Gina Wisker
University of Brighton UK
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Postgraduates are the greatest growth area
The population of postgraduates is
increasingly diverse
International postgraduates are a significant
sub set
Worldwide international postgraduates are
mobile,
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How far are learning &teaching and research methods
and approaches culture free and just good practice?
How can enabling practices be used by supervisors to
bring out the potential in all students – including
international students
How far might you be insisting on a Western
/masculinist/ positivist/post-positivist or other
learning/teaching or research paradigm just from
familiarity?
Is this insistence a form of cultural imperialism?
Or an enabling strategy for students to learn about
diversity and flexibility of approaches and
conceptualisation, presentation etc?
why does it matter?
What do or could you do to ensure avoidance of
cultural imperialism without dumbing down?
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1Have you been an international postgraduate?
 What did you learn from being an
international postgraduate?
 Did you have any issues? If so what where
they?
2Have you supervised international
postgraduates?
 Where are they from?
What have you learned from working with
them?
 What issues have presented in working with
them?
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Feeling like your’re communicating, but parallel
planes
We don’t know what they know and they’re
unsure quite often about showing that they don’t
understand.
The cross-checking and double-checking is
necessary to ensure they’re engaging.
The excitement of going somewhere new; the
isolation; and the critical role of the international
office.
Mature female students – huge but possibly last
big change they’ll make in their lives – makes
them feel anxious.
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Socialization and enculturation into the university
– same with domestic students but it’s
exacerbated by being an international. Don’t
know the rules of behaviour.
Similar but not the same.
Enculturation is assisted if the supervisor shows
a caring attitude. Overall responsibility – almost
like an ‘in loco parentis’ situation. Make people
feel comfortable enough that they can get on
with their work.
Sometimes whole families come but spouses
can’t get work; this challenges family life and
community support is essential.
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Community support is essential so the student
can get on with what they need to do.
Even though you’ve been around and feel you’re
cosmopolitan and experienced, you realize that
things aren’t the same.
The settling-in period can take up to six months
before the student can do productive work. The
intellectual work suffers as well as the emotional
well-being.
Students also need to assume responsibility for
becoming familiar with the destination culture.
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We have responsibility for helping students
reintegrate to their home culture after they
complete their degree. Cultural expectations
after they return.
Sometimes students will pick a “safe” topic so
that they can reintegrate to their home culture.
A PhD student is “for life” – we remain involved in
their careers when they go home.
Three areas in which the supervisor works –
personal, institutional, and the learning area.
They are necessarily linked up for the students.
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In some universities, the international office
follows up for some time after the student
graduates and goes home. This doesn’t
necessarily need to be the supervisor’s job.
Sometimes students go home and are valorized
and end up in positions beyond which they’re
comfortable with.
“Pastoral care” rather than personal
responsibility.
“Risky subjects” – how do we deal with that?
Students can embargo their thesis for up to three
years. It’s a conversation between supervisor,
student, and university.
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There is an obligation on the institution – if
something arises that endangers the student,
then the research should be embargoed
forever. Institutions have a responsibility to
ensure student safety.
Ensure a manageable, do-able thesis. It’s a
PhD, not a Nobel prize.
Supervisors can learn a great deal about the
culture of their international students. One of
our jobs is to find out about the students’
culture.
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Some cultures consider knowledge is sharedindividual PhD?
