CHARACTERISTICS OF LANDSLIDE GENERATED TSUNAMIS FROM
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
G.A. PAPADOPOULOS and S. KORTEKAAS
Institute of Geodynamics, National Observatory of Athens, 11810 Athens, Greece
Abstract
Characteristic features of landslide tsunamis are examined from a set of documented cases.
The studied events affected a coastal zone of no more than 10-15 km at both sides of the
slump area. The only two tsunamis that were observed over a considerably greater distance
are the Izmit 1999 and particularly PNG 1998 tsunamis, both of them being possibly
associated with co-seismic fault displacement component. Slump volume seems to control
both maximum wave height and maximum length of affected coastline. A rapid quasiexponential attenuation of wave heights with distance from the source is observed because of
strong wave dispersion.
Keywords: Landslide, tsunami, wave height, attenuation
1. Introduction
Tsunamis generated by subaerial or submarine slides or slumps associated with either
seismic or fully aseismic mechanisms, have attracted interest since at least the 60’s (e.g.
Ambraseys 1960, Miller 1960, Galanopoulos et al. 1964, Müller 1964, Jørstad 1968, Murty
1979, Papadopoulos 1993, Rabinovich et al. 1999, Assier-Rzadkiewicz 2000, Perissoratis
and Papadopoulos 2000). However, since the occurrence of the Papua New Guinea (PNG)
17th July 1998 catastrophic tsunami (Kawata et al. 1999) interest in landslide tsunamis has
drastically increased. The reason for this is that although the PNG event generation
mechanism is still controversial (e.g. Matsuyama 1999, Geist 2000, 2001, Okal and
Synolakis 2001), there is evidence based on modern observational and modelling techniques
that supports a slump as source over fault displacement (e.g. Tappin et al. 1999, 2001,
Heinrich et al. 2000, Okal and Synolakis 2001).
Submarine and subaerial landslides generate tsunamis with significant wave heights on
coasts close to the source. They have wavelengths of a few kilometres and rapidly
attenuating wave heights due to frequency dispersion. On the contrary, fault-generated
tsunamis are more widely distributed and their wave heights are magnitude controlled. They
possess wavelengths in the order of hundreds of kilometres while their wave height decay is
slow because of weak dispersion effects. Due to the concentrated large wave heights,
landslide tsunamis result in catastrophic consequences (e.g. Aegion 1963, Vaiont 1963, Nice
1979, Skagway 1994, PNG 1998, Izmit 1999). Therefore, the problem of landslide generated
water waves either on open coastlines or in enclosed water bodies is of great practical
interest to design engineers (Noda 1970).
Apart from studying particular cases (see selected references above and in sections 3.1 and
3.2 below), significant progress has been made in modelling landslide tsunamis (e.g. Wiegel
367
368
Papadopoulos and Kortekaas
1955, Noda 1970, Striem and Miloh 1976, Koutitas 1977, Murty 1979, Iwasaki 1987,
Heinrich 1992, Harbitz et al. 1993, Watts 1998, Grilli and Watts 1999, Rabinovich et al.
1999, Tinti and Bortolucci 2000a,b, Ward 2001, Grilli et al. 2002; see also references about
PNG above and in sections 3.1 and 3.2 below). However, the comparative study of
observational data regarding landslide tsunami wave height has been rather neglected so far.
This study is based on several well-documented cases. The results are useful in (1) the
recognition of some empirical patterns regarding the wave height of landslide tsunamis, (2)
their theoretical explanation, and (3) their implementation in hazard mitigation plans.
