Don't cry for me Argentina :
Taiwanese migrants
returning home
Nora Chiang and Yu-chun Chen
Presented at Positioning Geography Conference,
19-22 January 2010, Hamilton, New Zealand
Outline
Introduction
Literature review
Methodology
Research findings
Conclusion
2
Introduction
Facts on Argentina
 The second-largest country in South
America (after Brazil)
 Population: 40,913,584 (CIA, 2009)
 Official language: Spanish
 Ethnic group: 97% white (mostly
Spanish and Italian)
 A country with rich natural resources, a
highly literate population, an exportoriented agricultural sector, and a
diversified industrial base
4
Immigration and Naturalization
 Legal base of immigration and naturalization:
General Immigration Law
 Foreigners are given permission to settle or reside
in a permanent or temporary manner if they own
enough capital to develop industrial, commercial,
mining, agricultural or fishing activities
 Dual citizenships are accepted
 Principles to recognize citizenship: jus sanguinis &
jus soli
5
Taiwanese Immigrants in Argentina
 Argentina is one of the major destination countries
for Taiwanese emigrants
 Taiwanese have immigrated to Argentina since
1970s; the peak was in 1980s
 After 1990s, the number of immigrants from
Taiwan to Argentina has declined; while migrants
from Mainland China has sharply increased
 After the Argentina economic crisis in 2001, the
number of Taiwanese migrants went down to
20,000 (Bretal, 2005)
6
Major Countries of Taiwanese Emigrants
(台灣移民人數與移居國家)
(1990-2006)
年代
Year
美國
USA
加拿大
Canada
澳洲
Australia
紐西蘭
New
Zealand
南非
South
Africa
阿根廷
Argentina
巴西
Brazil
巴拉圭
Paraguay
1990
15,151
3,681
2,988
2,118
1,382
446
111
119
19911995
63,356
36,913
8,385
26,762
5,247
4,270
694
1,682
19962000
42,997
42,506
7,133
2,763
1,107
1,813
2,656
1,102
20012005
24,289
13,264
5,187
2,363
731
284
665
262
2006
4,059
2,121
752
227
0
77
45
2
TOTAL
151,852
98,485
24,445
34,233
8,467
6,890
4,171
3,187
Source: National Immigration Agency, Taiwan ( http://www.immigration.gov.tw)
7
Census of Argentina (2001)
Sex and age groups
Place of
birth
Total
Men
Total
014
Total population: 36,260,130
15 24
25 49
Women
50 –
64
65 +
Total
014
15 24
25 49
50 64
65+
Total immigrants: 1,531,940
China
4,184
2,365
84
330
1,512
342
97
1,819
96
252
1,123
266
82
Korea
8,205
4,143
190
476
2,169
995
313
4,062
162
447
2,198
948
307
Japan
4,753
2,331
150
55
399
858
869
2,422
122
40
445
700
1,115
Taiwan
3,511
1,786
179
356
848
341
62
1,725
168
316
886
304
51
Source: INDEC. Argentinean Population, Home and House Census 2001.
8
Taiwanese Immigrants in Argentina
(Contd.)
 Number of Taiwanese immigrants in Argentina:
~3,511 (INDEC, 2001)
~about 10,000 (Taipei Commercial and Cultural
Office)
 No reliable data on the number of Taiwanese
immigrants in Argentina
9
Taiwanese Immigrants in Argentina (Contd.)
 Most Taiwanese migrants live in Buenos Aires
 They were often engaged in self-employment, primarily as
restaurant owners and dairy owners
 Before the second half of 1990s, a (migrant ) owner of a
supermarket could earn more than 1000 pesos
(USD 1 = 1 peso) a day
 However, the profit decreased due to intensive competition
with large corporate chain stores managed with local and
foreign capital, and increase of immigrants from Mainland
China
10
Reasons for Immigration of Taiwanese
to Argentina
 Unstable political situation in Taiwan
 Economic reasons: less developed economy than
Argentina before 1985
 Young male family members avoiding military
service in Taiwan
 Relative ease of getting immigrant visa compared
to U.S. or Canada which they hope to migrate
 Re-migration from other countries, such as
Paraguay
11
Reasons for Immigration to Argentina
(Contd.)