Some cultures consider it insulting to argue with
elders/authorities -which affects critical debate
(myth of the Asian learner, approval for
‘indoctrination’ in Saudi Arabia )
Some students might not easily gain access to their
population or ‘truths’ because of differences in
culture, status, insider/outsider
Language facility –tertiary literacy - might hamper
critical thinking and expression skills
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postgraduate level of learning◦
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transitions to major project
discipline and interdisciplinary expectations
part time
professional
tertiary literacy issues
communication and interaction differences and
protocols
◦ And these are issues common to ALL postgraduates
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Cultural & cross cultural differences in
expectations
◦ preconceptions of learning
◦ previously rewarded methods and strategies for learning
◦ learning practices, approaches,motivation, sought for
outcomes
◦ issues of power relations
◦ cultural confusions, misinterpretations, clashes in the
supervisory context
◦ issues of gender , class, religion, age, sexuality inflect
learning behaviours, constructions of knowledge, access,
interpretations
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Personal – self image, emotional wellbeing,
confidence, friends and family
Learning – culturally inflected learning
teaching and research differences, learning
development, working conceptually, in own
voice, on a doable project
Institutional – information, rules, clashes eg
plagiarism, visa timed out ,support,
supervision, advocacy and clarification
(Wisker 2003, 2010; Wisker and Jones 2007)
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In response to international students’ needs,
government policy has highlighted the need for
HE institutions to:
Promote best practice in the internationalisation
of the student learning experience
Support the internationalisation of the
curriculum at disciplinary level
Support the developments of
internationalisation strategies (HEA, 2004)
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Many universities across the Western higher
education sector, including the UK, now depend
on the uptake of courses by international
students (Green, 1996; Wisker, 2003;Wisker
2012). It is, therefore, vital for these universities
to ensure that their international student clients
receive good value for money in the standard of
support, teaching and supervision they receive.
Yet, in the past, UK universities have been
criticised for ‘selling their international students
short’ (The Times Higher Educational Supplement,
cited by Wisker, 2003).
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In the context of doctoral students, where
supervisors work with research students from
cultures which are different to their own,
there are specific issues, which may still not
have been addressed by some universities
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“In spite of identification of special supervisory
requirements of international
postgraduate students and their supervisors,
policies and plans identifying the
need for, amongst other priorities, development
of cross-cultural understanding, recognition and
support of cultural identity, there has been
very little systematic response at institutional
levels.”
(Wisker, 2003)
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Some instances of dissonance in learning
specifically accumulation approaches vs
transformational outcomes lead to problems in
development of conceptual frameworks and
achievement of learning outcomes
research development programme three stages
◦ questions proposal conceptual frameworks
◦ maintaining momentum-transfer
◦ completion-conceptual frameworks, writing up, viva
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Action research with students as a
collaborators enables reflection on learning
strategies and development, and ownership
of the process
Supervisory dialogues part of the three stage
programme - categories analysed to
indicate where specific interactions prove
useful, train and develop supervisory
responses to aid the learning and
personal/professional development of
students encouraging autonomy
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Please consider what these interviews/case
studies suggest about what works and what
could be developed in our worked with
international postgraduates
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Israeli PhD studemts 1997-2009 (Anglia
Ruskin University Gina Wisker, Yehudit odCohen et al)
Cross cultural supervision research 20082010(CLT University of Brighton Gina Wisker
and Jennie Jones :’parallel’ international
postgrads and supervisors project 200710,Wisker)
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Students’ experience of education Students **
“ In X and other countries, in HE, students are more
driven by lecturers. We are given things to read by
lecturers even at PhD level. Everything is very
managed. In the UK it is very different, you have to
manage your own work.” (Interview 3)
PlagiarismSupervisors **
“The understanding of plagiarism is not universal. I
know in the UK it has become a very hot issue. Some
international students say - I can’t say it any better,
because it’s already said and it’s exactly what I
mean.” (Interview 3)
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Students’ deference to supervisor
Students *
“I never even expected my supervisor would come into the
lab with me, because of his status. To begin with I saw
him as an older man who I shouldn’t really inconvenience.
Now I feel he is more approachable.”(Interview 6)
Supervisors **
“He’s actually looking for a lot more authority from me,
and when things go wrong expects me to be more critical.
