teacher sometimes different than the
Spanish you were familiar with? If so, how?
o Did the teacher recognize the fact that the Spanish you used was different?
o Did you ever see the type of Spanish you were familiar with reflected in
assignments, activities, assessments, etc.?
MEETING THE NEEDS OF HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS
36
o How did you feel about the Spanish your teacher was teaching?
o Did the teacher give you justification for learning the type of Spanish he or she
was teaching?
o How did you feel about your own Spanish as a result of your classes?
Did you ever see your cultural background reflected in assignments, activities,
assessments, etc.?
o How did you feel about the cultural topics your teacher taught about?
o How did you feel about your own cultural background as a result of your classes?
What do you feel the teacher could have done to better validate your cultural and
linguistic background?
Instruction/Assessment
Did the teacher ever modify instruction or give you an alternate assignment, activity,
assessment, etc. different from that of the traditional foreign language learners in the
classroom?
o Please describe the modifications and/or alternate assignments, activities,
assessments, etc.
Did the teacher ever exempt you from assignments, activities, assessments, etc. (and not
give you an alternate assignment, activity, assessment, etc)?
o What types of assignments, activities, assessments, etc. were you exempt from?
In general, do you feel that the teacher made an effort to modify instruction to meet your
needs as a heritage language learner?
o Do you feel this effort was successful?
Was the class ever too challenging or not challenging enough?
o If so, when?
What do you feel the teacher could have done to better meet your needs as a heritage
language learner in the classroom?
Conclusion
What other advice do you have for schools and teachers for working with heritage
language learners in a traditional foreign language program?