BLM AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
MONITORING STRATEGY
January 3, 2006
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Contents
Page
Introduction and Objectives
3
Background
Why Identify a Strategy?
Strategy Purpose
Strategy Scope
Strategy Principles
3
3
3
4
4
Why Monitor?
5
General
Monitoring Objectives
Monitoring Needs
5
6
6
Regulatory/Legal
Formal Commitments
Condition/Trend
6
7
7
Monitoring Alternatives
7
Existing/Historical Information
Existing Monitoring Programs/Partnerships
Existing Interpretation Programs/Partnerships
Remote Sensing
Surveys/Special Studies
New Monitoring Program
Monitoring Components
Monitoring Plan
Data Quality Objectives
Siting
Methods
Quality Management Plan
Data Management
Training
Staffing/Budget/Schedule
Figures
7
8
10
10
11
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
14
15
16-21
BLM Air Resource Monitoring Strategy
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I. Introduction and Objectives
Background
The USDI – Bureau of Land Management, in order to manage the Public Lands in a manner
consistent with Congressional direction, needs air resource-related (air quality, weather and
climate) information: 1) to assure that its actions (whether directly or through use authorizations)
comply with all applicable local, state, tribal and federal air quality regulations; 2) to determine the
extent to which its natural resources are influenced by the chemical and physical conditions of the
atmosphere; and 3) to make informed resource management decisions affected by air quality,
weather, and climate conditions. In most cases, the necessary information is already available
from existing monitoring networks, such as: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
local, state and tribal air quality regulatory agencies; the USDC – National Climatic Data Center;
and individual monitoring studies. However, for certain locations and parameters, existing data
sources may not be adequate or available to address the Bureau’s needs. In such cases, the
Bureau may need to design, fund, operate and report air resource-related monitoring conditions
on its own, or supplement existing non-Bureau data collection efforts.
Why Identify a Strategy?
Historically, as a “decentralized” agency, the Bureau has generally addressed its air resourcerelated information needs on an “ad hoc” basis; as location-specific needs for air quality or
climatic data were identified, local offices developed the budget, staffing, and process necessary
to obtain that information. Where larger geographic needs (such as Fire Management’s
development of the Remote Automatic Weather Stations (RAWS) for real-time fire weather and
daily fire danger rating information) or national interests (such as the interagency National
Atmospheric Deposition Program, or NADP) were identified, monitoring has been supported from
the Bureau’s Headquarters Office in Washington, DC.
The need for air resource information has grown given: increased energy-minerals development
and its related air quality impacts; wide-spread and longer-term drought impacts on vegetation
and hydrologic conditions; smoke impacts from increasing wildland fire activities; long-range
regional air quality impacts such as ozone and visibility; etc. However, given the increasing
needs for this information, at the same time personnel and budget resources are stagnant or
declining, the Bureau must ensure its actions strategically prioritize, efficiently obtain, and
conserve its valuable monitoring information.
Strategy Purpose
This Air Resource Management Monitoring Strategy is intended to provide direction and support
to all Bureau Programs and Offices regarding the design, collection, quality, analysis, and data
management of air resource-related information needed to address its legislative and regulatory
requirements for managing the Public Lands. The Strategy identifies the basis for monitoring,
alternative methods of “monitoring,” basic monitoring components, and a summary of key
considerations when planning, conducting, archiving, and distributing monitoring information.
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Strategy Scope
This Air Resource Management Monitoring Strategy primarily addresses methods to
quantitatively measure, analyze, and report information, including (but not limited to):
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Criteria air pollutants (and their precursors).
Hazardous air pollutants.
Air Quality Related Values (i.e.; visibility, atmospheric deposition, non-regulated air
pollutants, etc.)
Noise.
Weather/climate (i.e.; precipitation, temperature, wind, radiation, etc.)
The information includes statistical summaries and derived information (i.e.; long-term averages,
percentiles, time periods between events, etc.)
Strategy Principles
This Air Resource Management Monitoring Strategy is based on the following key principles:
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-
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The need for air resource-related information must be established. The Bureau
does not “monitor for monitoring’s sake.” Existing information, if it is of adequate quality,
may already be available to support land management decisions and implementation.
