Geosphere
rock & soil
spheres
evolution
biomes
Pedosphere
Pedosphere: soil properties
• Millions of microorganisms
• Minerals/Nutrients
Porosity
Permeability
Color
Grain size
Soil Texture
pH
- Acid, < 7.0
- Alkaline, > 7.0
– oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium
(Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg)
• Decaying organic matter (humus)
• Void space – water
• Void space – air
Soil horizons
O - surface litter layer
• Fresh at surface, decomposed at depth
• Humus provides N, K, binds particles,
enhances soil moisture retention
Pedosphere: soil profiles
A - topsoil layer
• Beginning of true soil
• Dark in color
• Mixture of organic / inorganic products
• Most productive layer
E - Eluviation layer
• Light colored
• Active leaching – soluble minerals
and nutrients carried downward
B – Subsoil, Illuviation
• Dense
• Lower in organic matter than A
• Zone of accumulation
C - Substratum
1
Atmosphere
Universe
Biosphere
Ecology
Galaxies
Biosphere
Solar systems
Planets
Earth
Ecosystems
Communities
Organ systems
Organs
Tissues
Populations
Cells
Protoplasm
Molecules
Organisms
species
Atoms
Subatomic Particles
Ecosystem components
Ecosystem dynamics
Food chain and trophic levels
Oxygen
(O2 )
Sun
Producer
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Secondary consumer
Primary
(fox)
consumer
(rabbit)
First Trophic
Level
Second Trophic
Level
Third Trophic
Level
Producers
(plants)
Primary
consumers
(herbivores)
Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)
Heat
Heat
Fourth Trophic
Level
Tertiary
consumers
(top carnivores)
Heat
Solar
energy
Producers
Heat Heat
Soil decomposers
Heat
Heat
Water
Heat
Detritivores
(decomposers and detritus feeders)
Ecosystem components
Autotrophs (producers)
Ecosystem components
Quantifying productivity
Sun
• Light Reactions
Gross primary productivity (gC/m2/yr)
- Chlorophyll molecules absorb photons
- Excited electrons make ATP
- Photons split H2O to make H+ and O2
- H+ used to make NADPH
- O2 released
• Dark Reactions
- rate at which producers turn solar energy to biomass
Chlorophyll
H2O
- CO2, NADPH, ATP used to make glucose
Light-dependent
Reaction
Chloroplast
in leaf cell
O2
Net primary productivity
- rate at which producers turn solar energy to biomass
minus respiration
- energy available to consumers
Energy storage
and release
CO 2
Lightindependent
reaction
Glucose
2
Ecosystem components
Quantifying productivity
Ecosystem interactions
Quantifying productivity
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Swamps and marshes
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
North. coniferous forest
Savanna
Agricultural land
Woodland and shrubland
Temperate grassland
Tundra (arctic and alpine)
Desert scrub
Extreme desert
Aquatic Ecosystems
Estuaries
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf
Open ocean
Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2 /yr)
Source: NASA
Ecosystem components
Heterotrophs (consumers)
Ecosystem components
Heterotrophs (consumers)
• Herbivores
• Carnivores
Ecosystem components
Detrivores (specialized consumers)
Ecosystem dynamics
Biodiversity
What does biodiversity do
for us?
How do we as a species
affect biodiversity?
How do we protect
biodiversity?
