Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 5 Number 1(2016) pp. 32-54
Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com
Review Article
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2016.501.004
Bio Management of Wilting of a Valuable Timber and Medicinal Plant
of Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) - A Review
Narendra Kumar* and S. M. Paul Khurana
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Haryana, Manaser-122413,
Gurgaon, Haryana, India
*Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Keywords
Shisham,
General uses,
Medicinal uses,
Fusarium,
Chemical,
Biological
control
Article Info
Accepted:
07 December 2015
Available Online:
10 January 2016
Shisham is a medium to large deciduous(annually shedding the leaves) tree, native
to India. It has a light crown and reproduces through seeds and suckers.The sissoo
is best known internationally as a premier timber species of the rosewood genus.
However, sissoo is also an important tree used for screen from direct sun light,
provides cover or protection and feed for livestock. This lists the medicinal values
of Dalbergia sissoo DC.(Fabaceae) for various ailments. The wood and bark of
Sissoo have anthelmintic, antipyretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac abortifacient and
refrigerant properties. Oil obtained from the seeds is used to cure diseases affecting
skin.Like all other legumes it enhances the quality of soil due to presence of
nitrogen fixing bacteria in roots. The leaves falling from the tree are also helpful in
improvement of soil quality. It has been found showing severe wilting. The
symptoms observed in all wilted plants are: yellowing and death of leaves in
acropetal succession and lastly entire plant turns yellow. Pathogenicity test results
revealed that both Fusarium solani and Fusarium oxysporum alone or either are
highly potent causing severe wilting in plants. The article covers the chemical
synthetic fungicides and biological control of Fusarium.This also deals about
potential of Putranjiva roxburghii having volatile antifungal activity.The oil of
Putranjiva roxburghii showed complete mycelial inhibition of both test fungi
Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani at 500ppm.The antifungal activity of
oil was found thermostable even after autoclaving and storage (upto 120 days).The
bark and root extract of Putranjiva was also found to be effective against both
species of Fusarium. In this way this plant has an overall promise for control of
Fusarium.
Introduction
Dalbergia sissoo (Indian Rosewood) is a
deciduous
tree,
commonly
known
as sissoo, sheesham, tahli,
Taland
also Irugudujava. Tewari(1994) stated that it
is native to the Indian Subcontinent and
Southern Iran and also found in tropical to
subtropical Africa and Asia.Troup (1921)
mentioned that, it is very likely that sissoo
is indigenous only to the sub- Himalayan
tract and has been introduced by man
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
elsewhere. In Persian, it is called Jag. It is
the state tree of Punjab state both both in
India and the Pakistan. It is primarily found
growing along river banks below 900 metres
(3,000 ft) elevation, but can range naturally
up to 1,300 m (4,300 ft). The temperature in
its native range averages 10 40 °C (50
104 °F), but varies from just below chilling
to nearly 50 °C (122 °F). It can withstand a
long period of abnormally low rainfall,
especially one that adversely affects
growing or living conditions of 3 4 months
and average annual rainfall up to 2,000
millimetres (79 in). Shisham can grow in
soils from pure sand and gravel to
rich alluvium of river banks in slightly
saline soils. Shisham is an important timber
wood for furniture fuel, screen for direct sun
light,provides cover or protection and feed
for live stock. It usually cultivated in forest
department plantations and along the manmade strip of water used for irrigation
(canals), roadsides, railway lines, water
channels and borders of the agricultural
lands..
reached epidemic proportion in Bangladesh
and other countries of South Asia. The heart
wood of plant is strong and durable and have
high timber quality so it needs protection.
Bakshi (1955) highlighted that elimination
of pathogen from soil is not possible either
chemically or by crop rotation. Synthetic
pesticides pose a range of risks to human
health and protection. There are three types
of harmful effects caused by pesticides:
acute effects, delayed effects, and allergic
effects.
Acute effects are injuries or illnesses that
appear immediately after exposure. The
effects are usually obvious and capable of
returning to an original condition if
appropriate medical care is given right
away. Delayed effects are illnesses or
injuries that do not appear immediately.
these include cancer. There are over 160
synthetic pesticides that are listed to be
possible carcinogens. Many of these
pesticides are still in use. The US EPA has
classification
systems
that
identify
carcinogens. Pesticides have been known to
cause asthma, breast cancer, leukemia,
lymphoma and other immune system
disorders.
Review of literature highlights that wilt
disease is caused by Fusarium solani (Mart)
Wr. F.dalbergiae (Bagchee, 1945; Bakshi,
1954; Bakshi and Singh 1954,1959).
Browne (1968)stated serious wilt of sissoo
seedlings in nurseries caused by Fusarium
oxysporum from Pakistan.
Allergic effects are harmful effects that
some but not all people develop in reaction
to substances. These are responsible for
environmental pollution. Biocontrol agents
have been tried but they have their own
limits.In nature plants are available which
have broad spectrum antifungal and volatile
activity that can completely suppress wilt
causing fungal pathogens. Now a days,
essential oil and their components are
gaining
increasing interest because of
relatively safe status, their wide acceptance
by consumers and their exploitation for
potential multipurpose functional use
(Ormancey et al.,2001; Sawamura, 2000;
Tripathi and Kumar, 2007).
From time to time forest pathologists and
other researchers viz.,Bakshi, 1954,Khan,
2000, Zakaullah, 1999,Khan and Khan,
2000) reported a number of diseases like
powdery mildew, leaf rust, leaf blight, collar
rot, wilting, die-back and Ganoderma root
rot infections in shisham. Khan and Khan
(2000) mentioned that Polyporus and
Fusarium oxysporum cause root rot and
wilting respectively. Fusarium solani was
isolated as a facultative parasite associated
with wounds and on hosts weekened by
unfavorable conditions. This disease has
33
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
The article deals the botanical description,
systematic position, distribution, medicinal
uses and highlights the work done on causal
organism of shisham wilt and its possible
management and the integrated strategies
that can be used for the management of
shisham plants.This
also indicates the
potential of putranjiva in mixed plantation
in field for protection of shisham from wilt.