Similarly, if adequate data are not already available, the Bureau needs to decide whether
or not to initiate its own monitoring (or supplement an existing monitoring program),
based on the principles of need, science, quality, and priority.
Is monitoring based on sound scientific methods? The Bureau must be assured that
the information it obtains and uses truly represents the actual conditions it is monitoring,
within acceptable Data Quality Objectives. In general, the Bureau will implement proven
monitoring methods and technologies, except where existing methods have been shown
to be inadequate for the intended purposes.
Are procedures included to defend the quality of monitored information, including
external evaluations of quality assurance? “Bad” information is worse than no
information at all, and the only way to defend the quality of information is through a
prescribed process of quality control and quality assurance. Bureau initiated quantitative
monitoring will incorporate Quality System Elements for planning (i.e.; guidance
documents, Quality Management Plan, Data Quality Objectives, etc.), implementation
(i.e.; Standard Operating Procedures., internal quality control, training, data validation,
etc.), assessment and reporting (i.e.; site characterization, metadata management,
external quality assurance, etc.)
Is the monitoring priority high enough to obtain adequate planning, staffing,
budget and timing (implementation schedule)? With the exception of short-term
sampling/evaluation surveys, the Bureau recognizes that monitoring studies require a
long-term commitment of staff, budget and time. Although the relatively simple, one-time
establishment of background (baseline) conditions may be necessary, its value is greatly
enhanced when monitoring is repeated long enough to develop trends and correlations to
other Bureau management activities. However, given limited staff, budget and time, the
Bureau must evaluate whether or not the costs of conducting new monitoring is
outweighed by the benefits obtained by new information, and if not, new monitoring
should not be initiated until the benefits outweigh the costs. One way to lower direct BLM
costs is to obtain cooperative support from other interested parties (such as
intergovernmental cost sharing, direct industry or environmental support, in-kind services,
etc.)
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The decision to initiate long-term monitoring should not be made until a Monitoring Plan
describing the needs, methods, quality, and priority has been presented to management and
approved for scheduled implementation. For short-term surveys or special studies, an
abbreviated Sampling/Evaluation Study Plan may serve the same purpose. Alternatively, a
“blanket” plan could be developed for activities where the site-specific application is not known
(such as ad hoc monitoring of particulate matter from wildfire smoke.)
II. Why Monitor?
General
Through the Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA), the U.S. Congress has
declared “… it is the Policy of the United States that – (2) the national interest will be best realized
if the public … resources are periodically and systematically inventoried … through a land use
planning process …; [and] (8) the public lands be managed in a manner that will protect the
quality of … air and atmospheric … values;” (43 USC 1701).
In addition, the Secretary of the Interior “... shall prepare and maintain on a continuing basis an
inventory of all public lands and their resource … values … [to] … be kept current so as to reflect
changes in conditions …” (43 USC 1711).
Congress also directed the Secretary to “… develop, maintain, and when appropriate, revise land
use plans … which provide … for the use of the public lands.” and “… the Secretary shall … (2)
use a systematic interdisciplinary approach to achieve integrated of physical, biological,
economic, and other sciences; [and] (8) provide for compliance with applicable pollution control
laws, including State and Federal air … pollution standards or implementation plans;” (43 USC
1712).
Therefore, the Bureau must obtain or collect air resource-related information to:
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Determine the background (baseline) conditions of air and atmospheric values on the
Public Lands.
Evaluate changes in those conditions (trends).
Systematically integrate knowledge of atmospheric conditions into the management of
other natural resources (such as vegetation, wildlife, minerals, recreation, hydrology, fire,
and scenic values).
Specifically for air quality, demonstrate that its actions (either directly or through use
authorizations) comply with applicable local, state, tribal, and federal regulations.
“Air resource-related information” may include evaluation of vegetation response to climate
change (such as “Lilac” studies), chemical and physical conditions of water bodies (such as
changes in acid neutralizing capacity due to atmospheric deposition), or foliar injury from elevated
ozone concentrations.