3
Nutrient Cycles
Nutrient Cycles: Water
Condensation
Rain clouds
Transpiration
Precipitation
to land
Transpiration
from plants
Precipitation
Runoff
Surface runoff
(rapid)
Evaporation
Precipitation
Evaporation
from land
Evaporation
from ocean
Precipitation
to ocean
Surface
runoff
(rapid)
Infiltration and
Percolation
Groundwater movement (slow)
Ocean storage
Nutrient Cycles: Carbon
Nutrient Cycles: Nitrogen
Nutrient Cycles: Phosphorus
Nutrient Cycles: Sulfur
4
Evolution
4.5
4
3
2
1
0
4.5
4
3
2
4.5
4
today
Billions of years ago
• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans
Evolution
Evolution
3
2
1
1
0
Evolution
4.5
4
today
Billions of years ago
3
2
1
• Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea
-Bacteria
-Archaea
• Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea
• Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas
-Amoebae
-Ciliates
-Flagellates
-Heliozoa
Cyanobacteria
2 Amoeba
Credit: Micrographia
4
3
2
1
Billions of years ago
0
0
today
Billions of years ago
• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans
• Small organic molecules form in the sea
• Large organic molecule form in the sea
• First protocells form in the sea
4.5
today
Billions of years ago
• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans
• Small organic molecules form in the sea
• Large organic molecule form in the sea
• First protocells form in the sea
• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans
• Small organic molecules form in the sea
• Large organic molecule form in the sea
• First protocells form in the sea
Evolution
0
Evolution
today
4.5
4
3
2
Credit: Micrographia
1
Billions of years ago
• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans
• Small organic molecules form in the sea
• Large organic molecule form in the sea
• First protocells form in the sea
• Formation of Earth’s crust, atmosphere and oceans
• Small organic molecules form in the sea
• Large organic molecule form in the sea
• First protocells form in the sea
• Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea
• Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas
• Multicellular organisms form in the seas, later on land
• Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea
• Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas
• Multicellular organisms form in the seas, later on land
Red algae
Credit: Berkeley, Palomar College
Red algae
Humans
0
today
Credit: Berkeley, Palomar College
5
Evolution:
4.5
4
Homonids
3
2
1
Billions of years ago
0
Phylogeny: study of evolutionary relatedness
today
Source: Reed et al., PLOS Biology
how?
Evolution: Natural selection
• genetic variability
• traits must be heritable
• trait must lead to differential reproduction
Structural
adaptations
Fruit and seed eaters
Insect and nectar eaters
Greater Koa-finch
Kuai Akialaoa
Amakihi
Kona Grosbeak
Akiapolaau
Credit: NASA
Evolution: Natural selection
•
•
•
•
how?
genetic variability
traits must be heritable
trait must lead to differential reproduction
leads to adaptations: heritable traits that enable
survival and reproduction
- Structural, behavioral/sexual, physiological
Evolution: Genetic variation
how?
• mutations: random changes in the structure or # of
DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by
offspring
Crested Honeycreeper
Maui Parrotbill
Apapane
Unknown finch ancestor
6
how?
Evolution: Genetic variation
• mutations: random changes in the structure or # of
DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by
offspring
• gene flow: introduced genes from a different
population (same species)
how?
Evolution: Genetic drift
• random selection
• allows maladaptive traits in small populations
- probability
Worms of different color
over 4 generations:
Evolution: Genetic variation
how?
• mutations: random changes in the structure or # of
DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by
offspring
• gene flow: introduced genes from a different
population (same species)
• hybridization: 2 distinct taxa crossbreed to produce
fertile offspring
Evolution
• Large gene pool
- Increases biological fitness of the species
• Small gene pool
- Fewer traits for natural selection
- Genetic drift has significant affects
- Increased potential of extinction
- chance
Hunted to near extinction,
30,000 to 1,000 in 1900
Evolution
Behavioral
Physiological
Structural
Speciation through
adaptations
Genetic drift
Speciation through
chance/probability
Coevolution
Interacting species engage in a
back and forth genetic contest
Convergent evolution
Organisms not closely related,
independently evolve similar traits
due to similar ecological niches
Biomes
Speciation due to human selection
7
Biomes
Biomes
Biomes
Average annual precipitation
100–125 cm (40–50 in.)
75–100 cm (30–40 in.)
50–75 cm (20–30 in.)
25–50 cm (10–20 in.)
below 25 cm (0–10 in.)
4,600 m (15,000 ft.)
3,000 m (10,000 ft.)
1,500 m (5,000 ft.)
Coastal
mountain
ranges
Sierra
Nevada
Mountains
Great
American
Desert
Coastal chaparral Coniferous
and scrub
forest
Biomes
Rocky
Mountains
Desert
Great
Plains
Coniferous
forest
Mississippi
River Valley
Prairie
grassland
Appalachian
Mountains
Deciduous
forest
Biomes: # mammal species
World Wildlife Fund 142 terrestrial ecoregions
"geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural
communities, and environmental conditions"
Olson, BioScience, 2001
8
Biomes: # endemic mammal species
Biomes
World Wildlife Fund 142 terrestrial ecoregions
Olson, BioScience, 2001
Biomes: # mammal species
9