I know our communication doesn’t always really meet
there, which I find difficult and frustrating.” (Interview 8)
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Students’ requirement to work independently
Students’ requirement to develop critical analysis skills
“If I am expected to look for all the right literature for my thesis
on my own and that is what is expected that is fine, but I need to
know that in advance from my supervisor.” (Interview 2)
“When I studied research methodology early in my PhD I realised
I needed to become more critical in my work. My supervisors did
not really explain that to me, and I didn’t ask any more. It was
something that evolved naturally.” (Interview 1)
Supervisor **
“I think some international students find the need to work and
study independently very hard, because there is a very wide
spectrum of what people expect from a PhD in the UK. That is
very hard for people who come from a culture where everything
is documented.” (Interview 10)
“ She found it difficult to be critical and to do critical analysis
and would take things very much at first glance. She had very
fixed notions, which were impossible for us to change.”
(Interview 1)
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•meeting
people on a summer vacation is one
thing. Studying and working with them is
another, I found them very warm and nice and
empathic.
• in Israel, unfortunately, the professors and
lecturers give you the impression that you are
only disturbing them.
• a student, who is afraid of his professors, will
not be skeptic enough or critical enough as a
future scholar ought to be.
•one thing I liked in particular was that I could
talk to my English professors as a colleague.
They always gave me the feeling of being equal.
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from discussions with doctorate level students in xxx I anticipated
that I would be asked to do a bit of research that interested my
advisor; this in addition to course requirements
we were, on the one hand, almost spoon fed some carefully developed
materials that introduced us to what research was and what it entailed.
We were given to understand that the brunt of our sessions
throughout the time we would be learning would deal with issues
surrounding the task of carrying out a piece of academically
acceptable research which would lead to developing some new
contribution to the knowledge base of the area into which we would
be carrying out our inquiry. On the other hand we were informed that
the responsibility of acquiring the extensive knowledge base having to
do with the domain of the inquiry was solely our responsibility.
the approach which places responsibility on the doctoral candidate to
be an expert in his field appealed to me. This, coupled with the
detailed and graded materials dealing with research and methodology
suited me personally.
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The above issue is reflective of relationship
between supervisor and candidate. .. foremost in
my mind is the level of trust that should exist
between them. In my opinion this is one of the
most important issues that a supervisor can attend
to. It is relevant in general but more so in the case
when the supervisor and candidate operate in
different cultures.
In my experience, cross-cultural interaction when
done with care and commitment can be an
immensely enriching experience for all
participants. I can attest from my own personal
experience that I fully enjoyed this interaction with
my supervisor and her colleagues.
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the use of specific terminology posses two challenges. The
first is of introducing the candidates to a whole new range of
terms and concepts that they have never encountered and the
second is of transmitting the meaning of such terms from
one culture to another.
there are also the cultural differences where approaches and
expectations are different from the two sides. I remember
some comments made by my cohorts such as “the English
want it done this way, or they do not understand this issue
like we do”.
it is my impression that the way to surmount these crosscultural difficulties is by a fully engaged dialogue which is
fluid and continuous all along the duration of the process.
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Find out how and if cultural diversity is likely to
affect
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choice of area of research,
ways of constructing knowledge,
approaches to research,
access to population,
ways of articulating ideas & arguments,
engagement with the literature,
ways of writing up, presenting and defending the findings
& the thesis
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Consequently, when removed to a Western
culture the students find it inconceivable even to
consider entering into debate with supervisors.”
(Okorocha, E, in ed. Cryer, P, cited by Wisker,
2003)
Yet in UK universities, at doctoral level, the ability
to debate and think critically is vital. It is evident
that students need general support from
universities to develop their English language
skills to a tertiary literacy level and to understand
the cultural academic expectations of research
degrees in western contexts.