In addition, Bureau air resource-related monitoring may be useful: to support national evaluations
(such as the National Weather Service [NWS] Cooperative Observer Program); to determine the
source and magnitude of atmospheric impacts from outside sources (such as the Interagency
Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) source apportionment studies for
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) Class I Areas); to assist local, state or tribal air
quality regulatory agencies in meeting their Congressional mandates; to provide information
necessary to predict impacts to other Bureau programs (such as drought impacts to vegetation);
to assure Bureau obligations are met based on formal decisions or mitigation measures (such as
an emissions inventory and tracking program to prevent significant impacts); or to support
quantitative impact assessments (required under the National Environmental Policy Act.)
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Monitoring Objectives
The primary objectives for conducting air resource-related monitoring are to:
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Establish existing (background) conditions.
Determine the trends of conditions over time.
Providing quantitative information to the Administration, Congress, other agencies, and
the general public regarding air resource conditions on the Public Lands.
Use monitoring information to assist in predicting future conditions (such as meteorology
conditions in atmospheric dispersion modeling), or to evaluate the success of previous
modeling predictions.
Assist in developing management responses to changes in air quality, weather, or
climate conditions, or to evaluate the success of previously implemented management
responses.
Specifically for air quality, determine compliance with applicable local, state, tribal or
national regulatory requirements.
Monitoring Needs
The need for obtaining air resource-related information should be prioritized to first address
regulatory or legally required monitoring, then to address formal commitments made by
management directive (i.e.; Record of Decision, Memoranda of Understanding, etc.), and finally
to determine atmospheric values’ condition and trends (as required under FLPMA.)
Regulatory/Legal
The first priority for Bureau initiated monitoring results from either a regulatory requirement
associated with a local, state, or tribal air pollutant emissions permit, or from a Court Order and/or
Consent Decree.
For example, the Bureau often must obtain an open burning permit before it can conduct a
prescribed burn associated with vegetation management.
Depending on the specific
circumstances, the applicable air quality regulatory agency may simply require a “test” fire be
conducted (and monitored) indicating that on-site atmospheric dispersion conditions are adequate
to prevent smoke stagnation. In other jurisdictions, the regulatory agency may require that onsite monitoring of particulate matter be conducted to assure applicable State or National Ambient
Air Quality Standards are not violated when conducting the burn.
Another example would be when a Bureau authorized minerals processing facility is required to
monitor ambient air pollutant conditions as part of their air quality operating permit. In this case,
the facility is responsible for conducting the appropriate monitoring, but if they fail to do so, the
Bureau is required (under FLPMA and the Clean Air Act) to suspend its authorization, until the
facility fully complies with the permit requirements.
Alternatively, a Court Order (or Consent Decree) could require the Bureau to monitor air quality
conditions impacted from several cumulative air pollutant emission sources, to assure that direct
or authorized activities do not cause or contribute to a violation of the State or National Ambient
Air Quality Standards.
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Formal Commitments
Bureau Management may also make formal commitments to collect air resource-related
information. For example, as part of a grazing use authorization, the Bureau may adjust the
timing or grazing stocking rate depending on the observed weather conditions. Alternatively, an
approved Land Use Plan may identify that grazing use will be evaluated and adjusted prior to
turn-out, depending on the observed resource conditions (including vegetation, soil erosion, water
quality, and climate.)
Another formal commitment includes the Bureau’s participation in interagency air quality or
climate monitoring programs through Memoranda of Understanding. Currently, the Bureau
participates in both weather/climate monitoring as part of the NWS Cooperative Observer
Program, and air quality monitoring through the interagency NADP. Although these commitments
may be implemented on the local level, for efficiency and to avoid redundancy, such agreements
should be established at the national level.
Condition/Trend
Finally, as detailed above, the U.S. Congress expects the Bureau to periodically evaluate air
resource-related conditions on the Public Lands, and to report its findings to interested parties. In
most situations, the existing climate or air quality may be determined from monitoring information
already collected by other organizations, or by estimating site-specific conditions using
interpretive techniques. In some locations, and/or for some applications, it may be necessary for
the Bureau to initiate and conduct its own air resource-related monitoring activities. Although the
Bureau has clear authority to conduct such monitoring, limited staff, budgets, and timing all
constrain implementation of extensive monitoring programs. Alternatively, the Bureau may
partner with other organizations to leverage resources (such as the Idaho BLM drought
assessment system developed with the Western Regional Climate Center, National Interagency
Fire Center, and others to use existing weather data to help estimate soil moisture and plant
growth potential.)
