SMALL SCALE PRESENT DAY TURBIDITY CURRENTS IN A
TECTONICALLY ACTIVE SUBMARINE GRABEN, THE GULF OF CORINTH
(GREECE): THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN DISPERSING MINE TAILINGS AND
THEIR RELEVANCE TO BASIN FILLING
G. PAPATHEODOROU, A. STEFATOS, D. CHRISTODOULOU, G. FERENTINOS
Laboratory of Marine Geology & Physical Oceanography, Department of Geology,
University of Patras, 26500, Rio, Patras, Greece
Abstract
A detailed marine survey, in Antikyra bay, in the northern margin of the Corinth Gulf
graben in Greece, was carried out to examine the distribution and dispersion of bauxite
“red-mud” tailings which have been discharged since 1970 on the shelf at a depth of 100
m. The ‘red-mud’ tailings are transported to the basin floor by turbidity currents is a
depth of about 800 m and at a distance of up to 17 km from the source. Over a period of
14 years, ten (10) turbidity flow events have occurred. The turbidity flows form small
scattered sheet-like deposits. The deposits are usually lobe shaped, between 0.6 and 4
cm thick, and with an aerial coverage from 1·106 to 12.6·106 m2. The turbidites overlap
each other and cover a total area of 48 km2.
Keywords: Turbidity currents, mine tailings, red-mud tailings, Gulf of Corinth
1. Introduction
This paper examines the transport and dispersion of submarine bauxite ‘red-mud’
tailings by turbidity currents from the shelf to the basin floor in the Gulf of Corinth
graben in Greece (Fig. 1a). Furthermore, using the red-mud as a marker the paper
examines: (i) the formation of thin bedded and fine grained turbidites, (ii) the aerial
extension and shape of single event turbidites, (iii) the volumetric contribution of fine
grained, thin-bedded turbidites in filling basins and (iv) the factors triggering the
turbidity flows.
2. Methods of study
The present study is based on data collected during a marine survey in Antikyra Bay in
the northern margin of the central part of the Gulf of Corinth in 1984 (Fig. 1a). An echo
sounder, a 3.5 kHz high resolution sub-bottom profiler, and a seafloor imaging sonar
were used for the study of the bathymetry / morphology of the seafloor. A Day grab was
also used for collecting 34 samples from the seafloor (Fig. 1a). Detailed granulometric
analysis were made on all the samples using standard sieve and pipette analysis
techniques. Sediment texture, mean grain size and sorting were derived according to
Folk (1974).
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3. Data presentation
3.1 BATHYMETRY–MORPHOLOGY
The morphology of the seafloor in the northern margin of the Gulf of Corinth in
Antikyra Bay is characterized by the development of the shelf, slope and basin floor
(Fig. 1). The shelf reaches an average width of 10 km and dips very gently southwards,
at a gradient less than 1.2o to a depth of 300 meters.
The slope extends from the 300 m to the 700 m isobaths (Fig. 1a). In the central part of
Antikyra Bay the slope is 4 km wide and has an average gradient ranging from of 5o to
7.5o. The seafloor slope is incised by numerous channels trending in a NNE-SSW
direction, whose depth increases down slope. The channels walls have a height between
15 and 75m.
The seafloor in the basin deeper than the 800 m isobath is smooth and flat with a
gradient less than 0.1o.The floor of the plain is covered by continuous parallel reflectors
believed to be turbidites that extend for some kilometers.
3.2 RECENT SEDIMENTARY COVER
3.2.1 Structure – texture - colour
The present day sedimentary cover in the shelf, slope and basin floor in Antikyra Bay
based on the analysis of high resolution seismic profiles and the examination of grab
samples has revealed a distinctive lithostratigraphy.
At the mouth of the two pipelines in the shelf the discharged “red-mud” tailings have
formed two oval shaped mounds. These mounds have a maximum thickness of about 20
m and thin out radially in the downslope direction along the longitudinal axis of the bay,
in a south-southwestern direction, forming a common depositional lobe (Fig. 1).