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Lack of support and training
Cultural discrimination
A lack of respect for other cultures
Lack of cultural empathy
Lack of cultural awareness
Supervisors’ belief that they are academically
superior
Inability to hear the student’s voice
Communication difficulties
Misunderstanding
Difficulty in adjusting or changing practice to meet
the varied needs of International doctoral students
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(Wisker, 2003, Taylor, 2007)
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On the part of the student issues may also include:
Difficulties in development of tertiary literacy
Difficulties in adjusting to Western learning styles
appropriate at doctoral level: including the need to
engage in critical debate
Lack of understanding and clarity about academic
and practical expectations at doctoral level
Lack of confidence
Feelings of isolation
Non-completion of degree
(Wisker, 2003, Taylor, 2007, University of Brighton
International Audit, 2008, University of Brighton
Report on Student Retention, 2008)
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“it’s important to help international PhD
students with the transition to being here.
However smoothly it goes, it’s a nightmare.
You may have no money, you don’t know
anybody. Everything’s new. I think offering
more help there would have been useful in
terms of facilities and accommodation for
post-grad students.” (Interview 1 JJ 2010)
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A key to success is confidence. Confidence is theorised by
sociologist Barbalet (1998) to be a powerful emotion with
its basis in experiences of social relationships relationships in which a person receives acceptance and
recognition. Barbalet regards confidence as the 'affective
basis of action and agency' (p.88), for it foreshadows a
willingness to act. Confidence functions in opposition to
shame. Shame, anxiety or uncertainty have their basis in
relationships in which a person experiences denial of
acceptance or recognition. Salzberger-Wittenberg (1983)
contends that as learning arises in situations in which we
'do not as yet know' or are 'as yet unable to achieve what
we aim to do,' all learning invariably involves uncertainty,
hope and fear (p.54). The possibility of acting with
confidence, that is, having agency, in the myriad moments
of the unknowable future in the classroom or university,
springs from experiences of social relationships, both past
and present. Relationships with significant others underpin
emotions which influence participants' disposition to act or
learn with various degrees of confidence, shame or threat.
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Recent scholarship has focused interest on the emotion of shame. (See, for example, Scheff
1997, Kitayama, 1995, 1997, Giddens, 1991). Scheff describes shame as the 'master emotion'
(p.20), basic to the dynamics of relationships in which pride accompanies solidarity, and shame
accompanies alienation. He argues that
shame is crucial in social interaction because it ties together the individual and social aspects
of human activity as part and whole. As an emotion within individuals it plays a central role in
consciousness of feeling and morality. But it also functions as a signal of distance between
persons, allowing us to regulate how far we are from others (pp.13, 14).
Shame is part of the process of social control (p.74) in families and the wider society, and as
with pride and other emotions, is culturally shaped, varying in its associations and expressions.
The social relationships of solidarity and alienation, arising from pride and shame, have been
described by Scheff as fundamental to the 'social bond' (1991, 1997). In his theory of the social
bond, he proposes that particular social relationships are basic to the development of
individuals' identity and self-esteem. Self-esteem and confidence hinge on a cluster of 'selfconscious emotions, particularly pride' (Kitayama 1991 p.524). Fundamental to self-esteem is
trust, built through the strength of the social bond. If the social bond and self-esteem are
high, one is disposed to act with the confidence of positive expectation. If they are low, and
rejection and distance are experienced, one is disposed to act with negative expectation.
Silent issues for international postgraduate research students: Emotion and agency in academic
success
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Christine Ingleton, Adelaide University
Kate Cadman, Adelaide University www.aare.edu.au/00pap/ing00194.htm
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Four major themes were identified in the
student experiences those of marginalisation:
student/supervisory relationship,
academic/organisational marginalisation,
social marginalisation, and advantaging.
The coping strategies identified are those of
self-determination and technique.
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It was found that adjustment for students was most difficult in
the first six to twelve months from entry into the new cultural
context, largely due to the influence of previous educational and
cultural experiences on expectations.
Also highlighted was the range of interpersonal and
intrapersonal coping strategies that students used to help
manage their cultural transition. The importance of collegial
support as a key coping strategy for international student
adjustment was confirmed in the study.
Self-determination was also shown to be a strong motivator for
managing research work and interpersonal relationships. The
research indicated a number of important differences between
masters and doctoral students' experiences and highlighted
differences concerning traditional gender roles.