III. Monitoring Alternatives
Existing/Historical Information
The easiest and most direct way to obtain air resource-related monitoring information is from
federal organizations who maintain national databases. These data are based on welldocumented monitoring procedures (including extensive quality control/quality assurance review).
In addition, these data are recognized as the official reported conditions, typically acceptable in
U.S. Courts of Law.
The USDC – National Climatic Data Center (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/ncdc.html) is the
world's largest active archive of weather/climate information. Data are received from a wide
variety of sources, including NWS cooperative observers, airports, satellites, radar, ships,
radiosonde
(upper
air),
wind
profiler,
solar
radiation
networks,
and
NWS
Forecast/Warnings/Analyses Products.
The NWS Cooperative Observer Network alone,
comprised mainly of 8,000 volunteer observers, has been recording daily conditions since the
1880s (Figure 1). Other existing and historical information is available from Regional Climate
Centers (Figure 2) including the Western Regional Climate Center (http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/), and
from individual State Climate Offices (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/aasc/aasccontactlist.html).
The EPA Office of Air and Radiation maintains a national database of air quality monitoring
information, updated periodically. The AirData Web site (http://www.epa.gov/air/data/index.html)
provides access to data collected since 1995 for seven criteria air pollutants (Figure 3) and
numerous hazardous air pollutants, as well as several thousand emission sources. Tabular data
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and statistical analyses are available via an interactive map-based retrieval system. Existing and
historical air quality information is also available from individual state and local Air Quality
Regulatory Agencies. A list of agency contacts is provided at the State and Territorial Air
Pollution Program Administrators/Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
(STAPPA/ALAPCO) website (http://www.4cleanair.org).
Existing Monitoring Programs/Partnerships
In addition to the national air resource-related programs, there are numerous existing monitoring
programs and partnerships which also maintain data inventories for various parameters.
However, their information may not be included in the national data bases described above.
Once again, it is relatively simple to survey these programs in order to determine if existing
information is already available to the Bureau. However, given the variety of applications and
implementation procedures, care should be taken to ensure existing information meets the
Bureau’s Data Quality Objectives before it is utilized.
In those cases where existing information is not available, the Bureau may pursue a formal
cooperative arrangement to supplement existing program with additional monitoring locations.
This not only simplifies planning and implementation, but it also utilizes existing quality
control/quality assurance and data management processes. The Bureau already participates in
several of these programs, and may participate with others in the future.
Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS) Network
(http://www.nifc.gov/nifctour/remsens.html and http://www.fs.fed.us/raws/)
Operated by the National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, Idaho, the RAWS Network includes
about 2,000 near real-time weather stations located throughout the U.S. (Figure 4). These
stations measure, store and transmit hourly fire weather data to a central facility via satellite.
These data include wind speed and direction, wind gusts, liquid precipitation, air temperature,
relative humidity, solar radiation and fuel moisture. Some stations also report soil temperature
and moisture, as well as other environmental conditions. Data are available from the Western
Regional Climate Center (http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/) archive.
Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow (CoCoRaHS) Network
(http://www.cocorahs.org/)
Primarily a grassroots volunteer network of backyard weather observers measuring and mapping
precipitation (rain, hail and snow), these data often “fill in” spatial gaps which would otherwise be
missed by other monitoring networks (Figure 5). Utilizing low-cost measurement devices,
stressing training and education, and utilizing an interactive website for data transfer, analysis,
and reporting, CoCoRaHS provides high quality data for natural resource, education and
research applications. This network currently operates in Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado,
Kansas, New Mexico and Texas, although expansion plans are pending.
USDA – Natural Resources Conservation Service SNOTEL Data Network
(http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/snow/)
Real-time weather data are measured using automated remote sensing from sites in the
mountainous regions of the Western U.S. (Figure 6), including snow water equivalent, snow
depth, precipitation, temperature and other climatic parameters. At the interactive website, state
and site specific data, maps and graphs display those parameters in hourly, daily, monthly and
annual increments.