Seismic profiles along the longitudinal axis of the depositional lobe show that the “redmud” mounds are affected by rotational slumping. Further downslope towards the
margin of the lobe, seismic profiles show that the interface between the base of the “redmud” lobe and the pre-existing marine sediments is covered by layers thinning
downslope. The semi-transparent character of the layers, the few discontinuous internal
reflectors, the hummocky relief and the wedging out downslope, suggest mass flow
deposition. These flows seem to be of low viscosity, as indicated by the ability of the
flows to fill small preexisting topographic depressions or to form very thin, small lens
shaped accumulations.
The depositional lobe, at a distance of about 1 km in the downslope direction, attains a
thickness of about 1 m. The aerial extent of this depositional lobe is about 1.4 km2 (Fig.
1a).
Beyond the main depositional lobe on the shelf along the longitudinal axis of the bay the
floor is covered, for a distance of about 2 km, by a thin layer of red-mud which ranges
in thickness from 3 to 16 cm. This red-mud deposit has an aerial extent of 21 km2 (Fig.
1a). Further downslope, as far as the 300 m isobath and for a distance of 4 km, in a
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461
south/southwest direction the red-mud deposit thins further to approximately 1 cm (Fig.
1a).
The “red-mud” overlies an olive grey “natural” sediment. The “red-mud” veneer and the
underlying olive grey natural sediment appear to be dominantly structureless (samples
11,15,30,31,32,33,39,40,45,46 in fig. 1a). The contact between the two layers is usually
planar and exhibits a colour gradation with a dark red in the upper part grading to pale
pink in the lower part.
Figure 1. (a) Detailed bathymetric map of the study area showing the location of the sampling stations and the
lateral distribution of the bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings over the shelf, slope and basin floor. Arrows traces
thalweg of the channels over the slope. Contours in meters. Insert shows location of the study area in the Gulf
of Corinth, Greece. (b) Lithological logs of selected cores from the basin floor showing the layers of sediment
types 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the cores.
The bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings in the depositional lobe consist of about 5-10% sand, 3045% silt and 45-65% clay and are fine grained (7-8.6ø) and poorly sorted (2.2-2.5ø).
The natural sediments underlying the bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings consist of about 5-10%
sand, 40-50% silt and 50-60% clay and are also fine grained (7.7-8.5ø) and poorly
sorted (2.2-2.6ø). The surficial ‘red-mud’ tailings generally exhibit an increase in the
mean grain size in a downslope direction from the proximal to the distal part of the
depositional lobe.
On the slope between the 300m and the 700m isobaths the seafloor is covered by
structureless yellowish brown coloured ‘natural’ sediments, which consists of silty clay.
The sediments in most of the cores do not exhibit any layering or lamination in the
upper 25 cm (samples 5, 8 and 20 in Fig. 1). The natural sediment covering the seafloor
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over the slope consists of 0.5% sand, 30-35% silt and 65-70% clay and are fine grained
(8.4 to 8.6ø) and poorly sorted (2.6ø).
On the basin floor, the study of the surficial sediments in the grab samples, has shown
the presence of four sediment types based on sediment texture, sedimentary structures,
colour and bottom/top contacts (Fig. 1b).
Sediment type 1. It is composed of structureless dark red mud and can be classified into
two groups: group A (samples 51, 58, 59, in Fig. 1b) which is characterized by slightly
coarse grains of about 6.5 to 7.5ø and an increased silt content of about 50-60%
compared to the bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings in the depositional lobe and group B
(samples 15, 16, 50, 17, 21, and 22 in Fig. 1b) which is characterized by fine grains of
about 8 to 8.5ø and a silt abundance of the same range as the ‘red-mud’ tailings in the
depositional lobe. Sediment type 1 is also characterized by a low content, less than 1%
sand and are well sorted (1.4-1.9ø) compared to the bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings.
Sediment type 2. It is composed of structureless mud, which in the lower part consists of
dark red mud and in the upper part of pale pink mud (samples 16 and 23 in Fig. 1b). The
transition zone from the lower to the upper part is characterized by an almost abrupt
change in colour and in texture. Sediment type 2 in the lower part is slightly coarser
with a mean grain size between 7.9-8.3ø and better sorted (1.7-1.9ø) compared to the
upper part which have a mean grain size between 8.3-8.4ø and sorting between 2-2.2ø.
