CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
A STUDY OF
LOWER DEATH ANXIETY
IN EXPERIENCED SKYDIVERS
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Psychology
by
Jerry Lynn Swovelin
May, 19 82
The Thesis of Jerry Lynn Swovelin is approved:
Russell Hunter, Ph.D.
Helen K. Giedt, Ph.D., Committee Chairman
California State University, Northridge
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION SECTION
1
Exploratory Work with a Skydiver Population
4
Sport Parachuting
8
Historical Perspective
10
Continuum of Experience
13
Attrition Rate
14
Safety Concerns
16
Motivations of Participants
19
Purposes of the Present Research
LITERATURE REVIEW SECTION
21
23
Anxiety Theory and Research
24
Sports Participation and Anxiety
28
Attitudes Regarding Death in General
30
Existential Concepts
32
Research on the Measurement of Death Anxiety
33
Occupational Factors in Death Anxiety
39
Anxiety Research with Parachute Jumpers
40
Additional Research with Parachutists
44
METHODOLOGY SECTION
47
Hypotheses
48
Design of Study
49
Description of Sample Groups
50
Description of Materials
53
Test Administration
58
Methods of Data Analysis
59
iii
RESULTS SECT ION
61
Hypothesis 1:
Death Anxiety Variable
62
Hypothesis 2:
Physiological Arousal Variable
68
Hypothesis 3:
State Anxiety Variable
68
Hypotheses 4, 5, 6:
Correlations Between Dependent Variables
70
Motivations of Sport Parachutists
73
Anxieties of Sport Parachutists
75
Inclination Towards Risky Sports
77
Subjects' Reported Brushes with Death
79
DISCUSSION SECTION
82
Death Anxiety Findings
83
State-Trait Interpretation
86
Existential Perspective
87
Limitations and Qualifications of the Study
88
Future Research
90
Practical Applications of the Findings
92
REFERENCES
95
APPENDICES
100
Collett and Lester Fear of Death & Dying Scale
101
Exploratory
Competitors
102
Ill •
College Student Research Questionnaire
103
IV.
First Jump Student Parachutist Questionnaire
104
Experienced Skydiver Questionnaire
106
Occupations of Subjects
108
Raw Data Tables
109
I.
11.
V.
VI.
VII.
Questionnaire~
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Design of Study
51
2.
Components of Fear of Death and Dying Scale
55
3.
Differences in Death Anxiety
64
4.
Differences in Physiological Arousal and State Anxiety
69
5.
Differences in Evaluation of Risk in Sports and Prior
6.
Experience in Risky Sports
78
Differences in Reported Brushes with Death
80
LIST OF TABLES
1.
Results of Major Dependent Variables
63
2.
Correlations Between Dependent Variables
72
3.
Motivations of Sport Parachutists
74
4.
Anxieties of Sport Parachutists
76
v
ABSTRACT
A STUDY OF
LOWER DEATH ANXIETY
IN EXPERIENCED SKYDIVERS
by
Jerry Lynn Swovelin
This research project investigated the anxieties and motivations of
participants in a modern, technological, but still risky sports endeavor,
sport parachuting.
Comparisons were made between three groups:
ex-
perienced skydivers, first jump student parachutists, and a college
student comparison group.
The dependent variables included death
anxiety, state anxiety, and physiological arousal.
The hypotheses were
based on the assumption that anxiety levels are inversely related to experience in sport parachuting.
Statistical analyses included a one-way
analysis of variance on each dependent variable and use of the Spearman RHO correlation statistic.
cated mixed results.
Analysis of the death anxiety data indi-
The findings on state anxiety and physiological
arousal were significant and strongly supportive of the hypothesis of
an inverse relationship between experience and anxiety.
All correla-
tions between dependent variables were significant and positive.
vi
In our highly technological society, one example of a behavior pattern which has been suggested as a reaction to or a coping mechanism
for the fear of death, are the behaviors exhibited by participants in
sport parachuting.
These skydivers engage regularly in a sport activi-
ty which could lead to immediate death, although the odds are weighted
heavily on the side of survival.
Participants engage in this behavior
voluntarily and without any material reward, yet most individuals in our
society would never consider attempting such a sport endeavor, no matter how low the actual risk factor or how great the intrinsic rewards.
The pertinent questions regarding sport parachuting activity are
in the areas of motivations and anxieties of the participants.
What are
the reasons these individuals decided to take the risk of an unknown
situation and sought out a first jump course at a parachuting school?
Why do some of them remain in the sport for many years, even with
the component of risk?
anxiety regarding death?
How does this behavior pattern affect their
Also, how does the death anxiety of partici-
pants affect their behavior in this activity?
Further, is death anxiety
really the relevant variable?
Without a data base of information on this specific group of sports
participants, widely divergent assumptions and hypotheses are possible
as to the attributes of individuals in sport parachuting.
For contrast,
two opposing views are briefly outlined here.
Considering the motivations of skydivers, one point of view might
start with the assumption that these individuals are possibly responding
to a death wish or that they are acting out their extreme death anxiety
in a counterphobic manner, thus denying their personal anxiety.
1
This
2
viewpoint would assume that all individuals attracted to and entering
sport parachuting would have a higher than normal death anxiety level;
these individuals are either counterphobic or actually seeking death.
Those persons continuing in the sport would be assumed to be successfully denying their actual anxiety, thus perpetuating their fear of
death.
These assumptions of increased anxiety levels are open to serious
question.
An opposite school of thought might emphasize the positive
aspects of challenging and overcoming one's anxiety.
These partici-
pants in sport parachuting may be viewed as engaging in an existential
encounter with the root of all anxiety, the fear of death.
Sport para-
chuting may be viewed as one process of coping with anxiety.
Here
the assumption would be that the individual initially attempting this new
and challenging sport would be more in touch with his own fears and
possibly have less death anxiety than his fellows who would never consider attempting such a sport.
Parachutists continuing to jump for
many years despite the risk of death, are viewed as continuing the process of self-actualization and self-liberation from anxiety.
lows that these reasonable
risk~taking
It also fol-
behaviors, in which the risks are
met with personal resources, tend to build confidence and strength.
The participants are assumed to be overcoming their anxiety, reducing
it and attaining greater perceived freedom.
Indeed, these two very different sets of assumptions have been
made regarding the traits of participants in sport parachuting.
A
clear-cut differentiation between these two viewpoints, which appear to
be at the opposite ends of a continuum, would be desirable_, but very
difficult.
It is even possible that each of these viewpoints accounts for
3
some of these behaviors in this area.
That is, the 'counterphobia' ex-
planation may be appropriate with some participants and the 'self-actualization' pattern may account for the participation of other individuals.
Information on the actual motivations and anxieties of sport parachutists could be utilized in many areas.
Among these are the regula-
tory agencies charged with overseeing this use of public airspace.
This
information would also be of vital interest to the persons and organizations within the sport who are charged with decision-making responsibilities.
A data base of information could be immediately put to use in
such areas as promotion and recruiting, student training procedures,
and the establishment and enforcement of safety standards.
Additionally, this information on coping with death anxiety could
possibly help shed light on modern man's dilemma regarding the sure
knowledge of his own eventual death.
Is man 'doomed' by this
know!~
edge to merely react or respond to the pressures of his fears; is the
only hope that through denial or projection he can sublimate the horror
of impending death?
Or conversely, does this profound knowledge of
his finite existence free man to challenge his fears, to attempt to overcome them; can fear of death be used as a vehicle to greater selfunderstanding and self-actualization?
These are complex philosophical
questions, with many underlying components, and they wi·ll be satisfied
only with complex answers.
Some clues may be gained from the present
investigation regarding the patterns of motivation and anxiety, approach
and avoidance, risk-taking in the face of fear.
It is in these areas
that the sport parachutists may provide an analogy, a microcosm of the
issues facing all mankind.
4
Exploratory Work with a Skydiver Population
An initial exploration of the major components of the present research has been undertaken previously by this author.
The problem
which was addressed was the complete lack of published research on the
subgroup of advanced-level skydivers, and also the alternate explanations as to the motivations and anxieties of the participants.
The basic
thrust of the project was descriptive; it was intended as a formative,
hypothesis-generating study.
A further purpose was to investigate the
reactions of skydivers to the research instruments and techniques as
well as to ascertain the accessibility of the population sample for the
present study.
The population which was sampled for the exploratory work was
composed entirely of competitors at the 1980 U. S. National Parachuting
Championships.
This group did not include members of the other expe-
rience levels which are included in the present study.
The group of
competitive skydivers was sampled to provide information on the most
experienced, most highly skilled, most highly committed group of parachuting enthusiasts.
These individuals are all acknowledged experts in
both parachuting and freefall skydiving skills, yet there is great variation between individuals, and between teams, in the areas of skill level
and coping styles.
Data was collected on the variable of death anxiety as well as the
general motivations and anxieties of skydivers.
Two questionnaires
were used; these were the Collett and Lester Fear of Death and Fear of
Dying Scale (Appendix I) and a specially designed essay questionnaire
(Appendix II).
These forms were completed by 50 individuals, repre-
senting ten of the competitive teams; this sample was not randomly
5
drawn from the population but represents the 62.5% return on a general
handout of questionnaires.
The only statistics employed were summa-
tive, to build a data base of information regarding this subgroup.
The gender breakdown, 48 male and 2 female respondents, is representative of the percentage of females in the sport.
respondents was 29 years.
The mean age of
The mean number of prior parachute jumps
per individual was 1,365; the mean number of years in sport parachuting was 7. 64 years experience.
These indications of the very high
average experience level of competitive participants tend to support the
assumption that this sample group represents a true expert level of experience in the sport.
The responses to the death anxiety measure produced the most
interesting results.
The raw scores of the Collett and Lester scale, by
themselves are difficult to interpret; the scale is designed so that
scores are meaningful only in comparison to one another.
For this
group of competitive skydivers the average overall death anxiety score
was -12.94 (the total of the scores on the four subsca1es).
age score for each subscale was:
The aver-
fear of dying of self +0. 62 (i.e., the
highest anxiety of the four subscales), fear of death of others +0.17,
fear of death of self -2.35, and fear of dying of others -11.38 (i.e.,
the relatively lowest anxiety).
This may be interpreted as an indica-
tion that for the death anxiety scores of this group, the fear of dying
of self is most prominent and the fear of dying of others is least
prominent.
One type of comparison within this group of skydivers was the
compilation of scores by team affiliation and then the rank-ordering of
teams by anxiety level.
The teams included in this sample represented
6
a variety of geographic origins, skill levels, and (possibly) coping
styles.