Table 1: The upper part of the table lists the ten case studies and the lower part records events for which no wave
height distribution data are available. nop = number of observation points, d = maximum distance from the source
where the tsunami was observed, h = maximum recorded wave height and V = slump volume. (data from:
Galanopoulos et al. 1964, Koutitas and Papadopoulos 1999 (Aegion); Assier-Rzadkiewicz et al. 2000 (Nice); Okal et
al. 2002, Herbert et al. 2002 (Fatu Hiva); Harbitz et al. 1993, Jørstad 1968 (Tafjord), Tappin et al. 2001, internet
(PNG), Altinok et al. 1999, Yalciner pers. com. 2001 (Izmit); Miller 1960 (Lituya); Murty 1979 (Kitimat);
Rabinovich et al. 1999 (Skagway); Müller 1964 (Vaiont) and Jørstad 1968 for all Norwegian cases).
Event
Case studies (nop)
d (km)
h (m) V (m3)
Aegion 1963 (16)
Nice 1979 (7)
Fatu Hiva 1999 (16)
Tafjord 1934 (65)
Loenvann 1905 (9)
Loenvann 1936 (102)
Eikesdalsvann 1966 (6)
PNG 1998 (100)
19.61
25
10.2
8.3
8
8
11.3
184.7
6
3
10
62.3
40.5
74.2
3
15.03
1.00E +07
1.00E +07
2.40E +06
2-3.00E +06
3.50E +05
1.00E +06
4-5.00E +06
5-10.00E +09
Izmit 1999 (29)
47.37
2.9
3.78E +05 ?
Lituya Bay 1958 (25)
12.95
524.26 3.06E +07
Cause
Tsunamis caused by slides in loose deposits
Kitimat 1975
Skagway 1994
Trondheim 1888
Gjerstadvann 1929
Orkdalsfjord 1930
Songevann 1935
Selbusjøen 1950
Nordset 1956
Sokkelvik 1959
Hammerås 1963
Follerø 1964
>1
>1
20
4.6
9-11
4-5
3
5
8
>3
4
1
1-2
2.60E +07
0.81E +06
> 2-3.00E +06
1.00E +05
2.50E +07
> 5.00E +04
2.00E +05
1.00E +04
2-3.00E +06
7.00E +03
3.00E +04 ?
Tsunamis caused by rock falls
Vaiont 1963
Rammerfjell 1731
Tjelle 1756
Ravnefjell 1936
Ravnefjell 1950
Stegane 1948
> 40
>8
>8
6
100
77
38
> 49
12-15
3-5 ?
2.50E +08
> 1.00E +05
1.50E +07
1.00E +06 ?
1.00E +06 ?
3.00E +04
aseismic coastal slide
aseismic submarine slide
aseismic subaerial rockslide
aseismic subaerial rockslide
aseismic subaerial rock fall
aseismic subaerial rock fall
aseismic subaerial rock fall
seismic submarine slide +
fault displacement?
seismic coastal slide + fault
displacement?
seismic subaerial rock fall
(no fault displacement)
Characteristics of landslide generated tsunamis
369
2. Methodology
Landslide generated tsunamis may have different characteristics from seismic tsunamis. To
investigate patterns of landslide tsunami wave height, data were collected for ten events for
which sufficient observation points of wave heights were available (Table 1). These events
include seven aseismic tsunamis and three tsunamis occurring after an earthquake but that
are thought to have been triggered by landslides induced by the earthquake (Izmit 1999,
PNG 1998 and Lituya 1958). For each one of these cases the wave heights were plotted
against the distance from the slump area (Fig. 1). Moreover, empirical attenuation laws were
investigated (Fig. 2).
In addition, we utilised another set of eighteen aseismic tsunami events for which no wave
height distributions are available (Table 1). They were used along with the ten case studies
to investigate possible correlation between slump volume and maximum wave height and
maximum length of affected coastline. For this purpose maximum height and maximum
attenuation distance were plotted against slump volume (Fig. 3).
Table 2: Empirical laws of tsunami wave height h (in m) decay with distance d (in km) from the source. r is
correlation coefficient (see Fig. 2).