The sand content is between 1.5-3% and the silt and clay population is between 41-46%
and 50-56% respectively.
Sediment type 3. It is composed of structureless olive grey or pale yellowish brown
clayey silt or silty clay and can be classified into two groups: group A (samples 23, 51,
58 and 59 in Fig. 1b), which is characterized by an olive gray colour and slightly coarser
grains with a mean size between 7.5-8.4ø, better sorting (1.9-2.0ø), and an increased silt
content of about 55-65% compared to the natural surficial sediment on the shelf edge
and slope. Sediment group B (sample 15 in Fig. 1b) is characterized by pale yellowish
brown colour and fine grains 8-8.7ø, poor sorting (2.0ø) and a clay content much higher
than the surficial natural sediment on the shelf edge and comparable to the clay content
of the sediment over the slope. Sediment type 3 layers are also characterized by low
content, less than 0.5% sand.
Sediment type 4. It is composed of a structureless mud, which in the lower part is pale
pink in colour and in the upper part is olive grey (sample 23 in Fig. 1b). The transition
from the lower to the upper part is characterized by an abrupt change in colour and in
texture. Sediment type 4 shows that in the lower part, the sediments are slightly coarser
and better sorted than those in the upper part of the layer.
The overall examination of the collected grabs samples shows that:
(i) The sediment types correspond to distinct layers (Fig. 1b), which form small
scattered sheet like deposits (Fig. 1a),
(ii) each layer is between 0.6 to 4 cm thick,
(iii) the bottom and top contacts in the layers are well defined planar or irregular. The
irregular contacts display load casting and mud injection (flame) structures.
Occasionally the contact is indistinct and exhibits bioturbation traces.
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463
(iv) the surfacial sedimentary cover in the upper 10 to 12 cm is built up by these
layers (Fig. 1b) and
(v) the layer sequence varies from core to core (Fig. 1b) and correlability between
cores is very low, even in those collected close together
The resemblance in colour and texture between the dark red layers of sediment type 1
(samples 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 50, 51, 58 and 59 in Fig. 1) on the basin floor and the
bauxite “red-mud” tailings in the mounds on the shelf shows that: (i) the feeding source
of terrigenous material for sediment type 1 on the basin floor is the bauxite tailings in
the mounds on the shelf. (ii) Sediment type 1 layers were emplaced in the basin after the
commencement of the discharge in 1970 and before the time of the survey of 1984. (iii)
The bauxite tailings were transported during the same time span up to a distance of 17
km from the feeding point.
The accumulation rates of the “red-mud” layers of sediment type 1 on the basin floor,
range from 0.4 mm/year to 2.8 mm/year (42 to 285 cm/1000years) as can be deduced by
the thickness of the layers in the cores, which ranges from 0.6 to 4 cm and from the
period of their formation i.e. less than 14 years. This accumulation rate is extremely
high compared to the rates of hemipelagic deposition for the Holocene in similar basins
in the Aegean and Ionian Seas which range from 10 to 30 cm/1000years (Perisoratis,
1982, Aksu et al. 1995, Geraga et al. 2000). The high rates of accumulation as well as
the absence of bioturbation in most of the sites and the structureless character indicate
that the sediment type 1 layers on basin floor were not deposited by suspension settling,
but by gravity-induced sediment flows. The presence of mass movement in the form of
slumping in the mounds and of visible mass flows in the main lobe suggest that these
mass movement can further be evolved to turbidity currents in the downslope direction,
transporting bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings from the shelf to the basin floor. The retention of
the dark red in the layers of sediment type 1, which is the colour characterizing their
feeding source, suggest that the turbidity currents were not powerful enough along their
course to erode the sediment covering the seafloor and entrain it into the flow.
The layers of sediment type 2 (samples 23 and 16 in Fig. 1) at their lower part consist of
dark red mud and in the upper part of pale pink mud. The dark red mud in the bottom
part resembles in texture and colour the bauxite dark red mud tailings whilst the pale
pink mud in the upper part appears to be the result of mixing of the dark ‘red-mud’
tailings with olive grey natural sediments. It can be assumed therefore that the layers of
sediment type 2 were emplaced on the basin floor during the same time period as the
layers of sediment type 1.