PhD thesis The Experiences of Chinese International
Postgraduates Studying in Singapore : McClure, Joanne Wendy
Institution Griffith University Date 2003
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Solutions to the more general supervisory problems can
be summarised as:
The frequency and type of supervision tutorials, which
will take place, should be agreed by both student and
supervisor in advance
Each stage of the research should be carefully and
systematically planned and discussed
Students should be encouraged to develop a diversity of
research approaches
Students should be encouraged to develop a knowledge
of appropriate research cultures and theories
Students should be made aware of accessible resources
Expectations about time management and deadlines
should be clarified for students
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Training in research methods should be made
available to students, enabling the
establishment of research student peer
groups, and better subsequent meetings with
supervisors
Research student peer group interaction and
support should be encouraged-develop
communities which can sustain students at
home and abroad (Wisker, 2008. 2012)
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supervisors’ increased awareness of, and
adjustment to culturally different contexts,
learning styles, expectations and
behaviours
supervisors’ acceptance of different
learning approaches and research modes
where this is appropriate
supervisors’ need to ensure that students
have appropriate access to tertiary literacy
support
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Find out about culturally different contexts,
learning styles, expectations, behaviours-how
much do you adjust your supervision? how?
should you accept different learning
approaches and research modes? What does
this mean? When is it inappropriate?
Put in touch with tertiary literacy support if
needed- how much do you need to work with
their English?
How can you help develop a critical
problematising questioning approach?
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What kinds of strategies and practices have
helped you in your working with culturally
diverse /international postgraduates?
What are the problems ?
What are the needs?
What are the benefits and joys?
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Enabling the emergence of the culturally
significant and new
while avoiding ‘dumbing down’ and cultural
imperialism
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Realistic expectations and information
Appropriate English support for tertiary literacy –
classes which are more then generic, editorial
support, translators in viva
Respect for cultural difference and finding out
about such differences
Importance of confidence, wellbeing, self esteem
– undermined by confusion, newness, culture
shock ,difference in expectations of postgraduate
study-enabled through discussion, community
building and group support-critical friends,
practice (eg the CD rom interviewer viva)
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Ballard, B. (1987) Academic adjustment: the other side of the export dollar, Higher Education Research and Development, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 109-119.
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Silent issues for international postgraduate research students: Emotion and agency in academic success
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Christine Ingleton, Adelaide University
Kate Cadman, Adelaide University
Cadman, K. (1997) The 'Songlines' of academic writing: Integrating the voices of international and NESB students into their texts, in R. Murray-Harvey & H. Silins eds, Learning
and Teaching in Higher Education: Advancing International Perspectives, pp. 37-50. Preceedings of the 1997 Annual Conference of the Higher Education Research and
Development Society of Australasia, Flinders University Press, Adelaide.
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Cadman, K. (2000) 'Voices in the air': Evaluations of the learning experiences of international postgraduates and their supervisors, Teaching in Higher Education vol. 5 no. 4, pp.
475-491.
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Ingleton, C. (2000) Emotion in learning - a neglected dynamic, in Cornerstones of Higher Education, R. James, J. Milton & R.Gabb, eds, Selected papers from the 1999 HERDSA
Annual Conference, July 12-15, Melbourne, Australia, HERDSA, Melbourne.
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Jones , Jennie 2009 Research Report
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The perceived influences of cultural factors on international doctoral students and supervisors in cross-cultural supervision
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Kitayama, S., Markus, H.R., and Lieberman, C. (1995) The Collective Construction of Self Esteem: Implications for Culture, Self and Emotion, in Everyday Conceptions of Emotion,
J. A. Russell, J-M. Fernandez-Dols, A.S.R. Manstead, & J.C. Wellenkamp, Kluwer, Dordrecht.
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Kiley, M. (1997) 'Expectation' in the postgraduate research experience. Paper presented at the National Postgraduate Experience conference in South Africa, December 4-5 1997.
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