Vernacular Names
Sanskrit:Aguru, Shinshapa;Bengali:Shisu,
Shishu, Sisu; English:Bombay Blackwood,
Sissoo, Indian Rosewood, Sisso; Hindi:
Agaru, Biridi, Tali, Gette, Kara, Shisham,
Sisam, Sissai, Sissu, Sissoo;Tamil:Sisuitti,
Sisso, Nukkukattai, Yette, Gette Thai:DuKhaek,
Pradu-Khaek;Arabic:Dalbergia,
Sissoo; Indonesian:Pradu-Khaek, DuKhaek;
Javanese: Sonowaseso; Nepali: Sissau,
Sisham; Spanish: Sisu; Trade name:Sissoo,
Shisham
Botany of Shisham
Plant Description
This is a medium to large deciduous tree
with a light crown which reproduces by
seeds and suckers. It can grow up to a
maximum of 25 m (82 ft) in height and 2 to
3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) in diam. Trunks
often got crooked when grown in the open.
Leaves
leathery,
alternate,pinnately
compound and about 15 cm (5.9 in) long.
Flowers whitish to pink, fragrant, nearly
sessile, up to 1.5 cm (0.59 in) long and in
dense clusters 5 10 cm (2.0 3.9 in) in
length. Pods oblong, flat, thin, strap-like 4
8 cm (1.6 3.1 in) long, 1 cm (0.39 in) wide
and light brown. They contain 1 5 a smooth
kidney-shaped seed, flattened at the sides,
8 10 mm (0.31 0.39 in) long. Sissoo has a
long taproot and numerous surface roots
which produce suckers. Young shoots
drooping and downy;have established stems
with light brown to dark gray bark to 2.5 cm
(0.98 in) thick, shed in narrow strips; large
upper branches support a spreading
crown(Figure 1,2).
Geographical Distribution and Suitable
Conditions
Distribution: Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
(Shisham) is native to the plains, low hills
and mountain valleys of the sub-Himalayan
region. It occurs naturally from sea level up
to 1000 m msl sometimes even up to 1500 m
msl, from the river Kabul in Afghanistan
through northern Pakistan, northern India,
Nepal, Bhutan and Bangla Desh and
commonly planted throughout entire
India,Pakistan and the Terai region of Nepal.
It was successfully introduced to other parts
of the Asian subcontinent as well as
Southeast Asia, Africa, the Middle East, the
Caribbean,North America, and Florida and
Arizona in the United States.
Suitable conditions: It occurs naturally in
riverine environments where sunlight and
moisture are plentiful with annual rainfall
averaging 500 to 4500 mm. Temperature in
native range varies from 4° to 50°C and it is
tolerant of light frosts but killed by low
temperatures or long freezes. It grows well
on rich alluvial soil, pure sand or gravel
conditions with plentiful moisture and good
drainage. It requires a pH of 5.0 to 7.7 and
tolerates some salinity, but growth is stunted
on heavy clayey soils. Natural regeneration
is also common on newly exposed sites such
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Plantae;
Unranked
Angiosperma; Unraked Ecidicots; Unranked
Rosids; Order
Fabales; Family
Fabaceae; Sub Family Faboideae; Tribe
Dalbergia; Genus
Dalbergia; Species
Sissoo.
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
as embankments, landslides, overgrazed
areas and abandoned farmland.
on roadsides, along canals and as a shade
tree. It is also commonly planted in southern
Indian cities like Bangalore as a street tree.
Propagation
Shisham is usually dried up before being
used in furniture manufacturing. Locally
Shisham is seasoned by keeping the logs for
6 month in wide open areas to dry up under
the sun.. With hot air circulations it is dried
for about 7 days to 15 days depending on
weather
conditions
for
commercial
applicatons. Shisham is among the finest
cabinet and veneer timbers and useful in
preparation of 'Kartaals', the Rajasthani
percussion instrument. This is also used
for plywood, agricultural tools, carvings,
boats, skis, flooring, etc.The heartwood is
golden to dark brown; the sapwood, white to
pale brownish white. Heartwood is
extremely durable (the specific gravity is 0.7
0.8) and is resistant to dry-wood termites;
but the sapwood is readily attacked by fungi
and
borers. Mukherjee
et
al(1971)
mentioned that Dalbergia sissoo contains
the neoflavonoid dalbergichromene in
its
stem-bark and heartwood.
Propagation takes place most commonly by
root suckers and also by seeds. The seeds
remain viable only for a few months. Seeds
should be soaked in water for 48 hours
before sowing and 60% 80% germination
can be expected in 1 3 weeks. Seedlings
require partial sun or full sun.
Chemical Constituents
Following chemicals are isolated from
various parts.
Leaves-Isoflavone-O-glycoside;
FlowersBiochenin A, tectorigenin and 7-O- methyle
tectorigenin; Green pods-Mesoinisitol, 7-Omethyle
tectorigenin
and
4rhamnoglucoside; Mature pods-Isocaviumin,
tectorigenin, dalbergin, caviunin and
tannins; Stem bark-Dalberginone, dalbergin,
methyl dalbergin and dalbergichromene;
Heartwood-Dalbergin,
nordalberginones,
dalbergichromene, fixed oil and essential
oils
For fuel : The calorific value of both the
sapwood and heartwood is 'excellent', being
reported
to
be
4,908 kcal/kg
and
5,181 kcal/kg respectively. Also makes good
quality charcoal for heating and cooking.
Uses of Shisham
General
For brushing teeth: Traditionally, slender
twigs (called datun) are first chewed as
a toothbrush and then split as a tongue
cleaner. This practise has been in use in
India, Africa, and the Middle East for
centuries. It has been found that India's 80%
rural population still start their day with the
chewing stick. Shisham twigs are still
collected and sold in markets for this use
and in rural India one often sees youngsters
in the towns chewing on Shisham twigs.
Bhambal et al. (2011) stated that it has been
found to be equally effective as a toothbrush
As timber: Shisham is best known
internationally
as
a
premier
building/furniture timber species, but is also
used as fuel wood and for shade and shelter
from sunlight. With due tolerance of light
frosts and long dry seasons, this species
deserves higher consideration for tree
farming, reforestation and agro forestry
applications. It is the most important
cultivated timber tree of Bihar after teak,
which is the largest producer of shisham
timber in India. In Bihar, the tree is planted
35
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
in
reducing plaque and gingival
inflammation.
found Anti-inflammatory activity in
ethanolic extract of Dalbergia sissoo
(Roxb.) bark and concluded that the
ethanolic extract of Dalbergia sissoo bark at
1000 mg/kg showed the most potent antiinflammatory activity. Jaspreet et al(2012)
found analgesic and anti-inflammatory
activities of Dalbergia sissoo leaf extract.