The high accumulation rates of these layers which range from 1.1mm/y to 1.4mm/y
(107 to 142 cm/1000years) as is suggested by their thickness and the short time span of
their emplacement indicates that these layers of sediment type 2 were also deposited by
gravity induced sediment flows. The feeding source for the layers of sediment type 2 is
the bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings in the distal part of the depositional lobe. The observed
change in colour from dark red in the lower part to pale pink in the upper part indicates
that the sediment initially entrained into the turbidity flow at source were a mixture of
‘red-mud’ tailings and the underlying natural sediments.
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The layers of sediment type 3 (samples 15,23,51,58 and 59 in Fig. 1) and 4 (sample 23
in Fig. 1) have a thickness from 1 cm to 4 cm, are intercalated with the layers of
sediment types 1 and 2. They were therefore, deposited on the basin floor in less than a
14 year period. The sedimentation rates are comparable to these layers of sediment
types 1 and 2. The high rates of sedimentation as well as the absence of bioturbation in
most of the cores and the structureless character of the layers suggest that the layers of
sediment type 3 and 4 were also deposited by turbidity currents. The feeding source for
the layers of sediment type 3 and 4 appears to have been the shelf edge and the upper
slope front in Antikyra Bay.
The observed change in colour from pale pink in the lower part to yellowish brown in
the upper part in the layers of sediment type 4 further suggest that the sediment initially
entrained into the turbidity flow at source was a mixture of the red-mud veneer in the
distal part of the depositional lobe and the underlying natural sediments.
4. Discussion
The above described lateral and vertical variation in the distribution of the textural
parameters along with the structure and colour of the surficial sediments in Antikyra
Bay in the Gulf of Corinth, shows that in the last 14 years the surficial sedimentary
cover on the shelf, slope and basin has been affected by turbidity currents. The source
area of the turbidity currents are; (i) the mounds and the depositional lobe formed by the
discharge of the bauxite ‘red-mud’ tailings at the mouth of the pipelines on the shelf, (ii)
the shelf edge and (iii) the upper slope.
The turbidity currents which originated at the mounds appear to have been generated by
slumping which in turn was transformed to low viscosity mud flows and in turn to
turbidity current, as is indicated by the seismic profile across the depositional lobe. The
turbidity currents which were generated at the shelf edge and upper slope are assumed
to have been generated by the same sequential transformation of gravity mass
movements.
The turbidity currents are responsible for the formation of fine grained and thin bedded
silt and mud layers in the basin floor which therefore, represent turbidites. The thickness
of the individual turbidites range from 0.6 to 4cm, whilst the total thickness of the
turbidites observed in the cores varies from core to core and ranges from 0.6 to 14cm
(Fig. 1b). Core 23 contains four single turbiditic events (Fig. 1b) which has resulted in
the formation of a succession of layers which from the surface downwards correspond
to sediment types 3,2,2 and 4. Core 15 contains three single turbiditic events (Fig. 1b)
which has resulted in the formation of a succession of layers which from the surface
downward corresponds to sediment types 1, 3 and 1. Cores 16, 51, 58 and 59 contain
two turbiditic events (Fig. 1b) corresponding to sediment types 1 and 3, 3 and 1 or 1 and