 According to a survey of Taiwanese immigrants in
1998 (Zuzek, 2004) in Argentina, reasons for
immigration include:
Better future for their children (28%)
Environmental reasons (26%)
Tension between Taiwan and China (17%)
Others: economic reasons and social security
12
Main Research Questions
 Reasons for returning to Taiwan
 Adaptation process after returning
 Self-identities and belongings of returnees
 Future plans: re-migrate or stay permanently
in Taiwan
13
Review of Pertinent Literature
 Bretal, E. (2005) Hey, This Chinese talks Spanish! The
case of young immigrants of Taiwanese origin to the City of
La Plata. UNLP Sociology Congress: Argentina in Crisis:
Social Inequality, social movements, politics and
institutions. College of Humanities and Education Sciences.
La Plata National University (UNLP). (In Spanish,
translated by Bernardo Trejos)
 Lee K. W. S. (1999) Immigrant Chinese in Argentina,
Master’
s thesis in International Migration Policy, Center of
Advanced Studies, University of Buenos Aires.
 Zuzek, C. (2004) Identity and acculturation. The case of
young immigrant Taiwanese. II° Research Congress,
IDICSO. Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Salvador,
Buenos Aires. (In Spanish, translated by Bernardo Trejos)
15
Types of Returnees
 Cerase (1974) suggested four types of return migration
based on reasons:
(a) Emigrants who return because of failure for not being
able to find jobs for their living and hence unable to send
back remittances
(b) Emigrants who “
return for conservation”due to inability
to live in a different culture away from family and friends
(c) Emigrants who return home after earning enough
money and retire in their home country
(d) Emigrants who return to introduce innovations
16
Types of Returnees (Contd.)
 Gmelch (1980) had abstracted the features by the length of
time migrants intend to stay in the host countries, and their
reasons for returning into three types:
(a) Those who intended to migrate temporarily. The time of
their return is determined by the objectives they set out to
achieve at the time of emigration
(b) Those who intended to migrate permanently, but were
forced to return. Their preference was to remain abroad,
but were required to return because of external factors
(c) Those who intend to migrate permanently, but chose to
return, due to the failure to adjust and/or decide to return
due to homesickness
17
Transnational Migration
Source: Virtanen, K. (1981)
18
Reasons for returning to Taiwan
 Macro structural factors at countries of origin:
- In the case of Taiwan, economic upturn in the 1980’
s
resulting in a favorable stock market and booming real
estate business attracted many returnees from overseas
(Hsiao, 1994)
- Returnees in China was motivated by the strength
of the Chinese economy and the potential of the huge
Chinese market (Ip, 2006)
- Immigrants from Hong Kong have shown a strong
tendency of return recently due to
economic prosperity in Hong Kong (Salaff et al., 2008)
19
Reasons to return (Contd.)
- Due to the problems that “
new migrants”faced in the host
countries, such as language barrier, non-recognition of
their former qualifications, Taiwanese migrants found it
hard to accept jobs which do not commensurate with their
educational and economic background (Chiang, 2000,
2004; Ip et al., 1998)
- About one-third of the Hong Kong-born arriving in Australia
in the early 1990s might have returned to Hong Kong.
Some immigrants may have been frustrated in their job
search and career development and have therefore chosen
temporary or permanent return migration. (Mak, 2001)
20
Reasons to return (Contd.)
 Individual factors of returning:
- People who migrated at old ages have a higher tendency
of returning, as it would be more difficult for them to adapt
and get a satisfactory job (DaVanzo and Morrison, 1981)
- People who migrated in their early adulthood are less
likely to return to the places where they grew up after long
absences (DaVanzo and Morrison, 1981)
- More educated members of the samples are prone to
migrate, due to their superior ability to get information, and
their tendency to compete for jobs in labor markets
(DaVanzo and Morrison, 1981)
- The longer the person stays away, the lower propensity to
return (DaVanzo and Morrison, 1981)
21
Reasons to return (Contd.)
 The welfare of the offspring, as perceived by the parent,
may lead to an increase or to a decrease in the tendency
to return (Dustmann, 2003)
 Young returnees from Australia to Taiwan mainly come
back to look for better career opportunities. The chance of
reunions with their families in Taiwan, the search for
potential spouses, and their affection towards Taiwan
were also important factors leading to their reverse
migration (Chiang and Liao, 2008)
22
Methodology
 Qualitative approach is used, employing text analysis of
published articles and in-depth interviews with semistructure questionnaires
 Field research was conducted in 2008-2010 in Taiwan,
obtaining 18 interviews of return migrants with different
occupations: international trade, computer science,
information technology, university teaching, biological
engineering, and other professionals
 Snow-ball sampling method is used to find suitable
interviewees -- 1.5 generation Taiwanese migrants.