Pankaj et al (2010)observed anti-diabetic
activity of ethanolic extract of Dalbergia
sissoo L. leaves and reported 12% more
effective in reducing the blood glucose level
compared to standard Glibenclamide(also
known as glyburide). Neeraj et al(2012) also
evaluated anti-diabetic activity of
of
Dalbergia sissoo against alloxan induced
diabetes mellitus in wistar albino rats and
observed that ethanolic extract of Dalbergia
sissoo bark possesses significant antidiabetic
activity.
Mallinath
et
al(2010)studied
phytochemical
and
pharmacological properties of ethanol
extract of Dalbergia sissoo seeds and
reported the seeds to have moderate
analgesic and remarkable antipyretic
activities.
Toxic uses
Adenusi and Odaibo (2009) found that
ethanolic extract of the fruits of Dalbergia
sissoo have molluscicide effect against eggs
of the freshwater snail Biomphalaria
pfeifferi. The percentage of dead embryos at
the prehatch snail stage decreased while the
deaths
of
embryos
at
the
gastrula/exogastrula stage increased, with
increasing concentration of extract. Lethality
of the ethanolic extract of D. sissoo fruits to
embryonated egg masses of B. pfeifferi is an
added
advantage
to
its
potential
development for use as a plant molluscicide.
Medicinal uses
In Ayurveda, various parts of Shisham tree
are used for treating a variety of diseases
(Table 1)such as leaves are used for eye
pain,breast swelling, painful urination,
gynaecological disorders and
bleeding
disorders.The paste of leaves mixed with
sweet oil is useful in skin excoriation such
as scrapping and abrading (Anupama,
2015). Herbs are not always safe. They may
negatively affect body in certain conditions.
Sissoo tree leaves wood and bark have
abortifacient property, which means causing
abortion. Therefore it must not be used
during pregnancy.
Nitinkumar et al(2011)found useful against
helminths. Arvinder et al (2011)evaluated
antioxidant potential of stem bark extract of
Dalbergia sissoo. and reported chloroform
extract possesses marked antioxidant
activity, whereas methanolic extract has
moderate activity.Mohammad et al (2011)
reported
antinociceptive activity in
ethanolic extract of Dalbergia sissoo
(Roxb.) bark. They reported that (300, 500
and 1000 mg/kg) doses of extract exhibited
significant
and
dose
dependent
antinociceptive activity possibly due to
presence
of
flavanoids.Harsha
et
al(2012)observed anti-termite activity in
heartwood of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Ex.Dc
and concluded that the plant extracts can be
used as an alternative for synthetic
pesticides
for
termite
control
in
Recent work on medicinal uses
The studies revealed that the tree is antiinflammatory,
antinociceptive/reducing
sensitivity to painful stimuli property, antidiabetic,
analgesic
and
antioxidant
properties as follows; Shazia et al(2006)
surveyed on Indigenous knowledge of folk
herbal medicines and it is useful in
removing dandruff. Mohammad et al (2009)
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
buildings.Shisham tree is grown as shade
tree for protection against direct sunlight
along the roads. It increases quality of soil
due to presence of nitrogen fixing bacteria in
roots.The leaves falling from the tree are
further
helpful in improving
soil
quality/soil fertility.
water availability leads to blockage of the
xylem.
Permanent wilting point (PWP) or wilting
point (WP) is defined as the minimal point
of soil moisture the plant need not to wilt. If
moisture reduces to this or any lower point a
plant wilts and can no longer recover its
turgidity when placed in a saturated
atmosphere for 12 hours. The concreate
definition of the wilting point (symbolically
expressed as pwp or wp) is defined as the
water content at 1500 J/kg of suction
pressure, or negative hydraulic head.This is
defined as the percentage water content of a
soil when the plants growing in that soil are
first reduced to a wilted condition from
which they cannot recover in approximately
saturated atmosphere without the addition of
water to the soil (Taiz and Zeiger, 1991).
Wilting of Shisham
Wilting
This refers to the loss of rigidity or flaccidity
of non-woody parts of plants.It occurs when
the turgor pressure in non-lignified plant
cells falls towards zero due to loss or poor
water retention in the cells. The loss of
water retention by the plant has been found
greater when the absorption of water and
process of wilting modifies the leaf angle
distribution of the plant (or canopy).
Loss of water retention may be due to :
Symptoms Caused due to Fusarium
Infection
Drought,where the soil moisture drops
below conditions most favorable for plant
functioning(ii)the temperature reaches to a
point where the plants vascular system can
not function and high salinity which causes
water to diffuse from the plant cells and
induce
shrinkage(iii)saturated
soil
conditions, where roots are unable to obtain
sufficient oxygen for set of metabolic
reactions and processes that take place in the
cells of organisms to convert biochemical
energy from nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste
products and so are unable to circulate water
into the plant; or(iv)bacteria or fungi that
become blocked with an accumulation of
thick wet matter in the plant's vascular
system.
The Fusarium affects sissoo plants of any
age group.Fusarium generally produces a
condition in which leaves produce
insufficient chlorophyll. As chlorophyll is
responsible for the green color of leaves and
chlorotic leaves are pale, yellow, or yellowwhite and death of most or all of the cells in
an organ or tissue, premature leaf drop,
browning of the vascular system. Fusarium
wilt starts out looking like vein clearing on
the younger leaves and drooping of the older
lower leaves,preventing them from growing
or proper development of the plant,
yellowing of the lower leaves, defoliation,
marginal death of most or all cells and death
of the plant. On older plants, symptoms are
found more distinct between the blossoming
and fruit maturation stag es.(Figure 3,4).
Wilting diminishes the plant's ability to
transpire and grow. Permanent wilting leads
to plant death. In woody plants, reduced
Shisham mortality is spread throughout the
Shisham zone, more severe in the Eastern
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India. It falls
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
under the category of causing tree decline
diseases.
girdling (on roadsides for removal). All
these biotic pressures result into opening of
wounds, site deterioration and overall
weakening of vigour resulting into attack by
the pathogens and decline/mortality.Bakshi
(1955 and 1957) observed that higher
moisture and water logging favoured an
higher disease incidence. Irrespective of
stress conditions across tree girth, maximum
incidence was recorded in treees with 51100 cm girth followed by 101-150 cm girth.
This shows that younger trees were more
susceptible to disease than older and higher
girth trees. Dayaram et al(2003)reported
many stress factors such as waterlogging,
flooding, semi-flooding, drought, degraded
soil, uncareful ploughing, high density and
high moisture and waterlogging caused 73.1
% disease whereas, high irrigation alone
caused 13.8% incidence. Flooding, semiflooding, degraded soil, uncareful ploughing
and high density and moisture caused 27.4,
52.1, 27.6, 30.2 and 41.1 % incidence,
respectively.