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USDI – U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Agricultural Weather (AgriMet) Networks
(http://www.usbr.gov/pn/agrimet/ and http://www.usbr.gov/gp/agrimet/ )
With nearly 90 monitoring stations located throughout Washington, Oregon and Idaho, as well as
central and western Montana (Figure 7), these networks provide 15-minute and longer
observations of air temperature, dew point, relative humidity, precipitation, solar radiation, wind
speed, direction and gusts. Some stations also include soil temperature (at several depths),
barometric pressure, leaf wetness, and diffuse solar radiation.
USDI – U.S. Geological Survey National Streamflow Information Program (NSIP)
(http://water.usgs.gov/nsip/)
At some of the nearly 7,000 national streamflow gage locations, the USGS also monitors hourly
(or more frequent) total precipitation. Data are available by state from individual district offices.
Although provisional data are available in real time, they are subject to change until reviewed and
published (typically in the spring following the last water-year.)
Interagency Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) Program
(http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/)
The IMPROVE program is a cooperative visibility-related monitoring program supported by
federal, state and regional organizations (Figure 8). Established in 1985 to assist development
and application of State Implementation Plans to protect visibility in mandatory federal Class I
areas, the objectives of IMPROVE are to:
-
establish current visibility and aerosol conditions;
identify chemical species and potential emission sources responsible for man-made
visibility impairment;
document trends and progress towards meeting the national visibility goal; and
assist air quality regulatory agencies to enact the Regional Haze Rule.
IMPROVE has also been a key participant in visibility-related research, including the
advancement of monitoring instrumentation, analysis techniques, visibility modeling, policy
support, and specific source attribution field studies.
National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP)
(http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/)
NADP includes the National Trend Network (monitoring wet deposition chemistry to determine
long-term geographical and temporal trends), the Mercury Deposition Network (measuring
mercury in precipitation on a regional basis), and the Atmospheric Integrated Research
Monitoring Network to study precipitation chemistry trends with greater temporal resolution.
Begun in 1978 with 22 sampling stations, NADP is now located at over 200 sites in the U.S. and
Territories (Figure 9). Weekly precipitation samples are sent to the Central Analytical Laboratory
where they are analyzed for hydrogen (acidity as pH), sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, chloride, and
base cations (such as calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium).
Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET)
(http://www.epa.gov/castnet/)
Designed to assist in evaluating the effectiveness of national emission control strategies,
CASTNET measures dry acidic deposition and ozone concentrations. Started in 1986 as the
National Dry Deposition Network, EPA, the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, and the
National Park Service measure rural deposition patterns and trends at over 80 locations
throughout the U.S. (Figure 10).
Again, several states also have existing air resource-related monitoring programs, which may
provide existing data, or would welcome Bureau cooperation in expanding their networks into new
locations. Before developing independent monitoring programs, the Bureau should contact state
agencies to determine the specific situation, including individual State Climate Offices
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(http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/aasc/aasccontactlist.html) and Air Quality Regulatory Agencies
listed on the STAPPA/ALAPCO website (http://www.4cleanair.org).
Existing Interpretation Programs/Partnerships
Some national air resource-related programs do not collect their own data, but use and interpret
existing monitoring data in a way that may assist the Bureau in meeting its analysis objectives.
The Bureau already uses interpreted results from several of these programs and partnerships.
U.S. Drought Monitor
(http://www.drought.unl.edu/dm/monitor.html)
The U.S. Drought Monitor (Figure 11), a synthesis of multiple indices, outlooks and news
accounts, represents a consensus of federal and academic scientists regarding the broad-scale
drought conditions and impacts each week. The main partners who create the U.S. Drought
monitor include the Joint Agricultural Weather Facility (USDA and USDC-NOAA), the Climate
Prediction Center, the National Climatic Data Center, and the National Drought Mitigation Center
(University of Nebraska – Lincoln)
Long-Term Climate Predictions
(http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/forecasts/)
The Climate Prediction Center (CPC) is responsible for issuing seasonal climate outlook maps
(Figure 12) for one to thirteen months in the future. The CPC's outlook and forecast products
complement the short range weather forecasts issued by other components of the National
Weather Service (e.g. local Weather Forecast Offices, and National Centers for Environmental
Prediction).