The team average death anxiety score did not seem directly
related to geographic origins.
A comparison was made between anxiety
scores and competitive performance at the skydiving championships. Of
the ten teams represented, the three teams with the lowest anxiety
scores failed to place in the standings.
highest anxiety levels failed to place.
Also, the two teams with the
Yet, all five teams with moder-
ate, mid-range anxiety scores won medals.
It appears that a narrow
range of anxiety levels is necessary for optimum performance in this
demanding activity; either too great or too low an anxiety level appears
contrary to top competitive performance in skydiving.
This is consis-
tent with the inverted-U hypothesis (Spielberger, 1972; Martens, 1977),
which states that for any activity, only· a narrow range of anxiety is
optimum for top performance.
An additional comparison was made between the various teams in
this sample on the basis of the coping styles displayed by the members
of the teams.
Stated simplistically, there are two basic coping styles
evidenced by sport parachutists to deal with the perceived risk factor.
Both these approaches are concerned with the same issue, safety concerns, but deal with it from opposite viewpoints.
These two coping
styles may be labeled the "death-defying" and the "safe-sport" approaches.
Adherents of the death-defying approach tend to deal with
the risk factor on a public basis, usually in the guise of gallows humor.
These individuals tend to make jokes about the
11
Grim Reaper" and
"blue sky black death" and to wear death-symbols as good luck charms
(e. g., small silver skulls on necklaces).
The result is a high aware-
ness of the risks, a high degree of concern for safety, and a release
7
of the pressures (through humor) which can be a result of anxiety.
Thus, this coping pattern attempts to deal with both the dangers as
well as the anxieties which are involved.
Individuals utilizing the other
major approach, the safe-sport devotees, tend to deal with the risk
factor on a personal level and when asked about the risks of the sport
these individuals will often reply,
11
But this is a SAFE sport! 11
These
individuals also tend to have a high degree of concern for these issues,
but they tend to approach them in terms of safety only.
Thus, this
coping style emphasizes concern for the safety aspects, but does not
deal directly with the anxiety involved.
As a test of the Collett and
Lester death anxiety scale, the ten teams in the sample were divided
in three groups on the variable of coping style by an independent observer, his listing confirmed the author's observations.
The four
teams exhibiting the greatest death-defying approach were placed in
one group (e. g., teams named Terminal Research and Terra Phobia).
The three teams exhibiting the greatest safe-sport tendencies were
placed in another group (e.g., teams named Spirit and Visions).
The
three teams judged to be moderates were placed in the third group.
The resulting list was compared to a rank-ordering of teams on the
death anxiety variable.
These two indices, coping style and death
anxiety, reflected each other exactly.
That is, all three teams exhibit-
ing the death-defying coping style had the lowest anxiety scores.
The
four teams listed as safe-sport were the same four teams with the highest death anxiety scores.
The three teams rated to be moderates on
coping style were also the teams in the median positions in the death
anxiety ranking.
The death anxiety level was strongly associated with
the variable of coping style, with this particular sample of experienced
8
skydivers.
Although these results are certainly not conclusive, they are supportive of the contention that an individual's coping style may be indicative of his death anxiety level as well.
Also, these results support
the assumption that the Collett and Lester Scale does have discriminant
validity with this population of sport parachutists, with regard to coping style as well as to competitive performance.
The next logical ex-
tension of this line of research is to include a wider range of experience levels of parachutists, which would provide data on how anxiety
levels may change with increasing training and experience in sport
parachuting.
Sport Parachuting
The parachute has been put to many practical applications in our
present technological society.
Parachutes are used to decelerate some
types of race cars and high-performance aircraft; parachutes are also
used to drop cargo and supplies by the military.
The primary applica-
tion is still that which was envisioned by the designer of the first parachute, Leonardo da Vinci, to lower men to the ground safely.
There
are three major areas of use for these personnel-type parachutes in the
U. S. today.
These three areas are U. S. Military operations, U. S.
Forest Service firefighting operations, and sport parachuting.
A
fourth area of personnel parachute use includes those designated as
emergency parachutes.
A single emergency parachute is worn by test
pilots, all military pilots and some civilians who operate sport aircraft.
However, these emergency parachutes are used only in extreme situations; those individuals who wear them do not fit the definition of an
9
intentional parachutist.
Military operations involving mass troop drops by parachute are
common and long-standing practice with such groups as the U. S. Army
Airborne.
The purpose of these operations has little to do with the
motivations or benefits to the individuals involved; these jumps are
made for purely military goals and preparation for combat.
The individ-
ual Airborne soldier receives extra pay and possibly a sense of superiority over the common infantryman, but the inducements are secondary
to the mission.
Participation in this parachuting activity is motivated
by extrinsic factors rather than the intrinsic rewards of the jumping
activity itself (Aran, 1980).
Forest Service firefighters, in certain
situations, employ parachutes to place personnel in strategic locations
to fight forest fires; these individuals are known as "smoke jumpers".
Again, it is factors extrinsic to the parachute jumping which are the
motivating influence, the sense of duty and the extra pay.
The adherents of sport parachuting differ greatly from partici.,pants in the aofrementioned activities in terms of motivations as well as
behavior, skills and equipment.
Military and Forest Service parachut-
ing is occupationally related, but sport parachuting is a true amateur
sport; there are few financial inducements.
quires large investments of time and capital.
Indeed, parti.cipation reWhy then do thousands
of participants regularly engage in this unusual activity, even with the
component of risk?
The answer could lie in the intrinsic rewards of
the parachuting activity itself, it could lie i_n the underlying personality
traits of the participants, it could lie in the social situation engendered
by the conditions of the activity.
Possibly, it is a combination of all
three factors which accounts for the expenditure of time, money, and
10
commitment.
It is this group, the parachutists who jump for no other
reason than the sport of it, which forms the population of interest for
the present research.
The size of the population of active sport parachutists in the U. S.
has been variously estimated at between 16,000 and 60, 000.
The dis-
crepancy between these figures results from the variety of criteria being considered.
If one includes only those individuals who are current
members of the U. S. Parachute Association, then the figure is around
16,000.
The greater estimate takes into account active sport jumpers
who are not current members of U.S.P.A., as well as the large number
of transitory student parachutists,. for whom membership is not required.
The percentage of female students entering first jump courses is approximately 15% and the percentage of female members in U.S.P.A. is
about 10%.
Sport Parachuting Historical Perspective
Parachuting activity for sport, excluding the Barnstormer of the
Twenties and Thirties, who may be considered occupational, began in
the U. S. in the early 1950's.
At that time the activity was pursued
by a very small group of ex-military parachutists at small club-operated
drop zones (parachuting sites).
The only parachuting equipment was
unmodified military surplus; this was heavy, uncomfortable, unsightly,.
and very low performance.
The sport experienced a surge of growth
in the early and mid-Sixties, with an influx of individuals who had no
prior parachuting experience.
Also, there was the development of com-
mercial drop zones and the advent of some parachute equipment designed just for sport use.
These included better performance para-
chutes and bright color imitations of military rigs (backpacks) with the
11
average rig weighing 40-50 lbs.
An important factor in the growth of the sport was the interest in
parachuting competition.
In early competitions the only goals were in-
dividual skills, such as accuracy landing techniques.
But during the
late Sixties, an entirely new dimension of the sport emerged, this was
the growth of relative work jumping.
This group activity is often char-
acterized as 'skydiving' to distinguish it from individual sport parachuting activities.
Relative work involves contact between two or more
jumpers during extended periods of freefall {e. g., 70-second delays
from 12,500').
Relative work skydiving was developed and expended
initially in the southern California area and group jumping quickly
spread to many sport parachuting drop zones across the country.
Larger aircraft than the usual 4.,-pJace Cessnas were needed; 10-place
Beechcraft and 35-place DC-3 became more common.
By the early 1970's, relative work team competitions were displacing the individual event competitions across the country.
Sport para-
chuting equipment made great advances in performance, comfort, and
safety.
Gear was now being designed for skydivers .. because more
jumpers were involved in relative work..
In 1974, the first relative
work event was added to the U. S. National Parachuting Championships; this was a speed event (i.e., timed) involving a 10-member
team demonstrating only one freefall formation per jump.
In 1976, two
more team events were added to the National Championships, these were
the 4-member and 8-member team events.
These were significantly dif-
ferent from the speed event in that each team was required to perform
a sequence of freefall formations on each jump.
These "sequential"
relative work events posed considerably greater difficulty than the
12
speed event.
Since their introduction, these team events have nearly
replaced the individual competitions in most sectors of the country.
The major international championship is the World Cup of Relative Work
held every two years in a host country, with dozens of countries competing in this meet.
The growth of relative work team competitions has been paralleled
by the growth of the fun-jumper population.
Most skydivers are not
on competitive teams, but pursue relative work skills by making informal group jumps with their friends; fun-jumping is also the major activity
of team jumpers in the months not dedicated to team practice.
Every
weekend well in excess of 100 skydivers gather at every major drop
zone in the country to participate.
A skydiving "boogie" (i.e., a
gathering of jumpers for competition and]or recreation) in 1976 attracted over 2, 000 active participants.
These trends, increasing numbers of parachute jumpers and increasing demand for safer, smaller, lighter, better performing gear for
relative work and especially competition jumpers, have been matched by
the great diversity of excellent quality sport parachuting equipment
now available.
The average parachute system {i.e., harness, pack,
main parachute, and reserve parachute) weighs only 17-20 lbs., and
square parachutes fly like hang.,..gliders, up to 30 mph forward speed,
but flaring to zero speed at landing.
Most of this equipment is well
designed, made to exacting standards, government regulated, and as
safe as state-of-the-art modern technology can get.
Sport parachuting experienced its greatest growth periods in the
early Sixties and again in the early Seventies; there are indications
that another growth phase is impending.
Predictions for the future of
13
the sport include further technological developments in equipment, modern turbine engine aircraft, new all-freefall student training including
relative work instruction for novices, rising costs, and greater acceptance by the public, the media, and regulatory agencies.
Sport Parachuting Continuum of Experience
Within the national population of sport parachutists the group with
the least parachuting experience are those individuals enrolled in a first
jump course at a parachuting school.
jump centers across the country.
These courses are conducted at
They perform the task of primary
instruction, bringing non-jumpers into the sport for a safe and enjoyable learning experience.
Most parachuting schools usually provide a
one-day first jump course, which includes all training in techniques and
safety procedures, the equipment, and the actual parachute jump.
The next experience level of parachuting is that of the continuing
students at parachute schools.