2. Cores 17, 21, 22 and 50 contain only one turbiditic event (Fig. 1b).
The layer by layer correlation of sediment types 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the basin floor, based on
the criteria mentioned above shows that in total ten turbidity current events have
occurred during 14 years. The turbidites of sediment type 1 observed at the surface in
cores 15, 16, 17, 50 and in cores 21 and 22 are the result of two turbidity currents (Fig. 1
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465
6
2
and 2). The first turbidite has an areal extend of about 6.1·10 m and the second
turbidite has an areal extend of about 1·106 m2. The average thickness of the first is
about 1.5cm and of the second is about 0.6cm which yield an approximate volume of
9.1·104m3 and 0.5·104m3, respectively. The turbidites of sediment type 1 observed below
the surface in cores 51, 58 and 59 is the result of another (third) turbidity current (Fig. 1
and 2). The areal extent of the turbidite formed is about 7.6·106m2 and its volume is
15.2·104m3. The turbidite of sediment type 3 observed at the surface in cores 23,51,58
and 59 is a result of fourth turbidity current and has an areal extend 12.6·106 m2and a
volume of 25.2·104 m3 (Fig 1 and 2). The subsurface layers of sediment types 1 and 3 in
core 15 (Fig. 1 and 2) are not correlatable with any of the above mentioned turbidity
currents and therefore these layers in core 15 may be considered to be a result of two
other small turbidity currents. Similarly the subsurface layers of sediment type 2
observed in cores 16 (one layer) and 23 (two layers) (Fig. 1 and 2) seems to be a result
of other three small in size turbidity flows as there is not any correlation between them.
Sediment type 4 which has been observed only in core 23 (Fig.1) is also attributed to a
single turbidity flow.
Figure 2. 3-D correlation of the present-day emplaced fine grained and thin bedded turbidites in the basin
floor of the Corinth Gulf based on the lateral and vertical distribution of the sediment types 1,2,3 and 4 which
cover the seafloor (not in scale).
The three turbidity current events which were responsible for the formation of
sediment type 1 are directly related to the mounds formed by the continuous disharge of
the ‘red-mud’ tailings and can therefore be solely attributed to man’s activities. The
other five turbidity current events are not related to discharge of ‘red-mud’ tailings and
it is considered therefore that there were not caused by human intervention. This
indicates a present day average frequency of turbidites emplacement in the Gulf of
Corinth of 1 event every 3 years. This frequency of turbidity events is consistent with
the frequency of occurrence of larger mass movement events which have been observed
in the southern margin of the Corinth Gulf between 1895 and 1950 (Ferentinos et al,
1988). The present day thin-bedded turbidites in the Gulf of Corinth are 104 and 105
smaller in volume than the Holocene megaturbidites which have been observed in the
Hatteras, Bahamas (Exume Sound) and Horseshoe abyssal plains (Elmore et al 1979,
Lebreiro et al 1997). However, their high frequency occurrence, 5 events in 15 years or
330 events in 1000 years, makes them a considerable volumetrically basin filling
process.
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The study of the variation in the textural parameters between the ‘red-mud’ tailings on
the shelf, the natural sediments on the shelf and slope and sediment type 1, 2, 3 and 4
layers on the basin floor, along with the structure and colour can be used to infer
mechanisms and processes that prevail in the turbidity currents during the final stage of
deposition. However, the above may also be used to understand processes that take
place during the movement of the turbidity current along its course.
The turbidity current, responsible for the formation of sediment type 1 appears not to be
sufficiently powerful to erode the sediment covering the seafloor along its downslope
course and entrain it into the flow as is deduced by the fact that the ‘red-mud’ tailings
which became detached from the main lobe and travelled to the basin floor where they
were deposited, retained their original dark red colour. Furthermore the turbidity current
appears not to be powerful enough to transport the sand population (5-10%) of the ‘redmud’ tailing as is deduced by the low sand percentage (<2%) of the sediment type 1
layers. The above mentioned indicates that the turbidity currents were low in velocity
and density. This is also documented by the short run-out distance (<3 km) that the
turbidity currents have travelled in the basin floor and the structureless appearance of
the turbidites (Stanley-Maldonaldo, 1981).
However, some turbidity currents seem to be more powerful than others. In samples 51,
58 and 59 the sediment type 1 layers show: (i) an enhanced silt content and
correspondingly low clay content compared to the ‘red-mud’ tailings on the shelf and
(ii) an increase mean grain size ranging from 7 to 8.3ø compared to the mean grain size
of samples 15, 16, 17, 21 and 22 (see below). This indicates that the turbidity currents
were able to transport some of the coarser silt grains from the shelf to the basin floor
and/or expel fine clay from the upper part of the flow as a detached plume in the water
column. The latter explains the presence of a thin ‘red-mud’ veneer (<0.2 cm) on the
surface of sample 20 in the slope and the observation of the fishermen that pinkish red
water dripped from their nets when pulled from a water depth of about 400m below sea
surface.