Cooperative Institute for Regional Prediction (CIRP) – MesoWest
(http://www.met.utah.edu/mesowest/)
Supported by the USDC – National Weather Service, USDI – Bureau of Land Management, and
other members of the CIRP Consortium, MesoWest (Figure 13) provides access to near real-time
weather and other environmental observations collected by numerous organizations throughout
the U.S.
BlueSkys/RAINS (Rapid Access INformation System)
(http://www.blueskyrains.org/overview.html)
BlueSkyRAINS (Figure 14) was developed by the USDA-Forest Service and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Region 10 to merge GIS technology with the smoke dispersion
information, providing an interactive web-based regional forecast of smoke concentrations
overlain on a variety of sensitive receptors. In this way, land managers, regulators, and the
general public can view the potential smoke impacts from regional burning activities.
Remote Sensing
Unlike site-specific, ground based monitoring programs, satellite remote sensing offers
measurements of atmospheric conditions over large areas, based primarily on multi-wavelength
optical observations. The first Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS I), launched on
April 1, 1960, began a long series of Earth observing platforms which continue to provide
weather-related information, including the transmittal of ground-based RAWS data via the
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES). In 1967, the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) and the USDI evaluated the potential use of satellite
technology to address land management needs. That study led to the launching of Landsat-1 on
July 23, 1972, which demonstrated the usefulness of satellite remote sensing data for land and
resource applications.
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Today, the USGS Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center (see
http://edc.usgs.gov/) provides a wide range of satellite (and other) imagery information useful for
air resource management applications, including identification of potential air pollutant emission
sources in a large area of energy development (Figure 15).
NASA’s The Earth Observing System (EOS) includes a series of polar-orbiting and low inclination
satellites for long-term global observations of the land surface, biosphere, atmosphere, and
For example, the Terra satellite includes several
oceans (http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/).
specialized sensing instruments: the ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer) captures multi-spectral high spatial resolution data, with stereo viewing
capability; the Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) consists of two broadband
scanning radiometers, designed to measure the Earth's radiation budget, atmospheric radiation
from the top of the atmosphere to the surface, and to provide cloud property estimates; the Multiangle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) takes multiple-angle observations to provide top-ofatmosphere, cloud, and surface reflectance measurements as well as global maps of surface
albedo, aerosol and vegetation properties; the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) is a scanning radiometer designed to measure high-priority atmospheric, oceanic, and
land surface features globally nearly every day. It is used to measure cloud and aerosol
properties (and their effects on the solar radiation budget and global climate), net primary
productivity, ice melting, as well as for monitoring dust and smoke (Figure 16), natural hazards,
volcanic eruptions and global distribution of precipitation; and the Measurements Of Pollution In
The Troposphere (MOPITT) measures methane and carbon monoxide in the troposphere to
determine sources and sinks, as well as quantity and distribution (Figure 17).
Ground-based remote sensing includes the Next Generation Weather Radar system (NEXRAD),
with over 150 Doppler Radar (WSR-88D) sites located throughout the United States and selected
overseas locations (see http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/radar/radarresources.html). Measured
parameters include: reflectivity, mean radial velocity, and spectrum width, which can be
interpreted as hourly and storm total precipitation values. Although care must be taken when
interpreting radar data in complex terrain or at distances away from the radar source, spatially
distributed precipitation information can be useful for interpretation of storm events (Figure 18).
Surveys/Special Studies
However, not all air resource-related monitoring needs justify development of extensive
programs. Although the monitoring components described below should be considered, the level
of effort (staffing/budget/time) associated with a survey or special study may not warrant
developing a long-term monitoring program. However, a simple monitoring study can be useful to
determine whether or not a long-term monitoring program is justified.
For example, a short-term precipitation study may be used to compare site-specific conditions to
a long-term NWS Cooperative Observer monitoring station in order to determine spatial
representativeness of the Cooperative data.
Another example is the ad hoc smoke monitoring associated with wildfires or prescribed burning
projects (see http://www.satguard.com/usfs/). The measurement techniques and data quality are
very important, but the ephemeral nature of the data make extensive monitoring program
development unnecessary. Alternatively, a “blanket” plan could be developed identifying
common monitoring criteria (Data Quality Objectives, equipment, etc.), with site-specific
requirements developed as needed.