This group is significantly different
from the first jump course students in that they have made their first
jump and then decided to return for further training and parachuting
activity.
A further distinction may be made by the type of activity
within the student curriculum.
Beginning with the first jump course,
the first few jumps a new student makes are termed static-line jumps in
reference to the nylon line from the aircraft which automatically opens
the main parachute.
Following these initial practice jumps, the student
progresses to the stage of a freefall student parachutist.
The jumper
falls free of the aircraft prior to manually deploying the parachute;
the length of time the jumper may delay follows a strict progression,
beginning with just a second of freefall, the student works up to GOsecond delays.
The student jumper then participates in relative work,
14
controlled physical contact in freefall with an instructor.
This initial
relative work experience, on about the student's 25th jump, marks the
end of the formal student phase.
Beyond the level of the student phase, with its strict supervision
of activity and performance, the differences between parachutists become increasingly subtle.
These differences are determined by the
goals of the individual jumpers as well as their actual skill and experience levels.
Roughly, these jumpers may be classified as fun"""'jumpers,
team jumpers, and competitive jumpers; it is possible for a given jumper
to be classified into more than one group.
The largest group is com-
prised of the fun-jumpers, those individuals who no longer attend a
formal school, but jump with their friends in informal groups.
The highest level of expertise in skydiving today is to be found
within the subgroup of competitive team skydivers; these individuals
are highly skilled in both parachuting and freefall relative work.
The
national competitions are only open to the most experienced jumpers;
each participant must possess an Expert Parachutist License earned by
performing at least 200 freefall parachute jumps, including several at
night, in deep water, meeting accuracy landing criteria, as well as
other requirements.
Approximately 180 skydivers, affiliated with about
30 teams, participated in the 1981 National Championship team events.
The two teams which won their events went to the World Cup of Relative Work as official representatives of the U. S.
These international
competitions are considered the pinnacle of expertise in skydiving
today.
Sport Parachuting Attrition Rate
The attrition rate within sport parachuting is a matter of some
15
significance.
Not all individuals who enter a first jump course con-
tinue with more jumps or complete the school's entire curriculum and
remain in the sport, indeed most student jumpers do not come back.
The attrition rate of student jumpers has been documented at the Perris
Valley Paracenter (Stukey, 1980).
The attrition rate of students while
still in the first jump course is quite low; only 1-2% of those enrolled
actually do not complete a jump.
However, following completion of this
first step, most student jumpers do not return for more jump activity.
Approximately 90% of the first jump course graduates do not return to
the school.
The assumption has been made by individuals in the sport
that the majority of these students did not plan to continue, they were
interested in a one-time unique experience, not a long-term hobby.
However, there is no doubt that a certain percentage are discouraged
by the anxiety they encountered on the jump.
Only about 10% of the
original group do complete further training and make additional jumps.
There are two points of increased attrition:
the first freefall jump
(about the seventh jump) is the point where about 42% of the remaining
students stop
jumping~
the second point occurs upon completion of the
parachute school's curriculum (after about 25 jumps) where about 40%
of the jump school graduates drop out of the sport.
Thus, only about
3% of the original first jump students complete the school and then continue in the sport.
There appear to be at )east three factors involved in this very
high attrition rate.
The first factor, the one often mentioned by au-
thorities within the sport, is that many students do not drop out {i.e.,
failure) but rather they attain their short-term goal and were not
interested in a long-term commitment.
The second factor includes all
16
the usual difficulties which might get in the way of any serious sport
endeavor:
financial difficulties, lack of time, other sports activities,
loss of interest, and related difficulties.
The third factor in the attri-
tion rate involves the individual's reaction to the anxiety which is usually encountered in the student phase.
Three separate aspects of the
anxiety factor appear to be important.
First, most individuals who are
high in trait anxiety would never enroll in a parachuting course for
the recreational value.
Thus_. the sport selectively draws from the
population of potential jumpers a group who are probably already lower
in anxiety levels.
Second, the anxiety states encountered by most stu-
dent jumpers must be coped with; for many, this coping is accomplished
by dropping out of the sport.
This anxiety factor probably causes a
self-selection reaction, those student jumpers who continue have either
lower trait anxiety or they have better coping mechanisms.
The third
aspect of the anxiety factor concerns the coping reactions of those
jumpers who do stay in the sport.
It appears that not only do more
of the highly anxious individuals drop out, but that those who do continue in the sport are changed by their experiences.
These changes
seem to be in the direction of improved coping under stress, lower
trait anxiety and improved reactions to anxiety states.
In summary,
the anxiety factor is involved in the decisions as to who participates in
the sport at all, who drops out due to the stress, and it affects those
who choose to continue in the sport.
This anxiety factor is one of the
major foci of the present research.
Sport Parachuting Safety Concerns
One important part of the sport parachuting milieu is the high degree of concern for safety.
The percentage of time in student training
I
'
17
directed to safety issues, relative to time spent on other items, is quite
high.
All safety procedures are followed to provide an enjoyable para-
chuting experience at minimum risk to the participants. The great deal
of attention to safety concerns may be viewed as one coping mechanism
to deal with the anxiety engendered by the perceived risk of this activity.
The student-novice phase is considered the period of greatest
risk, the phase requiring the most caution and supervision.
Student
jumpers have little experience with parachuting and may not yet have
mastered the mental discipline necessary to cope with unknown situations.
These deficits are balanced by the regimentation and direct
supervision required at the student phase.
However~
for most jumpers
this support and supervision is not available after graduation from the
parachuting school.
Novice jumpers must independently seek experi-
ence and skills, but those who most need help may not seek it out.
The types of circumstances of accidents, which sometimes prove
fatal, are somewhat predictable.
Drowning, from unintentional water
landings, accounts for a high percentage of the fatalities among novice
jumpers.
High speed freefall collisions between jumpers during relative
work jumps, account for a large percentage of the fatal accidents among
experienced skydivers.
At all experience levels 1 the failure to activate
either parachute at a sufficient altitude (e. g., a jumper losing track of
time and altitude) and the failure to react quickly to a malfunction of
the main parachute with proper emergency procedures are the two
simple causes which account for most fatal accidents.
Human error is
the direct cause of almost all accidents 1 and anxiety reactions appear to
be a definite factor in many of these errors.
The actual risk and the perceived
risk_~
regarding sport parachuting
18
activity, are somewhat at odds.
However, consideration of the actual
accident statistics leads to the conclusion that sport parachuting is actually very safe, in a relative sense.
For purpose of comparison, the risk of
death by murder in Los Angeles, or in an automobile accident, or in
SCUBA diving, are all far greater than the risk of death in sport parachuting (Works, 1980). The annual fatality rate for the U. S. sport parachuting population has remained fairly constant for the last twelve years;
there are about 35 fatalities per year.
Considering that over 30,000 indi-
viduals totaled up over 2, 000,000 sport jumps each year, this rate is relatively low; one fatal accident per every 57,000 jumps.
However, if the
statistics from the more experienced skydivers are considered separately,
the fatality rate is only about one per 100,000 jumps, and less than one
per 1,000 individuals (U.S.P.A., 1981).
Considering these statistics, it may be the perception of risk regarding sport parachuting which is even more important than the actual risk.
It is this perceived risk which helps make the sport so safety-oriented
and self-regulated.
One factor affecting the perceived risk of many par-
ticipants is the perception of mastery over one's destiny.
That is, par-
ticipants report a feeling of complete power over their own life and death
while "flying" in the sky; the sport parachutist knows that it is only his
ski II and control which keeps the prospect of death at bay. Another
fac~
tor, the antithesis of the first, is the concept of fate deciding when it is
time to die, with the individual having little chance of preventing it. The
sport is perceived, by participants to have some inherent risk, and they
must cope with the situation accordingly.
One aspect of sport parachuting which is somewhat unique is the
transitory nature of the risk factor; the risk is very real but only very
19
brief in duration.
In sport parachuting the participant is exposed to
risk only from the time of aircraft exit until parachute landing, three
minutes or less per jump. This may be contrasted with some other sports,
such as mountain climbing or automobile racing, which have longer-term
exposure to risk.
Another factor which is unique to parachuting is the
"all-or-nothing" aspect of the risk.
There is a risk of death in the sport,
but serious accidents resulting in major disabling injuries or long-term
handicaps, are not usually the case.
If there is an accident, it is either
catatrophic and results in death, or in the usual case, very minor (e. g.,
a broken ankle). On the questionnaire collected at the National Championships ( 1980) skydivers did not report a fear of disabling injuries occurring in the sport.
Sport Parachuting, Motivations of Participants
The question is sometimes raised as to the responsibility of regulatory agencies which allow free choice as to participation in certain risky
sports.
A basic assumption underlying the arguments calling for in-
creased regulation (i.e., decreased freedom for participants) of activities such as sport parachuting, is the assumption that the motivations of
the participants are somehow self-destructive.
However, this assumption
has not been supported by the data and many other patterns of motivation appear tenable.
In the exploratory work with a skydiver population the motivations
for parachuting activity were investigated.
The reported motivations for
taking the first jump course fell into several categories including stimulus
or thrill seeking behavior, "something I had always wanted to do.," social
factors, novelty seeking, and the challenge.
Reasons reported for con-
tinuing to jump included the social factors in the sport, fun, excitement,
20
the love of flight, freedom, challenge, relaxation, and mental discipline.
Vanderzwaag ( 1972), an existentialist, presents a summary of the
arguments for choice in sports, choice as to participation as well as to
type of sport.
The basic premise regarding sports participation is stated
by Vanderzwaag as "sport for sports sake".
The values of sport are in-
trinsic rather than extrinsic; thus, sports require no justification outside
the activity itself.
The concept of personal choice is central to the as-
sumption that sport has value for the individual, it is viewed as one avenue to authenticity. Vanderzwaag tends to emphasize the non-traditional,
non-competitive approaches and to decry the emphasis in athletics on winning and losing.
Another clue to motivation of parachutists may be found in the actual
mode of physical activity. One classification of physical activity, particularly relevant to the present investigation, is that of the pursuit of vertigo.
This is defined as "physical experiences providing, at some risk to
the participant, an element of thrill through ... speed, acceleration, sudden change in direction, or exposure to dangerous situations ... 11 (Kenyon, 1968) . This concept builds on the ideas of Caillois ( 1962) who
postulated the reinforcing, pleasant nature of controlled loss of equilibrium.
Kenyon has added the dimensions of danger, thrill, and risk; he
makes the important distinction that, although individuals may pursue
vertigo in activities such as skydiving and ski jumping, they do not necessarily achieve it.