Extent of Damage
Trees of all ages and trunk-diameter classes
are affected in the monoculture plantations.
Mixed plantations show less signs of
mortality. Mature trees of more than 50
years age are highly prone in Shisham
plantations. Younger plantations of Shisham
show too high % mortality in some areas,
particularly where biotic stresses, and erratic
rainfall
and
extreme
temperature
variations/water-logging have occurred
during recent years. Dead trees, partially
dead trees as well as stumps that are not
removed act as sources of infection.
Factors for Shisham Mortality
Unsuitable site selection is one of the main
reasons of shisham decline.It grows well on
well drained sites but not well in heavy
texture soils (with more clay and silt content
and less sand). Improper soil aeration in stiff
and clayey soils cause death of fine/feeder
roots due to asphyxiation besides water
logging, even for a short duration, causes
poor aeration and death of fine/feeder roots
due to asphyxiation. Root disease pathogens
enter through these dead roots (infection
courts) and then attack living roots.
Extended period of low temperature/freezes
expose the trees to disease.The pressures
resulting into weakening of tree vigour such
as: - Injury to roots in agriculture (in fields)
and construction activities (near roads,
avenues) - Cleaning and weeding done
through harrowing in plantations causing
root damage - Covering of basal area with
landfill, garbage and other material
particularly on roadsides and urban areas Uncontrolled lopping in agriculture fields Blazing of bark for numbering of trees (on
roadsides) - Injuries by cattle - Intentional
Work Done on Causal Organism and
Pathogenicity
The Shisham or Indian Rosewood tree is a
much-prized tree, cultivated for its
timber.But it is highly susceptible to a
disease called wilt caused by fungi which
target particular species. Two pathogens
have been found responsible for shisham
mortality - Fusarium solani f. sp. dalbergiae
causing vascular wilt and Ganoderma
lucidum causing root rot. The former was
found wide spread throughout shisham
growing area whereas G. lucidum is
associated in drier localities such as Haryana
and Punjab. Virulent and avirulent strains of
Fusarium solani f. sp. dalbergiae exist. The
pathogen moves up the stem from the roots.
Parker (1918) investigated that Fomes
lucidum attacks the roots of living sissoo
trees and speedily cause their death. The
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
much more dangerous fungus is Fomos
lucidus which is responsible for high
mortality of sissoo trees (Troup 1921).
Bakshi (1956)highlighted Fusarium solani is
responsible for causing wilt and death of
sissoo. The infection occurs through roots
from where the fungus proceeds along the
stem to some extent. Khan and Bokhari
(1970) reported that the commonest
pathogens of sissoo is Fomes lucidum, a root
and heart rot fungus that causes extensive
damage once it is established. The other
fungi which affect sissoo are Poria ambigua
and Polyporus gilvus which cause die-back
and canker.
heartwood is free from the stain. The stain
also progresses along the outer sapwood
from the roots to the stem and, in the late
stage of wilt, it may extend up the stem to
about
ten
feet
from
the
ground(Bakshi,1954).
In the irrigated plantations in Bhagat in
Punjab, Khan and Bokhari (1970) reported
that nearly 1 tree/acre was found diseased
out of the 74 standing trees. The total yield
in all the fellings decreased by 21%. In
financial terms, the loss was about 31 % of
the total expected income. Out of the 8 % of
diseased sissoo trees, the common pathogens
were Ganoderma
lucidum (7.85%)
and Poria ambigua (0.45%). The cumulative
rate of loss in 20 years came to be more than
28 %.The wilt disease gets manifested
during the months of September -.November
both in India and Bangladesh during humid
months from July to September (Sharma et
al., 2000; Baksha and Basak, 2000).
Bakshi(1954) said that Shisham is an
important timber species of North India.It
has been found to suffer from wilt disease in
the Dehra Dun and Saharanpur districts in
western Uttar Pradesh. The disease occurs
both in natural forests and in taungyas which
are artificially regenerated with field crops
in admixture with other economic species
like semal (Bombax malabaricum), babul
(Acacia arabica), khair (Acacia catechu),
bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), etc. Only
trees of about 15-25 years old suffer from
this disease but wilting has not been
observed in the seedling, sapling and pole
stages of the plant. The symptoms of wilt in
shisham are systemic and are characterized
by drooping leaves and branches due to loss
of turgor. The leaflets gradually turn,
yellow, and eventually drop off. The entire
tree becomes `thin' and light coloured, and
stands out sharply in contrast to adjoining
densely clothed green healthy trees. The
nodules and slender branches on roots which
characterize healthy shisham are absent on
the roots of wilted trees. On splitting the
diseased roots, the bark and the outer
sapwood exhibit a well-defined, pinkishbrown, stain, and though the stain is
restricted in this region, it may rarely
penetrate into the inner sapwood. The
Shakir et al. (1999) investigated F. solani
from diseased roots and assumed this
organism to be the cause of shisham decline.
Baksha and Basak (2000)observed a wide
spread mortality of shisham trees of varying
ages in Bangladesh and assumed that F.
solani and shothole borer may be the cause
of disease. Earlier, Bakshi (1957) also
isolated F. solani from diseased shisham
plants. The fungal hyphae and jelly like
substances plug the vessels resulting in wilt
symptoms (Bakshi and Singh, 1959). Davis
et al. (1953) found that wilt is generally the
result of Fusarium attack at the roots or even
lower portions of stem where its growth
interferes with the safe passage of water and
excreted toxins. According to some workers,
Fusarium oxysporum is the cause of shisham
wilt (Gill et al., 2001). Dieback is caused by
Phytophthora cinnamomi (Gill et al., 2001).
Some people confuse the wilt with dieback.
Dieback is entirely different disease
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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
characterized with thinning of leaves and
crown, drying up of the ends of branches,
table topped condition and stag-headness in
extreme conditions (Khan and Khan, 2000).
and dead shisham trees were collected and
brought to laboratory for analysis to
establish the cause of mortality. Symptoms
and per cent incidence were recorded in the
field. On the basis of girth the infected trees
under all stress conditions were categorised
into 0-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201250, 251-300 and 301- 350 cm
(circumference at breast height) classes.
Rhizosphere soil samples of infected
shisham trees were analysed to study any
relationship of mortality with the pH & EC
Three types of disease symptoms were noted
in naturally wilting trees. Green tree showed
sudden wilting tendency with complete leaf
drooping and drying from top of tree. After
15-20days dried leaves fall off from the
branches. The branches start drying from
the top and the plants dry within 3 months.