Event
Best fit all data
Best fit source side data
Comments
Aegion
1963
PNG 1998
h= 4.756(exp-0.156d)
r 2 = 0.77
See text
Tafjord
1934
Lituya
1958
h = 4.456(exp-0.123d)
r 2 = 0.58
h = -1.161ln(d) + 8.468
r 2 = 0.49
h = 9.021(exp-0.046d)
r 2 = 0.44
h = 28.02(exp-0.324d)
r 2 = 0.55
h = 160.21(exp-0.220d)
r 2 = 0.70
h = 96.75(exp-0.182d)
r 2 = 0.88
Loenvann
1905
h = 136.91(exp-0.204d)
r 2 = 0.74
h = 11.71(d-0.651)
r 2 = 0.66
Loenvann
1936
h = -6.016log(d) +13.80
r 2 = 0.50
h = -3.198log(d) +9.152
r 2 = 0.21
h= 24.34(exp-0.263d)
r 2 = 0.61
h = 147.95(exp-0.225d)
r 2 = 0.67
Including 9 far-field
data points
Excluding 9 far-field
data points
See text
One splash point
included (h = 524 m)
One splash point
excluded
Only one
observation point at
source side
See text
3. The data
Although all tsunamis of this data set are triggered by landslides, the particular mechanisms
differ (Table 1). The tsunamis of Aegion 1963 and Nice 1979 were triggered by partly
coastal and partly submarine slides. The events of Loenvann 1905 and 1936, Tafjord 1934,
Lituya Bay 1958 and Fatu Hiva 1999 were generated by aseismic rock falls, while
Eikesdalsvann 1966 was caused by a snow avalanche. Although the rockslide in Lituya Bay
was triggered by an earthquake, laboratory simulation of the event indicates that no seismic
component, that is co-seismic fault displacement, was involved in the tsunami generation
(Fritz et al. 2001). The PNG 1998 and Izmit 1999 waves are also attributed to seismically
induced submarine slumps.
370
Papadopoulos and Kortekaas
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Figure 1. Wave height against distance from the slump area. In enclosed, the closed diamonds indicate the coast
where the slump occured and the open diamonds the opposite coast (e.g. Izmit 1999). Note that the scale are different in each
graph.
Characteristics of landslide generated tsunamis
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Figure 2: Attenuation curves for six case studies. The curves for Aegion, Tafjord and Lituya represent the data set
for the coast on which the slump occurred. The curves for PNG, Loenvann 1905 and 1936 represent the whole data
set, excluding some far field points (see text).
However, the contribution of the co-seismic fault displacement component in the tsunami
generation can not be excluded. The majority of the events occurred in enclosed seas or
fjords, in which case wave reflection and refraction may have been more important than on
open coasts. Most of the additional events are slides and rock falls that occurred in
Norwegian fjords (Jørstad 1968). Exceptions are: Skagway 1994 (Rabinovich et al. 1999),
Kitimat 1975 (Murty 1979) and Vaiont 1963 (Müller 1964).
4. Results and discussion
In general, the studied landslide tsunamis affected a coastal zone of no more than 10-15 km
at both sides of the slump area (Fig.1). The only two tsunamis that were observed over a
considerably greater distance are the Izmit and PNG tsunamis, both of them being possibly
associated with co-seismic fault displacement component. However, the Nice event includes
one data point, the harbour of Cannes, at 25 km from the slide, where damped oscillations
of ≤ 1 m were reported.
372
Papadopoulos and Kortekaas
Tsunami wave height decay when propagating away from the source location is one of the
critical processes to be controlled in landslide tsunami hazard estimation (Ward 2001). By
assuming that wave height decay is a measure of wave attenuation we modelled wave height
observations, h (in m), as a function of distance, d (in km), from the source location for six
out of ten case studies to formulate empirical laws of tsunami wave height decay (Fig. 2).
Nice 1979 and Eikesdalsvann 1966 were excluded because of the small number of
observation points available. Izmit 1999 was also excluded because of the very complex
source nature, which involved not only coastal and possibly submarine sliding failures but
also faulting with strike-slip and normal components of co-seismic displacement. Fatu Hiva
1999 was excluded because the event took place on a nearly circular island with the
majority of observation points located at the opposite side with respect to the slide location.