In samples 15, 16, 17, 21, and 22 the sediment type 1 layers generally consist of finer
material, with a mean grain size ranging from 8.1 to 8.7ø, compared to ‘red-mud’
tailings material whose mean grain size ranges from 7 to 8.6ø. Furthermore the
abundance of silt and clay population in the samples of sediment type 1 layers is within
the same range as those of the ‘red-mud’ tailings on the shelf but, compared to the silt
and clay content of the surficial sediment over the slope; the silt is much higher and the
clay much lower . The above suggest that the turbidity current is able to transport only
the fine silt grains from the shelf to the basin floor and too weak to erode the surficial
sediment covering the slope and entrain it into the flow.
The examination of the granulometric parameters of the layers of sediment type 2
shows: (i) the range of the silt and clay content in the lower (‘red-mud’) and upper
(natural sediment) part of the layers is comparable to the range of silt and clay content
in the ‘red-mud’ tailings and natural sediments on the shelf, though there is a clear
tendency showing that the silt content in the sediment type 2 is very similar to the upper
limits of the silt range in the ‘red-mud’ tailings and the natural sediments on the shelf,
(ii) the silt content in sediment type 2 is much higher than that on the slope and the clay
content is much lower than that on the slope, (iii) the material in sediment type 2 layers
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467
is coarser (8-8.4ø) compared to the sediment over the slope (8.4-8.6ø) and (iv) the
sediment in the lower part is coarser and better sorted than the sediment in the upper
part. The above suggest that the turbidity current responsible for the formation of
sediment type 2 was able to transport only the fine part of the silt grains from the shelf
to the basin floor and too weak to erode the surficial sediment covering the slope and
entrain it into the flow. During the depositional phase there was enough time first for the
coarser material to settle from the suspension and later the finer material to settle.
The examination of granulometric parameters of the layers of sediment type 3 shows a
difference between sediment type 3 in sample 15 and in samples 23, 51, 58 and 59. In
sample 15 the silt content is much lower than the silt content in the natural sediment
covering the shelf and shelf edge and similar to the silt content of the sediment covering
the slope . Similarly the sediment in sample 15 is finer than the natural sediment
covering the shelf and of the same grain size with the natural sediment covering the
slope. In samples 23, 58, and 59 shows (i) the silt content is slightly higher than the
upper limits of the silt range in the natural sediments on the shelf and much higher than
the upper limit of the silt range in the slope, (ii) the material is in general slightly
coarser with a mean size ranging from 7.5 to 8.3ø to the material on the shelf which has
a mean size ranging from 7.7 to 8.5ø and (iii) the lower part of sediment type 3 is
slightly coarser to the upper part. The above suggest that: for the sample 15 the
sediment initially entrained into the turbidity flow at source was from the slope whilst
for sample 23, 51, 58 and 59 was from the shelf. The turbidity current initiated at the
shelf was not powerful enough to erode the surficial sediment during its transport over
the slope. Fine clay material was expelled from the flow during its course over the slope
and, during the depositional phase there was enough time first for the coarser material to
settle from the suspension and later for the finer material to settle.
The study of the granulometric parameters of the layers of sediment type 4 suggest that
the turbidity current responsible for its formation was initiated at the shelf edge and that
during its course from the shelf to the basin floor, prevailed the same processes like
these described for the turbidity currents responsible for the formation of sediment types
2 and 3.
The main mechanism responsible for the triggering of the turbidity currents seems to be
earthquakes, which are abundant in the area (Papadopoulos, 2000). Earthquakes with a
magnitude larger than 6R have caused the last 40 years coastal failures in the nearby
area which have started as slides and progressively evolve to debris flows
(Papatheodorou and Ferentinos, 1997, Hasiotis et al 2002). A similar mechanism is
considered to be responsible for the triggering of the turbidity currents, especially for
these which have their source at the shelf edge and upper slope. The turbidity currents
which have their source at the ‘red-mud’ mounds might have been also triggered by
instabilities which are caused by the overloading and oversteepening due to the
continuous discharge and accumulation of tailings in the mounds.
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