Sometimes after leaf fall, new small leaves
and some new shoots appear but wilting
appears again within 3-4 months. Such
plants die within 2-3 m after second
infection. Slow wilting and yellowing
symptoms were observed in upland
plantations as compared to low land and
waterlogged plantation conditions. First, the
green leaves turned yellow and then
branches dried down slowly from top to
bottom and showed complete drying in 9-12
months. Some times partial wilting of tree
occurs and the healthy part remains alive for
a longer period. It takes normally 2-3 yr for
complete death/drying of plant.
Bajwa et al (2003)stated that shisham tree
has been inflicted with dieback and wilt
diseases in the recent years and the
%incidence is also reported in Tarai tract of
Nepal, believed to be its home.The
characteristic symptoms of shisham wilt
were yellowing and death of leaves in
acropetal succession up the tree, as a result
the whole tree appears yellow. In advanced
stages the affected trees show signs of
wilting, the leaf shed rendering the branches
bare, and ultimately plants die within a few
months. Older trees are usually found to be
more prone to mortality. The outer sapwood
shows characteristic pink to reddish stain.
Though it is normally restricted to outer
sapwood, sometimes it penetrates in the
inner sapwood yet, the heartwood is not
discoloured. The stain progresses along the
outer sapwood of the root to the stem and in
later stages of wilting it extends up the stem
to about 3-5 m from the ground.
Dayaram et al(2003) observed twenty
districts of North Bihar to study the extent
and causes of shisham mortality. Highest
disease incidence was recorded in Araria
district (80.0%) followed by Katihar
(78.0%).
Lowest
disease
incidence
(35.4%)was
recorded
in
Darbhanga
followed by Khagaria (41.6%).60.5%disease
was recorded in plants having 51-100 cm
girth followed by plants 101-150cm girth
(48.7%).Waterlogged condition aggravated
the disease incidence. Fusarium solani 1. sp.
dalbergiae has been confirmed as the
pathogen. Abiotic stress conditions viz.;
waterlogging,
flooding,
semiflooding,
drought, degraded land etc. were also
recorded during survey. Plant parts as well
as rhizosphere soil samples of infected alive
Rukshana and Javaid (2007)observed that in
Punjab trees were severely suffering from
wilt and dieback diseases. Maximum
mortality of up to 80% was observed along
the canal bank followed by 20 40% along
the highways and roadsides. The least
disease incidence and mortality rate was
observed in plants growing on agricultural
and well managed lands. Generally the older
plants were found to be more susceptible to
dieback attack than the younger ones.
40
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
However, wilt was common both in young
and old plants. Stressed conditions either
drought or high soil moisture content were
found to be helpful for attack of pathogen
and severity of the disease. F. solani (Mart.)
Appel & Wr. was isolated from the roots of
shisham plants suffering from wilt
disease.Rajput et al(2008) isolated Fusarium
solani from shisham dieback trees.Internal
browning of stem and roots were rated on 05 scale. Shisham plants inoculated with F.
solani alone produced maximum disease
incidence, showed prominent typical
symptoms of the disease with internal
browning of stem and roots. However, R.
solani and C. lunata either completly failed
or caused very rare infection on test plants.
F. solani produced moderate infection on
shisham seedlings when inoculated with
either R. solani or C. lunata. Maximum
reduction in root and shoot length was
observed in plants inoculated by injecting
spore suspension of F. solani as compared to
spore suspension added to soil or plants
sprayed with spore suspension. Root and
shoot weight also decreased when spore
suspension of F. solani was injected into
stem followed by soil amended with spore
suspension and plants sprayed with spore
suspension. Similar trends were also
observed about reduction in whole plant
growth and weight. Host range studies
coducted by inoculating seedlings each of 10
different trees with F. solani indicated that
the test fungus was moderate to highly
pathogenic to shisham, Indian laburnum,
siris and gold mohar.
plantation trial at Hoshiarpur (Punjab) the
dieback wilt causes a tremendous damage to
the standing trees.Mortality was found
highest (7.65%) for the experimental trials
of shisham that includes a total of 49 clones
and rametes. The disease was spreading
rapidly and affecting other healthy
plantations in the trial.
Kumar(2014)investigated wilting in North
Eastern Uttar Pradesh and his survey
registered more than 30% wilted plants.It
was found that wilting is highly alarming in
Basti district with 50-60%wilting in the
month
of
July
followed
by
Siddharthanagar,Santkabirnagar
and
Gorakhpur district(Table 2).Wilted plants
were observed in all age groups,in
nursery,5-10 year,10-15year,15-20year,3040year with yellowing and death of leaves in
acropetal sucession and lastly death of entire
plant in humid months from July to
September. 16 fungal species were found to
be associated with sterilized and unsterilized
root pieces.The per cent occurrence of
Fusarium
oxysporum
in
Basti,
Santkabirnagar, Siddharthanagar, Gorakhpur
district was found to be 80.4, 80.3, 78.6,
53.6 per cent respectively and that of
Fusarium solani was 79.4,79.3,79.0 and54.8
per cent respectively. On pathogenicity F.
oxysporum showed 70% wilting while
F.solani showed 80% wilting while control
set showed no wilting.
Mechanism of Wilting
The production of microconidia takes place
in great quantity and may be either oval,
elliptical or kidney shaped and produced on
any portion of mycelium growing above the
nutrient medium as aerial mycelia.
Macroconidia(three to five celled), gradually
pointed or curved edges and found on
sporodochia on the surface of diseased plant
(in culture the sporodochia may be sparse or
Bhandari et al(2014)mentioned that the
genetic diversity in shisham is very low;
which is the reason for increased attack by
diseases and insect-pests.The species is
eclipsed with one of the most important
disease called dieback wilt by F. solani f. sp.
dalbergiae. The biotic and abiotic factors
help in the spread of pathogen. In the
41
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
nonexistent). The Chlamydospore formation
takes place either singly or in pairs, but can
sometimes be found in congregate or in
short row. Being thick walled spores they
are produced within or terminally on an
older mycelium or macroconidia. In
comparison to other types, chlamydospores
can survive in the soil for a long period.
all tissues, sporulates well and continues to
infect neighbouring plants.
Management of Wilting
Steps for Control
Khan et al. (1965) highlighted that mortality
of sissoo is the result of physiological
problem brought about by soil-cumirrigation factors. The temperature and wind
play an indirect role. Remedial measures
suggested were artificial application of more
water to the land or soil and changing of
plantation make up/maintenance schedule.