-- referring to those who were born in Taiwan, emigrated
earlier with parents at their young ages to Argentina, and
have returned as grown-ups
23
Profile of Interviewees
 Most of them returned directly from Argentina. Some have
lived in other countries such as the U.S., Canada,
Germany, Paraguay, Chile, China, etc.
 Age of interviewees: 24 to 39
 Have received tertiary education and above, with good
skills in foreign languages and professional skills
 Have lived overseas from 8 to 23 years
 Most have permanent residence status, instead of
citizenship
24
Table 1: Profile of Interviewees
No.
Sex
Age
Marital
status
A1
F
35
Married
A2
F
32
Single
A3
M
33
Single
A4
F
34
Married
A5
F
33
Single
A6
F
34
Single
A7
M
36
Single
A8
A9
M
F
34
29
Single
Married
A10
M
34
Married
Education
and
present
profession
Ph.D.
Assist. Prof
B.A.
Dentist
B.A.
Clerk
B.A.
Clerk
Age of
emigration
/return
Reasons for
returning to
Taiwan
Self-identities
10/19
6, 7
Taiwanese
12/28
1, 2
Taiwanese
14/31
2, 5
Taiwanese, global
6/20
4, 7, 6
Neither Taiwanese nor
Argentine
M.A.
Manager
M.A.
Clerk
B.A.
Dentist
11/19
7, 9
Taiwanese
10/30
2, 6, 8
Taiwanese, Argentine
10/28
2
Taiwanese, Argentine,
global
M.A.
B.A.
Engineer
B.A.
Dentist
13/28
7/24
5, 2
1, 6
Taiwanese
Taiwanese, Argentine
10/29
1, 3
Taiwanese, Argentine
25
Table 1: Profile of Interviewees (Contd.)
No.
Sex
Age
Marital status
Education
and present
profession
B.A.
Dentist
Age of
emigration
/return
13/20
Reason for
returning to
Taiwan
7, 4
Self-identities
A11
F
30
Married
A12
F
37
Married
B.A.
Dentist
10/28
2, 6
Taiwanese
A13
F
36
Single
Ph.D.
Researcher
10/33
2, 3
Taiwanese,
Taiwanese
Argentine
A14
F
39
Married
M.A.
Asst. Prof.
11/23
6, 4, 7, 9
Taiwanese
A15
M
24
Single
B.A.
Student
10/18
7
Taiwanese
A16
M
34
Married
B.A.
Engineer
7/19
7
Taiwanese
A17
F
36
Married
Ph. D.
Asst. Prof.
12/32
2, 5
Taiwanese
A18
M
36
Married
M.A.
Urban planner
13//36
9
Taiwanese,
global
Taiwanese
•
Reasons for returning: 1. Economic recession in Argentina; 2. Work, or look for better jobs; 3. Move
back with family; 4. Parent’
s decision; 5. Care for elderly parents; 6. Marry, or look for spouse;
7. Further studies or learn Chinese; 8. Friends’suggestions; 9. Other reasons.
26
Research Findings
Reasons for returning to Taiwan
Factors on family and marriage
- Parents returned earlier to Taiwan
(difficulty in conducting business, not used to
living in Argentina, illness)
“
Since I immigrated at the age of 13, and lived by myself
most of the time, I do not feel close to my parents. However,
since my parents returned to Taiwan before I did, I tried to
find work in Taiwan. I do think it is good to come back, so that
I can spend more time with them.”(A8, 34, male)
“
My father returned first so that he can get better
medication in Taiwan. As we do not want him to live by
himself, the rest of us decided to come back.”(A5, 33, female)
28
Reasons for returning to Taiwan (Contd.)
- Obedience to parents; following parents’
wishes/advices
- To look for marriage partners; decision of
spouse
“
My parents do not want me to marry
Argentines, as their customs are different
from us. They do not save money like us and
their marriage is complicated in our views. If I
marry an Argentine, he may have children
from his previous marriage. This is why my
father ﹝who emigrate 25 years ago﹞ is
keen to ask me to come back. He hoped that
I can marry a Taiwanese.”(A1, 35, female)
29
Reasons for returning to Taiwan (Cont’
d.)
 Factors about economy and career development
- Higher wages/salaries in Taiwan
- Better chances of finding work in Taiwan
- Better opportunities to be promoted
- Economic recession in Argentina (started in Dec. 2000)
“
The so-called good jobs are those that pay high, offers
high status and security, like those offered by big
corporations, banks, and the government. It is not easy to
get into such positions, unless you are better than the
locals. From the employer’
s view, why would they employ
someone like us, unless we are doing better than the locals?