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New Monitoring Program
Where existing information is not available, or Bureau sponsored expansion within an existing
network is not possible, or the needed information is complex (spatially, temporally, or physically),
the Bureau should develop its own monitoring program. Once again, the need to develop a new
monitoring program should be prioritized to first address regulatory or legally required monitoring,
then to address formal commitments made by management directive, and finally to determine
atmospheric values’ condition and trends.
First, the basis for obtaining new monitoring information must be examined. For example, if the
energy minerals program needs to know what kind of equipment may be emitting air pollutants, a
relatively simple inspection and reporting process may suffice. However, if the specific locations
of such equipment are critical, then the inspector may need to use Global Positioning System
(GPS) receivers, software, and analysis products, including appropriate quality control
procedures. Alternatively, if the Data Quality Objectives are less stringent, then remote sensing
(aerial photography or satellite imagery) methods may suffice. Finally, if the Bureau also needs
to quantify the amount of specific air pollutants emitted by the equipment, then a very extensive
monitoring, analysis, and data management program would be necessary.
Based on the identified monitoring situation, the next step is to determine the appropriate Data
Quality Objectives based on the appropriate, applicable, and relevant monitoring requirements. It
is these requirements that will determine the quality (e.g.; precision and accuracy) of
measurement and analysis. Clearly, the prescribed Data Quality Objectives will not only dictate
the monitoring method, but also the costs and complexity of data analysis.
Once the monitoring needs are understood, a preliminary cost/benefit analysis should be used to
identify the scope of anticipated monitoring, including possible alternative approaches. There is
no need to develop a detailed monitoring plan until Management has approved the scope and
necessary staffing, budget and schedules needed to conduct the monitoring.
Finally, a detailed Monitoring Plan (including the monitoring components described below),
should be developed, approved and implemented.
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IV. Monitoring Components
Monitoring Plan
A formal monitoring plan can facilitate efficient implementation, and effective monitoring is a
continual process of planning, implementation, communication, and review. To organize its
monitoring efforts, the Bureau should develop and implement a monitoring plan to guide the
monitoring process.
A monitoring plan should clearly describe the:
- Monitoring Goals, Objectives, and Strategies. The plan should identify what needs
to be accomplished, the steps necessary to achieve the goal, and how the monitoring
program will accomplish those steps.
- Monitoring Methods. The plan should describe the specific methods that will be
employed when monitoring. This should include a detailed review of the “state-of-thescience” of methods to address the management concern, as well as a concise
description of why a particular methodology was selected. Standard Operating
Procedures should be documented.
- Quality Management Process. The plan should identify the desired Data Quality
Objectives, and the process by which a Quality Management Plan will be developed and
implemented. Specifically, internal Quality Control Procedures and external Quality
Assurance reviews should be detailed.
- Data Management Needs. The best monitoring program can be made worthless
without a structured process to collect, verify, analyze, store and retrieve the monitored
information. This step is critical to assure the effort, time and expense involved in
gathering information is beneficial to future users, often many years after the monitoring
effort is completed.
- Monitoring Staffing, Budget and Schedule Needs. Finally, the plan should identify
the staffing and budget needs throughout the anticipated life of the program. In addition,
clear schedules for data collection, quality checks, analysis and reporting (whether on a
weekly, monthly, seasonal, or annual basis) should be identified and tracked.
Data Quality Objectives
Before the monitoring method can be selected, it is necessary to quantitatively specify the
acceptable levels of precision and accuracy that will be used to establish the quality of
information needed to support management decisions. For example, management may need to
know the temperature of a specific location where monitoring has not been conducted in the past.
But depending on their needs, a simple daily maximum/minimum thermometer could provide
information within plus/minus one degree Fahrenheit, or a recording thermograph may be needed
to provide continuous data, or a very precise thermocouple may be needed to measure small
temperature variations over time.
Siting
Although the actual siting requirements depend on the monitoring goals, objectives, and methods,
potential siting considerations should be made in advance of developing the monitoring plan. For
some activities, site-specific information is needed, therefore siting is defined by the activity
location. For other programs, a statistical representation is needed, therefore a statistical
distribution method should be used to identify monitoring locations. Other siting considerations
include the need for power or other infrastructure (roads, telecommunications, satellite sight-path,
etc.), proximity to servicing personnel, topographic and vegetation exposure, and the distance
from interfering emission sources (such as dirt roads, industrial facilities, urbanization, etc.)