To avoid possible strong shoaling and topographic effects, data points located in the very
narrow Vassenden bay of Loenvann as well as data points from the Tafjord and Norddal
bays of Tafjord were not included.
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Figure 3: Empirical envelops for (a) the maximum
wave height (in m) as a function of the slump volume
(in m3), (b) the maximum length of coast affected by
the tsunami (in km) as a function of the slump volume
for the whole data set and (c) the same as b but
without the PNG and Izmit cases. Trendline equations
are:
a: h = 13.131 logV -14.522
r2 = 0.9704
b: h = 233.15 logV -352.78
r2 = 0.9856
c: h = 76.838 logV -111.43
r2 = 0.9886
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The decay patterns that fit best to the observational data are summarised in table 2. In most
cases exponential decays of the form h = a exp (-b d) are dominant, where a and b are
constants. This implies a decay faster than the attenuation according to 1/d predicted for an
impulsive axial-symmetric wave decay in water of finite depth or according to d – ½ , dictated
by long-wave theory for large slides or even tectonic tsunamis (Ward 2001). However, in
the case of PNG a decay law of the form h = a ln (d) + b holds, which signifies an even faster
decay in the very near-field but slow decay over larger distances. This may be interpreted as
the possible effect of the fault component involved in the source mechanism which is
consistent with the tsunami waveform analysis made by Matsuyama (1999) from Japanese
tide-gauges at distances in the order of d ~ 3,000 km. A similar behaviour is observed in the
Loenvann aseismic cases because of the very narrow fjord shape (fjord width ~ 1 km), which
results in out of proportional high wave heights near the slide area. This was also described
by Belousov et al. (2000) in relation to a volcanic tsunami in Kamchatka. In general, fast
decay of landslide tsunamis is well explainable by strong wave dispersion.
Characteristics of landslide generated tsunamis
373
Empirical envelope curves were produced for the maximum length of coast affected and the
maximum wave height as a function of the slump volume (Fig. 3). Rock falls (e.g. Lituya
Bay 1958, Vaiont 1963) cause tsunamis with significantly higher wave height than landslides
or submarine slumps. Therefore, rock falls were excluded in the calculation of the empirical
envelope curves for the maximum wave height. Each prediction curve was calculated from
three limiting points (Fig. 3). According to these curves, slump volume seems to control both
maximum wave height, h, and maximum length of affected coastline, d. However, a major
problem often is the uncertainty involved in the slump volume, since in many cases this is
based on rough estimation. For example, for the Izmit event only the dimensions of the
coastal area that slid into the sea are known, although a slide of similar or larger volume was
observed offshore in seismic profiles (Altinok et al. 1999). The uncertainties in slump
volume along with bathymetry differences and total displacement of slump mass from case
to case may explain the large variations of h and d for a given slump volume (Fig. 3).
5. Conclusion
The landslide tsunamis studied here show a rapid quasi-exponential attenuation of wave
heights with distance from the source because of strong wave dispersion and therefore, only
affect a relatively small part of the coastline of about 10-15 km from the source. However,
there are two exceptions: PNG 1998 and Izmit 1999. These are the only two tsunami events
in the data set with a possible co-seismic fault component involved in the source.
Slump volume seems to control both maximum wave height and maximum length of affected
coastline. However, we were not able to check the possible role of shoaling and topographic
effects as well as the shape, dimensions and velocity of slump because of lack of appropriate
data in most of the studied cases.
6. Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Fumihiko Imamura, Stefano Tinti and Ahmet Yalciner for
reviewing the manuscript. Their comments have contributed to improvement of this paper.
This research is supported through an EU Marie Curie Fellowship: Geological
identification of historical tsunamis: application in the Corinth Gulf, Greece. Contract no.
HPMF-CT-2000-00984.
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