Kenyon also postulated that the value of such activi-
ties is probably latent within participants, they are not aware of this aspect of motivation for their behavior.
Clues as to the motivations for such activity may also be found on a
more philosophical level.
In the article "Sport, Death and the Elemental"
21
(Wyschogrod, 1973) the author contends that the components of being
human are to know (i.e., to learn), to enter into social relationships,
and especially, to enjoy the physical world (the "elemental").
"Being in
touch with the elemental involves an immersion of the body in an environment experienced as liquidity which spiiJs over in sensation so that the
body senses itself as being at one with the quality of the milieu"
(Wyschogrod, 1973, p. 167).
A basic tenant of this viewpoint is that the
"elemental" cannot be possessed and totally controlled.
The "elemental"
is indifferent to man, the same power which produces pleasure can turn
to death and destruction.
In this frame of reference, the purpose of
sport is only incidentally competitive, the "elemental" itself is the true
antagonist.
Risk of death is not merely the price of
participation~
but
rather the risk is a true component of the hedonic quality of these sports.
"To become one with the elemental one must first conquor the
elemental by becoming homologous with it. The drive of the
body is to become like a power of nature. One accomplishes
this by pushing the body to its limits of endurance 1 by risking death to achieve the being of an unlimited force."
(Wyschogrod, 1973 p. 170.)
1
Purposes of the Present Research
The overall purpose of the present research is to provide data relative to the relationship between death attitudes and participation in risky
sports.
More to the point
1
this study was designed to investigate the
effect of training and experience in sport parachuting with regard to the
death anxiety levels of participants.
Specific purposes of the present study included an opportunity ,to
examine several informal hunches of the author.
One hunch is regarding
a pattern of motivations observed in sport parachutists. The motivations
22
to start parachuting may include curiosity or a childhood fascination;
the motivations to "hook" the individual into the sport may include the
challenge and the adrenalin reaction; the motivation for lasting participation may involve social factors in addition to the challenge and adrenalin
components.
A second hunch of the author involves the anxiety levels
of participants being systematically reduced as they gain experience in
the sport.
A third hunch is that death anxiety is not the primary anxiety
among skydivers; rather, it is the fear of failure/fear of looking foolish
in front of a respected peer group, which is the most common anxiety.
Another purpose of the present study is to provide additional data
to clarify the results of prior research.
There has been little research
published in this specific area, and the literature is somewhat contradictory.
The most relevant study, "Fear of Death in Parachute Jumpers"
(Alexander and Lester, 1972) produced no significant findings.
A final purpose of the study is to provide a body of information to
decision-makers within the sport parachuting community, relative to the
motivations, anxieties, and coping mechanisms of participants in this
sport activity.
This data may prove useful in several areas of the sport:
student recruitment, training, safety issues, regulatory decisions,
growth of the population base of the sport, and increased understanding
between the various factions of sport parachutists.
For example, some
form of these questionnaires could be used as a screening device for applicants or graduates of parachuting schools.
It is the author's desire to
provide information for all three of these areas: death attitude research,
anxiety levels in relation to sports participation, as well as basic information to help further sport parachuting.
LITERATURE REVIEW SECTION
23
24
A brief background of anxiety theory and research, in general as
well as in relation to sports participation, will be presented in order to
help place the current research in proper perspective in regard to concepts of anxiety.
Next, some general background information is provided
regarding death attitudes and coping with death anxiety, including consideration of historically significant trends and basic discrimination regarding the death object.
A review of research in death anxiety, tech-
niques and findings will be presented, including background on the
measurement instruments, some personality correlates of death anxiety,
as well as the effects of occupation or environmental stress conditions on
death anxiety levels.
An additional area that is relevant to the present
study concerns the literature on the motivations for parachuting involvement, other than those where the focus is on death attitudes; this information will be presented as an aid to understanding characteristics of the
subject population of the research.
Anxiety Theory and Research
In the field of research on anxiety the most pertinent distinction is
between the concepts of trait anxiety and state anxiety.
A clear differ-
entiation was provided by Spielberger; state anxiety is "characterized by
subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension,
accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic
nervous system"
(Spielberger
1
1966 p. 17) • Conversely
1
I
trait anxiety
is defined as a predisposition to behavior such that an individual perceives "a wide range of objectively nondangerous circumstances as
threatening and to respond to these with the state anxiety reactions
25
disproportionate in intensity to the magnitude of the objective danger 11
(Ibid).
This distinction, between trait anxiety and state anxiety, is crucial
to the present research. The death anxiety measure used in the exploratory study as well as the present research, the Collett and Lester scale,
is designed to access trait anxiety only.
This information will be com-
pared and contrasted with a state anxiety self-report and a report of
physiological arousal.
11
•••
In regard to the measurement of state anxiety
the clinical and research literature on transitory anxiety suggests
that the presence of anxiety states in humans can be most meaningfully
and unambiguously defined in terms of some combination of introspective
verbal reports and physiological-behavioral signs 11
p. 29).
(Spielberger, 1972,
The present study utilizes a combination of verbal state anxiety
reports, physiological arousal self-reports, and a trait anxiety measure to
corroborate one another.
An item closely associated with that of state anxiety is arousal.
Arousal refers to the intensity dimension only, while state anxiety refers
to intensity as well as direction (i.e., negative affect).
arousal is also important to the current study
1
The concept of
since it is important to
distinguish between physiological arousal and the actual state anxiety
levels of; for example, the first jump students.
In the Spielberger model
the terms stress and threat are used to discriminate between objective vs.
subjective phenomena.
The term
11
stress 11 is used
11
to denote environmen-
tal conditions or circumstances that are characterized by some degree of
objective physiological or psychological danger 11 (Spielberger 1 1972, p.
488).
The term 11 threat" refers to the subjective perception of a situation
as dangerous in some way.
Stated otherwise 1 a threat is the perceived
26
imbalance between the environmental demand and the individual's response capability.
State anxiety then, is the emotional reaction resulting
from a perceived threat due to excess stress in the environment.
The
process of state anxiety can be conceived simply: an external, objective
demand-stress (stimulus)
reaction (response).
-+
perceived threat (mediator)
-+
state anxiety
For the situation at hand, stress would be the ob-
jective danger on a parachute jump, threat would be any perception of
inadequate response capability by the jumper, and state anxiety would be
the result.
With regard to individual differences in trait anxiety, there are two
classes of stressor situations (Spielberger, 1972):
( 1) individuals with
high trait anxiety perceive more threat when personal adequacy is evaluated than do individuals with low-trait anxiety; (2) situations involving
physical danger are not interpreted as differentially threatening by these
individuals. This information is particularly relevant in regard to the
team skydivers in the exploratory study.
It follows that competitive
jumpers would be more likely to react with a state-anxiety reaction in
response to a threat regarding personal performance on a competition
skydive than to the physical danger involved on a normal jump.
In addi-
tion, the appraisal of a particular situation as a threat is also influenced
by the individual's aptitude, abilities, and past experience, as well as
his/her trait anxiety and the objective stress in the situation. Thus, the
presence of state anxiety in a participant in sport parachuting may not be
inferred directly from a trait anxiety measure.
Rather, the actual reac-
tion to physical threat may be determined by the participant's experience
and ability in the sport, as well as his/her level of trait anxiety. This
interaction emphasizes the need for more than just a single anxiety
27
measure to determine an individual's reaction to a situation of physical
risk.
The principle assumptions of the Trait-State theory are as follows
(Spielberger, 1972):
( 1) situations which evoke a perception of threat
may lead to a state anxiety reaction, high levels of state anxiety are
aversive, (2) the intensity of a state anxiety reaction is proportional to
the amount of threat perceived, ( 3) the duration of a state anxiety reaction is relative to the persistence of the individual interpretation of
threat, ( 4) individuals who are high in trait anxiety perceive situations
of threat to self-esteem as more threatening than do low-trait anxiety
individuals, (5) elevation in state anxiety has stimulus and drive properties that may be expressed directly in behavior or may initiate psychological defences, ( 6) stress situations which are encountered frequently
may cause an individual to develop specific coping mechanisms to reduce
state anxiety. These assumptions have direct relevance to the present
study, especially the final one; if one can postulate a learning or conditioning effect, through experience, then the result is improved coping
and more effective reactions to threat. Since the individualistic perception of threat is dependent on the degree of response capability, which
improves with experience in a given activity, the actual perception of
threat may also be diminished through experience.
Thus, individuals
with greater experience in a given threatening situation (e. g., jumpers
with greater experience in sport parachuting) would have the advantages
of both, less perceived threat and improved coping mechanisms. These
more experienced individuals would be expected to demonstrate lower
state anxiety, and possibly lower trait anxiety, than less experienced
individuals.
28
Sports Participation and Anxiety
One important aspect of research on anxiety in sports is the comparison of various sports groups and non-sports groups on the variable
of trait anxiety.
Hardman ( 1973) compared 42 sample groups of athletes,
assessing anxiety by the Cattell scale's derived anxiety factor.
The re-
sults demonstrated that virtually all sport groups fell within the Cattell
norms; most athletes have trait anxiety levels similar to the general population.
Additionally, these findings showed no significant differences
between members of team sports vs. athletes participating in individual
sports, and no differences were found between participants in contact
vs. non-contact sports. The results did suggest that superior athletes
do have lower trait anxiety levels than do average athletes.
Hardman has
suggested a reciprocal relationship between success in sports leading to
lowered trait anxiety and the reduced trait anxiety leading to less state
anxiety and thus to further success in sports.
This finding is also ap-
plicable to the contention that success in sport parachuting may lead to
reductions in anxiety levels.
Researchers have investigated the influence of anxiety on competitive performance.
Much of this research has been guided by the invert-
ed-U hypothesis, which states that an optimal mid-range of anxiety is
most effective for maximal performance at most motor tasks. The most
directly relevant aspect of this line of research is summarized by Martens
(1968) in a discussion of the studies by Fenz, et al (Fenz and Epstein,
1967; Fenz and Jones, 1972). Martens' conclusion, regarding the effect
on performance on anxiety levels, is to support the inverted..,..U hypothesis.
In the studies by Fenz, the student parachutists with the highest
and the lowest state anxiety at the time of a jump, had the lowest jump
29
performance ratings. Martens suggests that it is the differences in trait
anxiety between individuals which account for these differences in manifest state anxiety (and performance). This finding was also demonstrated
with the competitive skydivers in the exploratory study.