F.oxysporum is a common soil pathogen and
saprophyte that feeds on decaying matter
composed of organic compounds or the
remains of organisms such as plants and
animals and their waste products. This
fungus flourishes in the soil laden mass of
loose mud, sand, soil, rock etc as mycelium
having all spore types, but mostly the
chlamydospores. Its spread occurs in two
basic ways: to short distances by air moving
in a certain direction and also instruments
used in plantations and to long distances by
infected materials and seeds. F. oxysporum
invades and proliferates in a healthy plant
by means of mass of hyphae or by
germinating spores penetrating the root tips,
root wounds, or lateral roots extending
horizontally to anchor the plant securely into
the soil. The overall plant physiology gets
inhibited due to mass of hyphae going
intracellularly through the root cortex
reaching up to xylem. In the xylem, the mass
of hyphae remains exclusively in the vessels
and produce microconidia which have
capacity to enter into the sap stream and get
transported upward. Due to the presence of
dissolved sugars and minerals in the
circulatory system the microconidia
germinate. Eventually the vascular vessels
become blocked with an accumulation of
thick mass of hyphae and spores.This
prevents the plant from up-taking and
translocating nutrients. Lastly the plant
transpires off water vapour through the
stomata much more than it can transport and
the stomata get closed, the leaves wilt and
resultantly the plant dies.The fungus invades
Although the cause of die-back problem has
not been clearly understood still a number of
following remedial measures can be taken to
prevent or minimise the disease;Avoid
Injury It was observed that mostly trees
grown along water channels got infected as
compared to the scattered ones. It was found
that during the cleaning water channels,
roots of the trees got injured helping easy
entry of pathogens. Possibly that frequent
inter cultivation also increases the chances
of root injury.Which should be restricted
after establishment of trees(Khan et
al. 1965).
Selection and preparation of site Raise
shisham on a site having light textured soil
with adequate soil moisture and good
drainage. Avoid hard clayey soils with
tendency of water logging.; Mixed
Cropping
When growing two crops
intermingled together in the same field, the
incidence of infection is usually low.
Introduction of resistant plants such
as Acacia
nilotica
Mours spp., and
Eucalyputs spp is also recommended. Avoid
pure plantation of shisham and have them
mixed
preferably with nonleguminous
species.
42
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
spread of
problems.
Sanitary Precautions
The infected stumps must be removed from
the ground as they may spread pathogen to
healthy trees. In areas used for sissoo
planting, all effort must be made to free the
ground completely of dead and decayed
wooden fragments and fungal fruiting
bodies which are ready source of infection.
Deep wounds should be covered with
grafting wax and rubber latex. This will not
only allow the timely utilization of the
timber from the dead trees but also check the
spread of the pathogen to the adjacent trees.;
infection
and
also
termite
Selection of Resistant Clones and
Propagation Resistant material has been
devloped by Forest Research Institute and
should preferably be used for future
plantations. However, selection of resistance
is a continuous process. Bajwa and Javaid
(2007) advocated that Resistant shisham
varieties should be planted on well drained
sandy loam soils to control wilt and dieback.
The severely infected and dead plants must
be uprooted followed by disinfection of the
soil to avoid further spread.
Deep Planting
Control Biotic Pressure-The biotic
pressure on shisham can be reduced by
developing alternate forest area as buffer
zone.The extensive village eco-devlopment
programme will also help to reduce the
biotic pressure.Field staff should also be
sent to other plantaions to gain first hand
information.
In dry locations deep irrigation is
recommended so trees can develop deep root
systems which can draw water from the
water table when irrigation is stopped. In
addition sowing of seeds and a deep planting
hole are recommended to help,develop long
tap root, which may reach capillary zone of
sub soil water within 2-4 years. (Khan et
al. 1965)
Integrated Disease ManagementAccording to present literature the
management can be achieved as follows-
Ban on Debarking
Complete ban or debarking should be
forced.
Chemical Management
Khan et al.(1965)found that carbendazim
(Bavistin) and captaf (captan) fungicides are
very effective against F.solani.. Ahmad et
al, (1996) mentioned that among the three
fungicides evaluated against F. solani in
vitro, Benomyl was found to be highly
effective causing a significant reduction in
mycelial growth
even in very low
concentration of 10 ppm. Ridomil was
effective but at higher concentration. Some
other fungicides such as Vitavax, Dithane
M-45, Bavistin are also known to have
significant suppressive effect on growth of
F. solani. Benomyl, the most effective
fungicide in in vitro also proved very
Site Selection
Elimination of the pathogen (F.solani) from
the soil is not possible either chemically or
by growing different crops in succession on
a piece of land to avoid exhaustion of the
soil and to control weeds,diseases and pests.
Therefore selection of light textured soil
having adequate soil moisture and drainage
is important.
Removal of Over-aged Trees
Wilting trees of more than 45 years age
should be removed. It will reduce further
43
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
effective in vivo and this fungicide may
prove highly beneficial to save the shisham
trees from wilting. In an experiment all the
three shisham plants, which were likely to
be dead by wilting during next few weeks,
managed to recover themselves from disease
after treatment with Benomyl. However,
there is need to study its effectiveness
against the wilt attack in older trees. Bajwa
and Javaid(2007)found that Benomyl was
effective in controlling wilt in 6-8 years old
shisham plants. It is a stable fungicide
suitable for injection into the trees (Mcwain
and Gregory, 1973). A benomyl derived
fungus toxicant MBC (Methyl-2-benzi
midazol carbamate) is also known to be
effective against wilting.
oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Out of 36 volatile
compounds detected, 11 compounds
completely inhibited fungal growth. The
antifungal activity of these compounds
suggests that VOCs can play important roles
over short and long distances in the
suppression of F. oxysporum.The VOCs
produced by NJN-6 strongly antagonized F.
oxysporum in soil and the quantity of F.
oxysporum in the treated soil was 102 g 1
after 45 days as against 104 g 1 in the control
soil. Previous research has shown that
abundant nutrients in the soil increased the
production of bacterial VOCs, suggesting
that the amount of organic matter in the soil
might affect the ability of NJN-6 to release
VOCs into the soil. Nonvolatile antibiotics,
including
lipopeptides,
have
strong
antifungal activities. However, these
nonvolatile antibiotics cannot spread over
long distances and only when these
antagonists directly colonize the plant roots
they can prevent pathogenic fungi from
infecting plants. In contrast, VOCs can
spread over a long distance and fungistatic
microenvironments exist around the
antagonist communities. In addition, the
antifungal VOCs produced by bacteria can
kill surviving spores in the soil and limit
both the production, spread and the
establishment of the disease.