“(A1, 35, Female)
30
Adaptation in Taiwan
“
It is more difficult for me to adapt in Taiwan when I
returned [at 20], than when I went to Argentina the first time
[at 6] (A4, 34, female)
 About language: (語言的適應)
- Difficult to express oneself in Chinese
- Having the “
wrong”accent
- Talking in Spanish
“
我剛回來時，中文不好，因為長相是台灣人臉孔，用西班牙
文或英文講，大家就覺得我是故意炫耀，有次去買東西，被人
諷刺:台灣人竟然不講國語…，所以我那時常和別人吵架，我
覺得他們不尊重我。”(A4, 34歲, 女性)
31
Adaptation in Taiwan (Contd.)
 About the living environment: (生活環境的適應)
- Hot and humid climate
- Heavy traffic
- Noisy, small, crowded, and lacking in privacy
“台灣的馬路很奇怪，都沒有人行道，走路都要彎來彎去，
有時還得和車子一起走…；遇到救護車，大家也不會趕快
讓路…；做什麼事都要用搶的，擠來擠去，剛回來時很不
習慣…”(A6, 30歲, 女性)
32
Adaptation in Taiwan (Contd.)
 Getting along with peers at work:
(工作上人際互動的適應)
- Faster pace of life in Taiwan
- Overtime work (加班)
- Class consciousness of Taiwanese
(階級觀念重，別人對你的態度不是因為你這個人或你的
才華，而是取決於你的頭銜)
- Express oneself more directly compared with local
Taiwanese
(講話較直接，容易得罪人)
- Cannot understand what others say
(常聽不懂別人想表達什麼)
- Different values in work: “
Taiwanese are workaholics”
33
Self-identities and Belonging
 Self-identities
“Are you Taiwanese or Argentine?”(multiple choice)
Taiwanese: 15
Argentine: 4
Argentine Taiwanese: 1
Taiwanese and Argentine: 4
“
Global”person (國際人): 2
Others: 1
 Taiwanese citizen; have Taiwan (R.O.C.) passport only
 The feeling of being outsiders in Argentine society
 Taiwan is one’
s homeland, one’
s place of birth
 Fluid identities (depending on context)
34
Self-identities and Belonging (Contd.)
 Sense of Belonging
- Both Taiwan and Argentina are considered as
their homes (家)
- Taiwan is always their ethnic/home country
(家鄉)
-“
Home is where my family is”
(家人所在的地方就是家)
-“
The place where I live now is my home”
- There is no place where they totally belong to
35
Future plans to re-emigrate or stay in
Taiwan
 Most people plan to stay permanently in Taiwan,
especially female returnees since their parents,
boyfriends or husbands prefer/need to stay in Taiwan
 Male returnees may not stay in Taiwan permanently if
they can find better jobs abroad
 Two interviewees have definitely planned to [re]
emigrate for their children’
s education
 Five returnees may go back to Argentina after
retirement:
“
Argentina is my home country.”
“
Argentina is the place where I grow up.”
36
Future plans to re-emigrate or stay in
Taiwan (Contd.)
 Since high costs would be involved, they would
think carefully before making a decision
 Whole family would stay together, instead of
living in two places
“我們自己有過這樣的經歷，知道移居海外需要付出什麼樣
的代價，無論是有形或無形的，因此遷移行為的產生需經
過慎重考量；不管到哪裡，都要全家人在一起。沒有一個
地方是絕對的好與不好，到哪裡都要努力去適應，重點在
於自己的想法”(A1、A2、A8、A11)
37
Future plans to [re]emigrate or stay in
Taiwan (Contd.)
 Be open-minded about the situations of Taiwan,
instead of comparing differences of two countries
 It is important to learn Mandarin well and be a part of
the society one belongs
 To act like other Taiwanese
(給其他回流移民的建議：
1. 要保持開放的心胸去接受台灣的狀況，不要一直比較兩
地的差異。
2. 學好中文，不然很難在台灣生活。
3. 言行舉止要像個台灣人。)
Conclusion
 Differs in migratory patterns from the returnees in the
previous literature (Cerase, 1976; Gmelch, 1980;
Thomas-Hope, 1999; Saxenian, 2007)
 Family reasons come first in their decisions to return
 Transnational migrants or returnees?
39
Thank you for your attention!
Gracias por su atención!