Those teams
with the highest, as well as those with the lowest, trait anxiety scores
failed to place in the meet; however, all the teams demonstrating moderate, mid-range levels of trait anxiety did win medals in the meet. Additionally, Oxendine ( 1970) suggests that the optimal levels for another
sport.
Thus, it appears that there is an interaction between the trait
anxiety level of participants and the optimum state anxiety or arousal
level for a specific sport, which forms the basis of the paradigm determining individual performance, competence, and even participation in a given
sport. Stated another way, it is the individual's traits, which the participants bring to a sport experience, interacting with the stress in that
particular sport situation to produce a reaction which may or may not be
optimal for that sport. Thus, for sport parachuting the interaction would
involve the trait anxiety of the jumper, his prior coping mechanisms, the
stress in the parachuting situation, and his}her on-going experience
level.
There has been a line of investigation {Mandler and Sarason, 1952;
Sarason et al, 1960) regarding trait anxiety as a situation-specific concept, rather than a general, pervasive trait.
Regarding this line of re-
search, Spielberger ( 1972) has concluded "In generaC situation-specific
trait anxiety measures are better predictors of elevations in
A~state
for a
particular class of stress situations than are general A..,-trait measures"
(p. 490). This consideration has particular relevance to the present investigation.
The state anxiety reactions of participants in sport para-
30
chuting appear to be the critical element in regard to performance, safety,
and continued participation. These state anxiety reactions are being inferred, in the present study, from a situation-specific trait anxiety scale,
a death anxiety measure, rather than a general trait anxiety measure.
The conclusions of Spielberger tend to support the author's contention
that the death anxiety measure, as a situation-specific measure, may be
a good predictor of state anxiety reactions in sport parachutists.
Attitudes Regarding Death in General
For consideration of attitudes on death and dying it may be useful to
examine some common definitions and reactions to death concerns.
Fear
reactions regarding death (thanatophobia) are a common reaction, perhaps the most common reaction, but fear is not necessarily the only response to death.
Historically, the ways in which people have sought to
reconcile themselves to the knowledge of eventual personal death are many
and varied; these behaviors may be considered as coping mechanisms to
deal with death anxiety.
Among some primitive peoples, the fear and
mystery regarding the death of others were matched by an outpouring of
love for the departed (Malinowski, 1948), or the expression of joy or
gladness that the departed has been freed of the bonds of this existence.
Other primitive coping patterns are the belief in the physical resurrection of the dead and the reaction of indifference (Becker and Bruner,
1931).
Hedonism may be viewed as an attempt to enjoy the physical world
to the greatest extent possible before it is snatched away; the converse,
pessimism, involves the conclusion that life is so wretched that even
death is the lesser evil. The attempt to circumvent death by winning
31
fame for oneself is another means of coping.
Liberation from self-
centeredness by merging oneself with the "ultimate reality" is a coping
mechanism seen in both Eastern and Western religious thought, as is the
belief in the personal immortality of the human soul, the hope for heaven
and the fear of hell.
An additional method of coping could include at-
tempts to find immortality through one's children and descendants or
through one's work {e. g., writing "immortal" books or creating works of
art) {Toynbee, 1968). The anxiety-reducing effect of humor is well
known, and this coping mechanism has been applied to anxiety regarding
death; as previously mentioned one group of sport parachutists takes
this approach.
"Through humor, problems which may be too frightening
to look at directly can be brought into the open and symbolically resolved" {Vernon, 1970, p. 327).
Regarding conceptions of death, the primary distinction is between
the death of self and the death of another.
This distinction is addressed
by the separate subscales on the Collett and Lester scale. The essential
point is that when the observer reacts to the death of another, the other
is gone but the observer and his subjective universe continue.
However,
when the death is of oneself, that is, the destruction of the observer
himself, this entire universe ends (Koestenbaum, 1971).
It has been
postulated that we cannot experience the death of another in a genuine
sense, but only use the experience to become more aware of our own
eventual death {Shibels, 1974).
There are also differences in the types of emotional reaction possible
in the face of death.
One possible emotional reaction is fascination {i.e.,
attraction) toward death.
This may be due to the fact that in the pres-
ence of death profound speculations on life are possible. Another class
32
of emotional reactions is that of terror (e. g., repulsion) ; thanatophobia
may be the most frequent reaction pattern. Still another emotional response category is that of the feeling of tragedy or loss. Additionally, a
complex reaction pattern combining all three classes of emotion is possible
with an individual or even an entire societal reaction.
The final aspect
of emotional reactions to death includes the reaction of practical callousness; this is the distanced response of the professional, for example in
the military or medical professions (Koestenbaum, 1971).
Existential Concepts
Koestenbaum ( 1971), an existentialist, postulates that the human
response to consideration of personal death follows four stages of development.
The initial stage is the repression of thoughts of one's own
death, by projecting it onto external realities.
The second stage is when
the individual recognizes the reality of impending death of self and experiences death anxiety.
In the third stage, the anxiety regarding
death has been faced, and anticipation of death leads to courage, integrity, individuality.
In the final stage, by opposing, contradicting
and fighting death, man feels his existence and achieves some of his
greatest glories.
For the individual who is trapped in stage
two~
anxiety
regarding personal death., it is felt that this anxiety is often relieved
through self-understanding.
"Man's vision of life and the world must extend even beyond
the death of his person .•. In the last analysis, fear of death
can only be conquered by an identification with the totality
ofexistence." (Koestenbaum., 1971, p. 189)
The positive aspects of the acceptance of the fact of eventual
sonal death far outweigh the potential risks. These benefits are
per~
33
summarized by Shibels ( 1974) and Koestenbaum ( 1971) :
( 1) the accept-
ance of the fact of impending personal death allows the individual to actually start living, (2) acceptance leads to a courageous, decisive outlook on life, (3)
a~ceptance
cuts through the red tape in one's life and
concentrates one on essentials, ( 4) acceptance allows one to achieve integrity and consistency with one•s principles, there is no threat beyond
real or symbolic death, and these have been accepted, ( 5) acceptance
allows one to waste no time in attacking the problems of his life, ( 6)
acceptance leads to the realization that overcoming the fear of death
carries with it the successful management of many unconscious problems,
( 7) acceptance leads to strength, ( 8) acceptance allows one to take
charge of one•s life and make a total life plan, (9) acceptance allows one
to "laugh off vicissitudes and pains" (Koestenba,um, 1971). Some of these
same ideas are reflected in the writings of May; he also comments on the
fact that "knowledge of the external degree of threat alone appears to be
an insufficient base on which to predict with any certainty how a person
will react to it."
(May, 1961, p. 69)
In other words, it is the internal
factors, such as trait anxiety or personal orientation to death threat,
which are the major factors when considering reactions to environmental
stress, especially stress regarding death.
Research on the Measurement of Death Anxiety
The concept of death anxiety is not amenable to a simple precise
definition; the term can refer to a large variety of the discrete aspects
of death concerns.
Regarding oneself, the concept may be used to refer
to fear of the act of dying, or it may also refer to the fear of the state of
34
death.
That is, fear of dying is fear of the act or process and fear of
death is fear of what comes next (e. g., fear of afterlife or fear of extinction).
For these two aspects, the process of dying and the state of
death, the referent may also be a significant other, rather than the self,
Additionally, death anxiety may refer to another aspect, the fear of losing loved ones by leaving them behind.
The majority of researchers
(Fenz, et al, 1962-64; Diggory and Rothman, 1961; Feifel, 1967) have
not really attended to this multiplicity of aspects of the term 'death
anxiety', but rather they have treated it as if it were a unidimensional
concept. This is not to say that these researchers were necessarily unaware of these issues, but that due to the difficulties in measurement,
they have generally settled for a simplistic operational definition only.
For purposes of the present study, death anxiety is defined as a measurable personality trait demonstrated by concern for the issues of death
and dying.
However, four separate aspects of this anxiety are also in-
vestigated; these four aspects include a focus on death vs. dying and
also a focus on self vs. others. This concern is manifest as a differential
tendency to respond to death threat stimuli with varying levels of a state
anxiety reaction.
That is, individuals differing in their level of trait
anxiety regarding death will respond to the same stressful situation
(i.e., death-risk stress) with different levels of state anxiety (i, e.,
behavioral differences) .
The history of the measurement of death anxiety as a discrete concept for psychological research is relatively brief. One early study in.,..
vestigating death anxiety was that of Diggory and Rothman ( 1961).
These researchers attempted to correlate scores for death anxiety (which
was not specifically defined) and scores for seJf..,-esteem.
Both scores
35
were obtained through interview techniques, as there were then no specific death anxiety measures available.
This research was followed by a
series of three studies by Fenz, et al ( 1962, 1962, 1964). Subjects in
these studies were tested by means of a Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
and also reaction time; stimulus materials were a word association test
for the first two studies and a special set of Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) pictures for the final study.
A study by Feifel, et al ( 1967) in-
troduced the concept of a standard questionnaire to specifically assess
death anxiety information.
However, this instrument was primarily com-
posed of open-ended questions and the ratings were unreliable.
The use of reliable, questionnaire-type death anxiety measures experienced a surge of interest in the years 1967-1972; this period saw the
publication of several new death anxiety scales. These included the
Tolor and Reznikoff Death Anxiety Scale ( 1967), the Collett and Lester
Fear of Death and Dying Scale ( 1969), the Templer Death Anxiety Scale
( 1970) and the Dickstein Death Concern Scale ( 1972). Some advantages
and disadvantages of these scales are relevant to the present investigation.
The intercorrelations of some of the death anxiety scales were investigated by Durlak ( 1972), these included the Tolor and Reznikoff scale
and the Collett and Lester scale as well as three unpublished instruments.
He found that the various scales were moderately correlated, with a median correlation of .515. The intercorrelations of several scales was also
demonstrated by Dickstein ( 1978); these included the Dickstein Death
Concern Scale, the Toior and Reznikoff Scale, the Templer Scale and the
Collett and Lester Scale. The median correlation between these scales
was . 593. The Collett and Lester Fear of Death and Dying Scale has four
36
subscales, which are postulated to tap independent dimensions of death
anxiety.
These subscales are fear of dying of self, fear of death of self,
fear of dying of others, and fear of death of others. These four subscales were also shown to correlate with the other death anxiety scales;
median correlations were . 362 for female subjects and . 422 for males.
Thus, it appears that these various death anxiety scales do tend to measure much of the same thing, and the Collett and Lester subscales may
measure similar but distinct aspects of death anxiety.
The possibility of correlation between the death anxiety scales and
some measure of general anxiety has also been investigated by Dickstein
( 1978).