Biocontrol Agents;Fungi
Bajwa and Javaid(2007)investigated that
Shisham decline can be controlled by
adopting integrated disease management
(IDM) approach. Trichoderma harzianum
Rifai, T. viride Pers. ex Gray and T.
aureoviride Rifai can be used as biological
control agent to reduce the field inoculum of
F. solani.
Biocontrol Agents;Bacteria
Czaczyk et al (2002) reported the antifungal
activity of Bacillus coagulans against three
pathogenic species of Fusarium by checking
colony forming units, dry matter and
ergosterol level and biosynthesis of
Fusarium mycotoxins. Estimation of
ergosterol level as a determinant of fungal
growth showed the greatest degree of
Fusarium sp. inhibition. Addition of
Bacillus coagulans to Fusarium culmorum
culture inhibits the DON (deoxynivalenol)
production. Jun Yuan et al (2012) found that
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens NJN-6 produces
volatile
compounds
(VOCs)inhibiting
growth and spore germination of Fusarium
Management with
Antifungal Plants
Broad
Spectrum
Since Fusarium has very wide host range
causing wilt in many plants,hence
pathologists have often tried for finding
antifungal activity in plants to devlop
ecofriendly management of wilts which is
as followsAntifungal
activity
of
different
concentrations (2, 4, 6 and 8% w/v) of leaf
extracts of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.),
maize (Zea mays L.), sunflower (Helianthus
44
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
annus L.), chilies (Capsicum annum L.),
onion (Allium cepa L.) and marigold
(Tagetes erectus L.) was evaluated in vitro
for checking growth of F. oxysporum.
Extract of marigold, sunflower and chilies
were found highly effective having reduced
fungal biomass by 54- 79%, 33-85%, 4557%, and onion by 73% respectively(Tariq
Riaz, et al.,2008). Sharma and Kumar
(2009)also tried for the development of
ecofriendly antifungal compounds for
controlling plant diseases caused by
F.oxysporum through extracts of three
weeds namely Capparis decidua, Lantana
camara and Tridax procumbens. The spore
germination/spore counting technique was
followed for the evaluation of the fungicidal
properties of the extracts at three different
concentrations. Results revealed that the free
flavonoids and sterols of T. procumbens
(flower) and bound flavonoids of C. decidua
(fruit and stem) totally inhibited spore
germination of the fungi (100%). The
antifungal components from these plants
could be used in developing novel
fungicides
(biopesticides).
Asha
et
al(2009)assessed avtivity of
the crude
extracts of six plants viz, Allium sativum,
Capsicum annuum, Artimisia vulgaris,
Eupatorium
adenophorum,
Gaultheria
fragrantissima and Phyllanthus emblica
against F. solani (Mart.) Sacc. The extracts
of all the plant species were effective in
inhibiting the mycelial growth. Jasenka et al
(2010)observed potency of essential oils
(clove, rosemary, cinnamon leaf, sage, scots
pine, neroli, peppermint, aniseed, caraway,
lavander, common thyme)for in vitro
antifungal activity on twelve plant
pathogenic fungi (Fusarium graminearum,
F. verticillioides, F. subglutinans, F.
oxysporum, F. avenaceum, Diaporthe
helianthi, D.phaseolorum var. caulivora,
Phomopsis longicolla, P. phaseolorum var.
caulivora,
P.longicolla,
P.
viticola,
Helminthosporium sativum, Colletotrichum
coccodes, Thanatephorus cucumeris). The
results indicated that all oils except scots
pine and neroli had antifungal activity
against some or all tested fungi. The best
antifungal activity was in common thyme,
cinnamon leaf, clove and aniseed
oils(Jasenka et al.,2010).
Sirirat (2010)evaluated essential oil of
Trachyspermum ammi Lin.against three
strains of F.oxysporum. F. oxysporum f.sp.
lycopersici, F.oxysporum f.sp. cubense and
F. oxysporum f.sp. capsici the wilt pathogen
of tomato, banana and chili respectively.
The in vitro assay (based on poison food
method)
indicates
that
ajowan(Trachyspermum ammi) oil, in
solution phase, possesses strong antifungal
activity against the test fungi. The Minimum
Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and the
Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC)
were 240 and 480 g mL-1, respectively.
The antifungal activity of volatile headspace
of the essential oil was evaluated under a
modified atmosphere in inverted Petriplates. Headspace vapor of ajowan oil has a
strong activity with Minimum Inhibitory
Quantity (MIQ) and the Minimum
Fungicidal Quantity (MFQ) of 12.5 and 25.0
l, respectively. Additionally, the effects of
ajowan oil on the biomass production and
sporulation of the test fungi indicate that it
has significant retardation effect on the
biomass production and sporulation of the
fungi. Results suggested that ajowan oil has
potential use as a biofungicide against the
wilt pathogens.
Al-Hetar et al(2011)investigated the in vitro
antifungal activity of chitosan against
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Race 4
(FocR4) the causal agent of banana
wilt.Chitosan at all concentrations tested
reduced the hyphal growth of FocR4 on
potato dextrose agar media and registered
maximum inhibition of 76.36% at 8 mg/mL.
45
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
Table.1.Medicinal uses of Various Parts of Shisham
Plant parts
Leaf
Bark powder
Shisham oil
Preparation
Problem
Juice mixed with honey as eye
Pain in eyes
drop
Leaf juice in dose of 10-15ml Jaundice,pus in
thrice a day
urine
Painful urination,boils,
50-100ml
decoction
of
pimples,blood
leaves,drink twice a day
purification
Warmed and tied on affected
Breast swelling
area for reducing swelling
10-15 ml juice of leaves twice a
Pain in abdomen
day
Juice in dose of 10-15ml,twice in Abnormal bleeding
a day
in females
3-6 grams with one cup
Body pain
milk/water for 2-3 weeks
3-6 gm decoction
Gonorrhoea
10gm sissoo bark boiled in
500ml of water till the volume
reduces to half, mix the juice Leprosy
and consumefor 40 days every
morning
Bark powder 1 kg cooked in 2
litre water, taken in dose of ten Sciatica
grams with milk 3 weeks
Topical application
Skin diseases
Table.2 Percent Wilting of Sissoo Tree in Different Districts of Eastern U.P during
July(Kumar,2014)
Name of Place
(District/village)
Basti
Jamdi Road
Mahsoo Road
Sonupar area
Munderava
Orwara
Per cent Name of Place
Per
wilting
(District/village) cent
wilting
Santkabirnagar
51
Sameriwa
30
55
Nandor
39
60
Lohrauli
30
50
Mangua Road
39
54
Khalilabad
38
Name of Place
(District/village)
Siddharthanagar
Dumariaganj
Hallore
Itwa tahsil
Bansi
Naugrah
46
Per
cent
wilting
42
40
44
40
49
Name of Place
(District/village)
Gorakhpur
Bhiti Road
Sahjanwa
Ghagsara
Khajani
Pipraich
Per
cent
wilting
30
31
32
33
29
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
Table.3 Evaluation of Essential Oils against F. Oxysporum and F.Solani(Kumar,2014)
Plant species
Aegle marmelos(L.)Corea
Ageratum conyzoides L.