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Methods
It is paramount that a good understanding of monitoring goal and objectives be understood before
the specific monitoring methodologies are selected. For example, at least three different methods
may be used to measure visibility conditions in rural areas: cameras, optical monitors, and
speciated fine particulate matter samplers. While each of these methods complements the other,
it is critical to know whether the need is to document the scene image, to quantify the optical
conditions, or to estimate the possible causes of visibility impacts from air pollution emission
sources. While some of these methods may be used to estimate the conditions measured by
another method, simple substitutions will not be accurate.
In addition, the scientific basis for each method must be understood to assure the selected
method meets the Data Management Objectives, budget and schedule required by the monitoring
program. These considerations will dictate not only the technology used, but also the specific
type of equipment, its operating specifications, and Standard Operating Procedures.
Finally, while some monitoring devices produce direct measurement values, other methods use
site samplers which collect materials to be analyzed in central laboratory facilities. In that case,
the monitoring plan must address both the collection and analysis methodologies.
Quality Management Plan
In order to assure that information collected is commensurate with its intended use, formal
descriptions of the monitoring policies, objectives, principles, responsibilities, accountability, and
implementation protocols should be defined in a Quality Management Plan, included within the
overall Monitoring Plan. A Quality Management Plan also documents how a monitoring program
will plan, implement, and assess the effectiveness of its quality control and quality assurance
activities.
Data Management
The simple observation of field conditions is not useful without a structured process to acquire,
edit, analyze, store, and retrieve the information needed to address management concerns.
Each of these data management steps should consider the specific monitoring goal and
objectives, but the primary purpose is to preserve observed information representative of the
actual environment for future analysis and use.
Training
The monitoring plan should also describe the process by which individuals conducting the
monitoring, those analyzing the data, and those archiving and reporting the information, receive
their initial and periodic review training. Specifically, training methods to address problems
determined through the Quality Management Process should be described and planned for in
advance.
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Staffing/Budget/Schedule
The best prepared monitoring plan is doomed to failure unless the necessary level of staffing,
budget and time commensurate with the monitoring goal and objectives is identified and available
to implement the plan. In turn, staffing, budget and timing constraints should be understood and
incorporated in the monitoring plan, and may dictate decisions regarding siting, methods, Data
Quality Objectives, etc. When Bureau initiated monitoring efforts are made for long-term
analyses, it is crucial that management agree to, and allocate those resources necessary to
achieve the monitoring goal and objectives over several years. Much like “no data is better than
bad data,” inadequate monitoring duration (due to resource constraints) may be worse than no
monitoring at all.
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Figure 1 – NWS Cooperative Observer Network Monitoring Stations
Figure 2 – Regional Climate Center Locations
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Figure 3 – Criteria Air Pollutant Monitoring Locations in the West
Figure 4 – Remote Automated Weather Station Locations in Alaska
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Figure 5 – CoCoRaHS Monitoring Locations in Colorado
Figure 6 – SNOTEL Monitoring Locations in Utah
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Figure 7 – USBOR AgriMet Monitoring Locations in the Pacific Northwest
Figure 8 – IMPROVE Speciated Fine Particulate Sampling Station Locations
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Figure 9 – NADP Trends Sampling Locations and Data Distribution
Figure 10 - CASTNET Dry Deposition/Ozone Sampling Locations
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Figure 11 – U.S. Drought Monitor
Figure 12 – Climate Prediction Center
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Figure 13 – Observation Locations Accessible Through MesoWest
Figure 14 – BlueSkysRAINS (Rapid Access INformation System)
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Figure 15 – Landsat Derived Oil & Gas Wells and Road Locations
Figure 16 – MODIS Fire/Smoke Image (Southern California 10/26/2003)
Source: NASA - MODIS Rapid Response Team
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Figure 17 – Carbon Monoxide Total Column (August 22-27, 2000)
Source: NASA - MOPITT Team
Figure 18 – Buffalo Creek, Colorado, Storm Total Rainfall (July 12-13, 1996)
Source: Richard A. Fulton (AMS - Weather and Forecasting 14:5 pp 604-624)
BLM Air Resource Monitoring Strategy