A comparison to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger,
et al, 1970) with these four death anxiety scales (the Death Concern
Scale, the Tolor and Reznikoff Scale, the Templer Scale, and the Collett
and Lester Scale) produced several significant correlations. With female
subjects, all four death anxiety scales correlated significantly with the
general state anxiety scale, as well as with the general trait anxiety scale.
With male subjects, none of the death anxiety measures correlated with
state anxiety, but three of the death scales correlated with trait anxiety
(Templer, Tolor and Reznikoff, Collett and Lester).
These results were
corroborated by Kupperman and Golden ( 1978}; these authors demonstrated a positive correlation between the Manifest Anxiety Scale (Rotter
I
1966) and two death anxiety scales (the Dickstein Scale and the Templer
Scale).
Thus these death anxiety scales do appear to have a significant
I
positive relationship to general anxiety and especially to trait anxiety.
I
Research testing the relationship of these death anxiety measures to
the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale has produced significant re..,.
suits.
Dickstein ( 1978) has found a negative correlation between the
I
•
37
social desirability measure and his Death Concern Scale, and a positive
correlation with social desirability and the Tolor and Reznikoff Scale and
the Templer Scale.
Kupperman and Golden ( 1978), using both the Dick-
stein and Templer Scales, found negative correlations with the MarloweCrowne Social Desirability Scale. The difficulty, of course, with using a
measure which correlates highly with a socially desirable response set is
that a systematic bias may be introduced into the data.
However, the
Collett and Lester Scale has shown no significant relationship to social
desirability measures (Durlak, 1972; Dickstein, 1978).
There are several relevant areas of research concerning the personality correlates of death anxiety.
One important area of this research
concerns the relationship of death anxiety to the variable of self-esteem.
In an early study, Diggory and Rothman ( 1961) suggested that a person
with a high degree of self-worth or self-esteem would be more afraid of
death.
Their rationale appeared to be that an individual with high self-
esteem would value himself highly, and thus fear death as the limiting
case, the end of a valuable enterprise.
However, more recent findings
have not supported this contention. Moses ( 1973) and Alcorn ( 1976) as
well as Davis, et al ( 1978) provided data supporting an inverse relationship between death anxiety (on the Templer Scale) and self-esteem (on
Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale and the Texas Social Behavioral Inventory,
Helreich and Stapp, 1974).
It does now appear to be the case that an
individual with high self.,."'esteem would not be highly anxious about death.
The relationship between the
setf~actualizing
anxiety has also received attention.
personality and death
Pollak ( 1977) provided support for
a negative correlation between the Personal Orientation Inventory and
the Templer Death Anxiety Scale. This is interpreted as an indication of
38
low death anxiety in individuals with self-actualizing personality types.
Additional support for this association comes from Lester and Colvin
( 1977), who demonstrated that college students with greater self-actualization scores (on the Personal Orientation Inventory) tended to fear
death and dying less (as measured on the Collett and Lester Scale).
This negative relationship between self-actualization and death anxiety
is further supported by a study of Wexler ( 1978); this study also
demonstrated a negative correlation between the Death Anxiety Scale
and the Personal Orientation Inventory.
The results were interpreted
by Wexler as supporting the existential position that acceptance ofone's
own death (i.e., lower death anxiety score) is related to emotional wellbeing.
Examining this relationship from another perspective, Lester
and Colvin ( 1977) also demonstrated a high positive correlation between
the scores on an alienation scale (Dean, 1961) and the Fear of Death
and Dying Scale.
Additionally, Moses ( 1973) found a positive correla-
tion between death anxiety and general maladjustment (as determined
by clinical observation).
Kupperman and Golden (1978) also provided data regarding the relationship between the I nternai-External Scale (Rotter, 1966) and the
Dickstein and Templer death anxiety scales.
The results indicated that
subjects with high death anxiety tended to attribute more importance to
external rather than internal factors; that is, a perceived external
locus-of-control.
The use of denial as a coping mechanism by individuals high in
death anxiety has been proposed.
Fenz (1964) postulated the use of
denial by student parachutists, in his explanation of their low anxiety
scores on the TAT.
However, he used a general anxiety measure
39
rather than a situation-specific instrument.
Also# he did not discrimirr
ate between Trait anxiety and State anxiety effects.
The idea of sub-
jects who score uncharacteristically low on a death anxiety variable
utilizing denial is also found in the work of Hyche ( 1977).
To summarize this research on the correlates of death anxiety
I
high
death anxiety individuals appear to ascribe to an external locus-of-controll as well as possibly utilizing the coping mechanism of denial; high
death anxiety is associated with mental illness# maladaptionl as well as
alienation.
Conversely
1
individuals with low death anxiety appear to
be more self-actualizing# have greater self-esteem and perceive an internal locus-of-control.
These research findings tend to support the
existential contentions regarding the positive benefits of low death
anxiety.
Occupational Factors in Death Anxiety
On the subject of occupational factors affecting death anxiety
1
an
important study is supportive of the contention that some occupations
tend to attract certain types of individuals# as well as to modify the
attitudes of those individuals into the role of that occupation.
Feifell
et al ( 1967) found significant results in a study which compared physicians# medical students# physically ill patients and a "healthy
1
normaJI'
group; these groups were compared on responses to an open-ended#
40-item questionnaire.
The results indicate that the physicians tend to
have a greater fear of death than do either they physically ill patients
or the healthy group.
The physicians also indicated awareness of a
fear of death at an earlier age than the other groups.
The number of
years experience in the medical profession had no correlation with the
40
fear of death (i.e., all physicians were equal in their death anxiety).
The medical students appeared to occupy a middle ground; they had
less anxiety regarding death than the physicians, but more than either
the patients or the healthy group.
Thus, this study provides support
for the contention that the role of physician attracts individuals who
are already high in death anxiety and then the process of medical
school further crystallizes their attitudes to fit the existing role-model
of practicing physicians.
This same principle is the major focus of the
present study; the question is if sport parachuting attracts individuals
of a certain range of death anxiety and then modifies their attitudes to
fit the pattern found in experienced jumpers.
Anxiety Research with Parachute Jumpers
A study which bears direct relevance to the present research is
entitled "Self-Ratings of Fear in a Fear-Invoking Situation" (Walk,
( 1955).
The subjects in this study were U. S. Army Airborne trainees
(parachute assault troops) involved in jump training from a 34-foot
11
mock jumping tower".
One group of trainees self-rated their fear re-
garding tower jumping prior to the training, a second group self-rated
their fear after they had completed the tower training.
Results indi-
cated that for both groups, performance was negatively related to selfratings of fear; the higher the fear rating, the lower the rating of
practice performance (on the tower).
A major finding was that al-
though fear ratings are initially high, "with increased experience the
fear ratings rapidly fall 11 (Walk, 1955, p. 176).
Thus, this study pro.,..
vides support for the position that increased experience in situations
of personal anxiety leads to a decrease in anxiety levels.
41
An early series of studies by Fenz, et al (1962, 1962, 1964) investigated the reaction of individuals to sport parachuting student jumps.
The stated purpose of these three studies was to test and refine a
model for the investigation of approach-avoidance conflict as measured
by projective techniques.
The investigation of the parameters of the
sport parachuting population was only an incidental concern.
The first
two of these studies (Epstein and Fenz, 1962; Fenz and Epstein, 1962)
were nearly identical.
The subject population was the same, 16 novice
parachutists ( 1 to 3 jumps at the time of testing) compared to 16 control subjects in an introductory Psychology course.
Three subjects
who had "considerable experience with parachuting" (Epstein and Fenz,
1962, p. 101) were also included.
also identical.
Methodology for both studies was
The parachutists were tested once on the day of a jump
and once at a point two weeks removed from the day of the jump.
All
subjects were tested by means of two dependent measures of conflict;
galvanic skin response (GSR) was used as a measure of activation and
reaction time was used as a measure of cognitive deficit.
For the inde-
pendent variable one study used a word-association test for the stimulus dimension, the other study used a special set of Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pictures.
The final study in this series (Fenz, 1964) combined the goal of
the earlier two studies, the investigation of conflict in its own right,
with the more specific goal of exploring the relationship between intensity of stress vs. degree of physiological activation and performance
deficit.
In addition to the earlier dependent measures, GSR and reac-
tion time, the measurement of auditory threshold was included.
Sub-
jects for this study were 27 college students who had shown interest
42
in parachuting, and were then enrolled in a first jump course; the
control group was composed of an equal number of students in introductory Psychology courses.
The conclusions of these studies by Fenz may be summarized in
three major points.
First, a direct relationship between physiological
activation and performance deficit was noted.
Student parachutists
produced increasingly steep gradients of GSR to parachute-relevant
and anxiety words with increasing proximity to a jump.
Secondly,
self-ratings of approach and avoidance indicate that student parachutists are afraid of jumping, even though they pursue this activity; it
is a true approach-avoidance conflict.
This anxiety state in turn gives
rise to a conflict of expression vs. inhibition of the fear, which could
lead to denial behaviors by the student jumpers.
referent of this fear was not investigated.
The exact type or
The third major conclusion
of Fenz research involves the differing reactions of the different experience-level jumpers.
The responses of the student and experienced
jumpers to the stimulus materials were the same on the control day
(two weeks removed from a jump).
However, on the day of a jump,
both types of jumpers produced a monotonic curve (a simple, steadily
increasing curve) of physiological activation, only up to a mid-point on
the stimulus dimension (relevance to parachuting).
Beyond this mid-
point, the student jumpers• physiological activation continued to rise in
direct proportion to the stimulus relevance.
However, the experienced
jumpers' activation dropped off sharply; at the upper end of the stimulus dimension, those words and pictures most directly relevant to parachuting, the experienced jumpers' physiological reactions were identical
to when they were presented irrelevant, low stimulus intensity words.
43
That is, while the student jumpers responded to parachute-related
stimuli with increasing anxiety, the experienced jumpers responded with
increased relaxation.
This result provides strong support for the con-
tention that one result of experience in situations of personal anxiety is
the development of situation-specific coping mechanisms; increased experience in situations of anxiety does lead to reductions in anxiety
levels.
The study with the most direct relevance to the present research
is "Fear of Death in Parachute Jumpers" (Alexander and Lester, 1972).
This study was designed to build on the work of Feifel ( 1967L death
anxiety as related to occupation, and the work of Fenz, et al ( 1962,
1962, 1964), fear and stress in novice parachute jumpers.
Subjects
were 31 parachutists and 15 trainees; the 15 trainees had not jumped,
15 of the parachutists had made 25 or fewer jumps and 16 had made bEr
tween 25 and 350 jumps each.