A. Houstonianum L.
Anisomeles ovata R.Br.
Artabotrys
hexpetalous(Lamm)Merr.
Feronia elephantum Correa
F.limonia(L.) Swingle
Mentha piperata L.
M.spicata L.
Ocimum adscendens Willd
O.basilicum L.
O.canum Sims
O.sanctum L.
Putranjiva roxburghii Wall
% inhibition of mycelia growth of test fungi at 500ppm
Family
Fusarium oxysporum Fusarium solani
Rutaceae
37.3
62.1
Asteraceae
70.5
64.2
80.5
80.5
Lamiaceae
60.3
60.3
Annonaceae
54.2
46.7
Rutaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
59.7
60.8
60.3
63.3
50.0
45.1
55.1
47.1
100
Figure.1.Stem with Leaves
Figure.2 Pods of Sissoo
47
60.3
65.4
50.3
48.2
52.4
50.1
75.0
52.3
100
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
Figure.3 Wilting in 40-45 Year Old Tree of Shisham
Figure.4 Wilting of Shisham Trees in a Row Plantation along with Healthy Tree
source:Harsh,N.S.K.FRI Dehradun-248006
The inhibitory effect was found to increase
as chitosan concentration increases. The
50% effective concentration value was
estimated by probit analysis, and it was 1.4
mg/mL. Chitosan was more effective in
potato dextrose broth where it completely
inhibited the mycelial growth of FocR4 at
all concentrations tested. Chitosan inhibited
the sporulation of FocR4 by a maximum of
96.53% at 8 mg/mL chitosan, and 100%
inhibition of spore germination was
recorded at all concentrations tested.
Chitosan at concentrations of more than 1.6
mg/mL was also found to induce
morphological
changes
in
FocR4
characterized by agglomeration of hyphae,
abnormal shapes, vesicles, or empty cells
devoid of cytoplasm in the mycelia.
Sibounnavong et al(2012) found that
antagonistic fungi Chaetomium brasilense
CB01 and Chaetomium cupreum CC03
antagonized F.oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
NKSC02 race 2 that caused tomato wilt of
sida abd cherry varieties.The bioactivities
test demonstrated the antagonistic activity of
Ch. Brasilense CB01 and Ch. Cupreum
CC03 inhibited production of F. oxysporum
f. sp. Lycopersici race 2 conidia.Tongbram
et al(2012)investigated the antifungal effect
of aqueous extracts of locally available
plant species in vitro conditions against F.
48
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2016) 5(1): 32-54
udum, the causal agent of Fusarium wilt of
pigeonpea. Among the plants tested higher
inhibition was noticed in Allium sativum,
Azadirachta indica, Spilanthes acmella and
Adhatoda vasica. In field experiment,
aqueous extract of A. sativum showed
maximum disease control. Rosado-Álvarez
et al (2014) observed a significant inhibition
of mycelial growth and sporulation of F.
oxysporum f. sp. asparagi, F. oxysporum f.
sp. dianthi and F. oxysporum pathogenic to
strawberry upon addition of the asparagus
extract. The latest research of Kamel et
al(2015)suggested that haliscosamine is a
potential candidate against F. oxysporum
f.sp. melonis and with the possibility to use
in
phytopathology.
Kumar(2014)also
reported bioactive potential of the essential
oil of Putranjiva roxburghii Wall with
absolute fungal toxicity at 500ppm. (Table
3)following inverted petri plate technique
against wilt pathogens causing wilt in
shisham.The MIC of the oil was found to be
500ppm against both the test fungi.The root,
bark and seed extract of Putranjiva showed
100% mycelial inhibition of both test fungi
at 1;10 dilution.A small pilot experiment at
nursery level upto two year as a mixed
plantation of sissoo and Putranjiva showed
complete protection of wilting.So in order to
protect sissoo Putranjiva may be used
against Fusarium after successful large scale
mixed planation field trials.The monoculture
concept for sissoo need to be discouraged
because shiham wilt now in epidemic stage.
plant. It can be prevented by combining
practices like the prevention of the root
injury, maintenance of capacity of a soil by
nutrient
management,
avoiding
any
haphazard use of pesticides and chemical
fertilizers and adopting regular cultivation
practices. A complete survey of the disease
in different ecological zones is necessary to
make proper evaluation of the damage
caused by the wilt in the natural, irrigated
plantations and all along the canals and
roads. Being an economical tree of Asia, all
Asian countries can have research
consortium, exchange of new findings and
develop a common
program for the
managing the disease.
The dead, wilted and die- back plants should
be uprooted
to check sources of the
pathogens to stop further spread of the
disease. Plantations on clayey and
waterlogged soils should be avoided. Mixed
cropping is recommended to avoid wilting.
New shisham nurseries should be raised
from the seeds and cuttings of the resistant
variety to replace the susceptible varieties.
Watering is beneficial during relatively dry
autumns and during dry summer months.
Use Benomyl to check wilting in young
Shisham plants. Add organic materials such
as farmyard manure along with some
antagonistic fungi to reduce the spread of
the
pathogen.xchange.
The
work(Kumar,2014)reflects that major cause
of shisham wilting is species of Fusarium.
Their management is possible through
mixed plantation with Putranjiva.
In conclusion, Sissoo is an important timber
and effective medicinal tree various
diseases. The wood and bark of Shisham
have abortifacient, anthelmintic, antipyretic,
aphrodisiac, expectorant and refrigerant
properties and used much for treatment of
wounds and gonorrhoea. Shisham wilting is
due to attack of root and stem rotting
organisms that live and feed by attacking
either the aerial or under ground parts of the
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How to cite this article:
Narendra Kumar and Paul Khurana S. M. 2016. Bio Management of Wilting of a Valuable
Timber and Medicinal Plant of Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) - A Review.
Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 5(1): 32-54. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2016.501.004
54