All experimental subjects were matched
with a college student control subject.
Measurement of anxiety was
through the use of the Collett and Lester Fear of Death and Dying
Scale.
All groups were contrasted using one-way analysis of variance;
no significant differences were found.
Data from both parachutist
groups was combined and then compared to control subjects by use of
t-tests; agin no significant differences were found.
Product~Moment
correlations were computed between death anxiety and number of jumps.
One of the subscale comparisons did show a significant difference; for
the novice jumpers (i.e., 1-25 jumps) there was a greater fear of death
of self.
There are several possible reasons for finding virtually no significant differences in this study by Alexander and Lester.
One factor
44
could be that the experimental classifications of experience level (i.e.,
trainee, 1-25 jumps, 25-350 jumps) were too broad and did not take
into account the subtle differences to be found within these ranges.
Another factor may be indicated by the previous publications of these
authors (Lester, 1967; Alexander and Lester, 1971) which indicate that
they expected to find a positive relationship between experience in
sport parachuting and death anxiety.
They expected to find an in-
crease in death anxiety associated with increased experience in parachuting, even though the literature does not appear to support this
conclusion.
A careful examination of the findings of Fenz ( 1964)
demonstrates that although the student parachutists do exhibit high
physiological arousal and state anxiety, the experienced jumpers show
much lower activation levels and even a pattern of relaxation in response to parachute-related stimuli.
Also, the findings of Feifel ( 1967)
relate to occupational stress situations (i.e., stress inducing situations)
and there may be no basis for generalizing an increase in anxiety
levels to this sports activity (stress reducing).
Alexander and Lester
asked an important and innovative question regarding systematic differences in death anxiety as related to experience in sport parachuting
which the present study continues to explore.
Additional Research with Parachutists
In addition to the previously cited research, there is another group
of studies, using parachutists as subjects, which is relevant to the
present research.
They were concerned with the motivations for para-
chuting activity, other than those related to death attitudes.
There is some evidence that involvement in parachuting may be
45
motivated by the strong social bonds which develop between
pants.
partici~
A ran ( 1980} presents a case for this supposition using examples
from the Israeli Military parachuting branch as well as U. S. sport
jumping.
This work cites the ego-enhancement and group affiliative
ties which can result from close-knit group activity in a somewhat difficult and risky adventure.
Aran notes the spirit of cooperation and the
awareness of belonging to a unified whole, which is created by the difficult communication in a noisy, open aircraft.
In considering the mu-
tual equipment checking necessary between parachutists prior to jumping, he points to the common pool of responsibility and trust which develops, the critical interdependence which enhances group solidarity.
The physical crowding in the aircraft also tends to familiarity as well
as a spirit of cooperation.
It should be mentioned that in skydiving
the relative work involving actual physical contact between groups of
jumpers in freefall formations also emphasizes the feelings of physical
familiarity, group solidarity and interdependence.
A ran notes that the
frightening prospect of the jump tends to enhance the intensity of the
social situation which occurs prior to, during and following the jump.
The suggestion is made that parachuting is an excellent example of
"stress-seeking or action-seeking" behavior (Aran, 1980, p. 125}. And
he notes that in addition to being a challenging, demanding experience,
parachute jumping is a tension-relieving experience as well.
Another study investigating the sensation-seeking aspects of parachuting (Hymbaugh and Garrett, 1974} compared a group of 21 skydivers (experience level was not specified} with a non-jumping control
group, which was matched on age, sex, socio-economic and occupational
variables.
Both groups were administered the Sensation Seeking Scale
46
(Zuckerman, et al, 1964); this scale is designed so that high scorers
are individuals who
11
actively seek out unusually sensational or stimulat-
ing experiences 11 (Hymbaugh and Garrett, 1974, p. 118).
results were consistent with the hypothesis:
Experimental
scores for the skydivers
were significantly higher than for the control group.
This supported
the assumption that parachuting is, at least in part, motivated by sensation or novelty-seeking tendancies.
Another factor of parachuting activity which has been investigated
is that of the general anxiety-reducing or stress management aspects of
the activity; Champaign ( 1979), a medical doctor, recommends skydiving
as one means of reducing the stress of modern life.
Sport parachuting
is viewed as a coping mechanism to help the individual deal with stress
in other life areas.
The anxiety-reducing effects of parachuting activi-
ty were also noted in the early work of Epstein and Fenz ( 1962) who
reported that generally, parachutists obtained lower GSR 's and shorter
reaction times than did the control subjects.
They wondered if it was
these traits which helped lead these individuals to the selection of
parachuting as a sport activity or if the experience helped shape the
participants' reactions.
11
• • • parachuting serves to reduce tensions, and that the focusing of conflict and its momentary mastery in one area temporarily reduces conflict and disturbance in other areas, i.e.
parachuting is a way of mastering fear . 11 (Epstein and Fenz,
1962 , p. 110)
METHODOLOGY SECTION
47
48
Hypotheses
Underlying the hypotheses of the present research is the basic assumption that increased experience in skydiving is associated with lower
state anxiety, lower physiological arousal, and lower death anxiety.
The major hypotheses of the study, #1-2-3, specify the expected differences on these three dependent variables between the three experienc-Jevel groups.
The secondary hypotheses, #4-5-6, specify the ex-
pected correlations between the dependent variables within the entire
sample.
1.
Experienced skydivers will have lower death anxiety scores
than first-jump student parachutists, who will have lower death anxiety
scores than college students.
2.
Experienced skydivers will have lower physiological arousal
scores than first-jump student parachutists, who will have lower
physiological arousal scores than college students.
3.
Experienced skydivers will have lower state anxiety scores
than first-jump student parachutists, who will have lower state anxiety
scores than the college students.
4.
The overall scores for death anxiety will correlate positively
with the score for physiological arousal reactions, across all groups.
That is, those individuals who score lower on the overall death anxiety
scale will also score lower on physiological arousal.
5.
The overall death anxiety scores will correlate positively with
the score for state anxiety reactions, across all groups; those individuals who score lower on the overall death anxiety scale will also
score lower on state anxiety.
49
6.
The scores for physiological arousal reactions will correlate
positively with the score for state anxiety reactions; those individuals
who score lower on physiological arousal will also score lower on state
anxiety.
Design of Study
The present study is designed as a cross-sectional examination of
three selected groups differing on the variable of experience in sport
parachuting.
These three groups are the experienced skydivers, the
first-jump student parachutists, and a college student comparison group.
The design of the study was a natural groups design utilizing preexisting differences as the independent variable.
That is, the major
systematic difference between the three experimental groups was the
subjects prior experience in sport parachuting.
There were three dependent variables examined in this research.
One dependent variable was concerned with the death anxiety level of
the subject; hypothesis 1 was tested by this dependent variable.
This
was operationally defined as the scores on the Fear of Death and Dying
Scale (Collett and Lester, 1969; Appendix I) which included the overall
death anxiety score, as well as the four subscale scores (i.e., fear of
dying of self, fear of death of self, fear of dying of others, and fear
of death of others).
The second dependent variable concerned the
subjects' physiological reactions to parachuting; this was operationally
defined as the scores from an experience-level specific questionnaire
item on self-rated physiological arousal regarding parachuting activity
(Appendix Ill, question #8; Appendix IV, question #9; Appendix V,
so
question #11) •
able.
Hypothesis 2 was investigated by this dependent vari-
The third dependent variable involved the subjects' state anxiety
reactions to actual parachuting experience; this was operationally defined as the score on a state anxiety self-report from the experiencelevel specific questionnaires for the two parachutist groups (Appendix
IV
I
question #10; Appendix VI question #12).
Hypothesis 3 was tested
by this dependent variable.
The causal-comparative ex post facto design of the study is diagrammed in Figure 1.
Although not an exact replication# it contains a
further examination of the variables examined by Alexander arid Lester
( 1972).
That research compared an experienced group of parachutists#
student parachutists# and a college group on responses to the Fear of
Death and Dying Scale; they found no significant differences.
The
present research includes all of the same components as well as two
additional dependent variables:
physiological arousal and state anxiety.
Description of Sample Groups
Two discrete groups were selected from within the entire range of
experience levels in parachuting and compared to a non-jumping group.
The groups were selected from near the ends of the continuum of experience to help illuminate differences associated with the different
stages of the sport.
Insuring an equal gender distribution in each group was accomplished by collecting the first jump students data and matching the
other groups to this baseline.
The actual matching procedure involved
collecting data from a greater number of subjects than was needed; this
Insured the minimum of 3 females and 21 males in each group.
Then
51
Figure 1.
Design of Study
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Group I
Group II
Group III
College
Students
First Jump
Students
Experienced
Skydivers
I
CJ)
s""'
<
H
Death
Anxiety
Scores
e;j
:>
E-<
z
""'
~
Overall
Fear of
Fear of
Fear of
Fear of
State
Anxiety
Score
""'0 Physiological
~
Arousal
Score
Death
Dying
Death
Dying
Death
Anxiety
of Self
of Self
of Others
of Others
SelfReport
SelfReport
Death Anxiety Scores: Subjects' responses to the Collett and Lester
Fear of Death and Dying Scale; Appendix I.
State Anxiety Score: Subjects' responses to the questionnaire item;
Appendix IV, question #10, Appendix V, question #12.
Physiological Arousal Score: Subjects' responses to the questionnaire
item; Appendix III, question #8, Appendix IV, question #9,
Appendix V, question #11.
52
the excess members of each sex were randomly excluded prior to scoring the questionnaires.
Group I - College students.
These subjects were included as a
comparison group; none of these individuals had ever engaged in any
parachuting activity.
years.
The mean age of the college subjects was 26.5
This group was composed of students in introductory Psycholo-
gy courses enrolled at L. A. Pierce College and Palomar College during
the Spring and Summer sessions, 1981.
Group II - First jump student parachutists.
Tested shortly after
their first sport parachute jump, these students were used to investigate the attributes of those individuals who are attracted to the sport.
The majority of these first-jump students do not pursue further parachuting experience; they drop out of the sport after this one-time experience.
There are two factors to consider when postulating this as a
relevant comparison group with the experienced skydivers; every member of the experienced group was, of course, once a member of this
neophyte group, and due to the attrition rate, many of these students
will never reach the stage of the experienced skydiver.
This group
was composed of enrollees in the Perris Valley Paracenter first-jump
course on weekends in Summer 1981.
The mean age of the group was
28.6 years.
Group Ill - Experienced skydivers.
This group of jumpers was
used in the study to help discriminate the process of change which
occurs with experience and progression in skill level.
These individu..,-
als had made an average of 419 parachute jumps each; the mean time
in the sport was 3. 5 years.
All members of this group had completed
the entire curriculum of the parachuting school and continued to jump
53
on a regular basis, but were not current members of any skydiving
teams.
This group provided a useful measure of the motivations and
anxieties of parachutists who jump regularly, but do not have the motivating (and anxiety-producing) influence of competitive participation.
The sample of these fun jumpers was also collected on weekends in
Summer 1981, at the Perris Valley Paracenter.
The mean age of this
group was 29.8 years.
The occupations reported by the subjects showed great diversity,
no clear-cut pattern was found.
A complete listing of subjects• occupa-
tions, by group, is presented in Appendix VI.
Description of Materials
All subjects in the study completed two separate testing instruments.
One questionnaire was used for the dependent variable of
death anxiety; another questionnaire collected data on the other two
dependent variables, physiological arousal and state anxiety.
The data on the death anxiety variable was collected through use
of the Collett and Lester Fear of Death and Fear of Dying Scale (Appendix I).
This instrument is composed of a Jist of 36 statements re-
garding death concerns; all test items are given equal weight.
Sub-
ject responses are on a Likert-type agreement-disagreement continuum
ranging from -3 to +3.
To reduce response bias, some items are keyed
positively and some items are keyed negatively for each subscale.
The Fear of Death and Dying Scale is the only death anxiety measure in general use which 1 in addition to an overall score 1 attempts to
distinguish between the components of the fear of death. DiscrHnihation
54
is made between the fear of the act or process of dying vs. the fear of
the state of death; further discrimination is made between fear of one's
own death and fear of the death of another.
The matrix of this scale
is diagrammed in Figure 2.
The four subscales produced by the intri-
cate scoring technique are:
fear of dying of self (DyS), fear of death
of self (DSL fear of dying of others (DyOL and fear of death of
others (DO).
Intercorrelations between the Collett and Lester Scale and other
death anxiety scales have been demonstrated.
A median correlation of
. 593 was found between the death scales of Collett and Lester, Tolor
and Reznikoff, Templer, and Dickstein.
The four subscales of the
Collett and Lester Scale were also shown to correlate with these other
scales; median correlations were . 362 for female subjects and . 422 for
male subjects (Dickstein, 1978).
Additionally, a median correlation of
. 515 was found between the Collett and Lester Scale, the Tolor and
Reznikoff Scale, as well as three unpublished instruments (Durlak,
1972).
The four subscales of the Collett and Lester Scale do appear to tap
separate aspects of death anxiety.
The intercorrelations between the
subscales are low, ranging from . 03 to • 58
[Collett and Lester, 1969).
There are significant correlations between the Collett and Lester
Scale and a measure of general anxiety, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, et al; 1970).
With female subjects the correlation is
significant for both the general state anxiety scale as well as the general trait anxiety scale; with male subjects the death anxiety measure
correlates significantly with the trait anxiety scale only (Dickstein,
1978) .
55
Figure 2.
Components of the Fear of Death and Dying Scale (Collett & Lester 1974)
ASPECT OF DEATH
DYING
(process)
DEATH
(state)
SELF
DyS
DS
OTHERS
DyO
DO
-
Subscales:
DyS
= Fear of Dying of Self.
DS
= Fear of Death of Self.
DyO
= Fear of Dying of Others.
DO
= Fear of Death of Others.
Overall Score:
Fear of Death and Dying = DyS + DS + DyO + DO
56
The Collett and Lester Scale has shown no relationship to the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Durlak, 1972; Dickstein, 1978).
Thus, it appears that a socially desirable response set may not affect
the data from this instrument.
The data regarding the variables of physiological arousal and state
anxiety was collected with questionnaires developed specifically for this
research.
The instrument was developed and modified in the
explora~
tory work with skydivers, and then a separate version was developed
for each of the experience level groups (Appendices Ill, IV, V).
The
item on physiological arousal was worded differently for each of the
groups.
For the college students the item read:
Based on your experiences in the past, what do you think
your physical reactions would be if you were to make a Sport
Parachute jump from an airplane? (Appendix Ill, question j/8).
For the first-jump student parachutists:
Did you experience any of these body reactions before, during or after your jump? (Appendix IV, question #9).
For the experienced skydivers:
Do you experience any of these body reactions before, dur..,ing or after a typical jump at this time] (Appendix V,
question #11).
Each of these was followed by a checklist and matrix to indicate response:
REACTION
Dry Mouth
Raoid Breathina
Rapid Pulse
Stomach Uoset
Sweaty Palms
Tremblinq
None
Little
Moderate
Major
57
The scoring technique was straightforward; for each subject's responses an indication of "little" was scored 1 point, "moderate" was
scored 2 points, and "major" was scored 3 points.
Points were totaled
for each individual, and individuals averaged for each group.
The item regarding state anxiety was also specific to each group.
For first jump sudents the question read:
Please indicate your overall level of anxiety before, during,
and after your parachute jump.
For the experienced skydivers the item read:
Please indicate your overall level of anxiety before, during,
and after a typical jump.
Each .of these was followed by a matrix to ·indicate response:
no
anxiety
little
anxiety
moderate major
anxiety anxiety
don't
recall
Before Jump
During Jump
After Jump
The scoring technique was identical;
"moderate", and 3 for limajor".
1 point for "little",
2 for
Points were totaled by subject, and
averaged by group.
Additionally, all three versions of the questionnaire collected demographic data, sports participation history, perceived risk factor in
sports, information regarding any brushes with death, and other data.
The version used with college students included a question addressing
willingness to try new sports activities.
The versions for both groups
of parachutists included items regarding the specific object of any
fears (a checklist of six types of fear, which was scored in a manner
consistent with the format for the other items, 1-3 points; Appendix IV,
~
58
#11, Appendix V, #13), and motivations for taking the first jump
course.
The form for experienced skydivers also asked about motiva-
tions for continuing to jump; the first jump students• form asked about
the probability of the individual making more jumps.
Test Administration
The dissimilar situations of the three sample groups dictated that
administration of test instruments be individualized for each group.
However, the following items were standard with all groups.
All sub-
jects were advised that their cooperation in the research project was
totally voluntary; subjects were assured of complete confidentiality and
anonimity of individual scores.
All subjects were informed that the re-
searcher was a graduate student in Psychology and that the purpose of
the study was to assess their attitudes regarding aspects of sports
participation in general.
All subjects completed both :the fear of death
scale as well as the general questionnaire; subjects were instructed not
to discuss the questionnaires while completing them.
In all groups the
subjects were de-briefed regarding the study and informed as to where
final results might be obtained.
Subjects were thanked for their par-
ticipation and requested to keep the nature of the study confidential.
Group I - College students.
Data from the comparison group was
collected in the college classroom where the introductory Psychology
course regularly met.
Data from this group was collected at L. A.
Pierce College and Palomar College during the Spring and Summer sessions~
1981.
Data was collected in a group setting with the entire
class as a whole participating.
59
Group II - First jump student parachutists.
Data from the student
parachutists was collected on weekends, during Summer 1981 at the
Perris Valley Paracenter in Perris, California.
All tests were adminis-
tered in the student training room; data was collected from the class as
a whole in the late afternoon.
This testing followed their first para-
chute jump and the subsequent de-briefing on individual jump performance by the jumpmaster.
Group II I - Experienced skydivers.
The data from the fun jumpers
was also collected in the parachute school classroom and also in a group
setting.
This data was collected in the evening, following any jump
activity of the day.
Methods of Data Analysis
The comparisons which examined differences between the experience-level groups utilized a one-way analysis of variance for each dependent variable.
A separate one-by-three ANOVA was computed for
the overall death anxiety scores and for each of the four death anxiety
subscales as well as the physiological arousal data.
Also, a one-by-
two ANOV A was computed for the state-anxiety data.
Within group comparisons were computed to examine the correlations between the three major dependent variables.
Three Spearman
RHO correlations were computed to examine each combination of physiologiCal arousal scores, state-anxiety scores, and death anxiety scores.
The remainder of the data was not directly involved in any
hyp~the­
sis testing; this data was summarized through the use of descriptive
statistics.
The scoring techniques were standard across groups and
were specific to each type of data collected.
The questions on prior
60
risky sports participation (Appendix Ill and IV, question #4; Appendix
V, #6) was quantified for each subject by simply scoring one point for
each prior sport activity engaged in by the subject on more than one
occasion.
The scoring of the item on perceived risk factor in sports
(Appendix Ill, question #6; Appendix IV, #5;: Appendix V, #7) involved
a weighting procedure for each subject's responses to obtain the individual score:
3 points.
little risk, 1 point; moderate risk, 2 points; major risk,
The data on physiological arousal (Appendix Ill, #8; Appen-
dix IV, #9; Appendix V, #11) used an identical weighting system for
scoring purposes:
little physiological arousal, 1 point; moderate arousal,
2 points; major arousal, 3 points.
The state anxiety variable (Appendix
IV, #10; Appendix V, #12) also used this weighted scoring system to
derive each subject's score:
little state anxiety, 1 point; moderate state
anxiety, 2 points; major anxiety, 3 points.
For the item on specific
types of anxiety encountered during parachuting activity (Appendix IV,
#11; Appendix V, #13), one point was scored for each response in each
category, then scores were totaled by group.
The data from the ques-
tion on subjects• occupations (question #3 on all three scales) is report..,..
ed verbatim in Appendix VI I.
RESULTS SECT ION
61
62
Death Anxiety Variable--Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 states:
experienced skydivers will have lower death
anxiety scores than the first-jump student parachutists, who will have
lower death anxiety scores than the college students; that is an inverse
relationship between experience and death anxiety.
Five variables have
been analyzed to test the relationship between death anxiety and parachuting experience; the results appear in Table 1 and Figure 3.
Overall Death Anxiety
The overall score for death anxiety is the first of these variables;
no simple trend is evident.
The college students' group mean of 0. 875
reflected a median anxiety level, but the mean of +5. 08 for first-time
jumpers showed a higher level of death anxiety.
The experienced
jumpers mean score for overall death anxiety level was a very low
-10.58.
(A negative mean is possible because the responses to any
item on this scale may range from +3, maximum agreement, to -3, maxi:-:-mum disagreement.)
These differences were not statistically significant.
The trends displayed by the results on this scale do not contradict the
prediction of hypothesis 1, rather the markedly low anxiety of the experienced jumpers means that two of the three between group trends
are in the direction predicted (i.e., lower anxiety in the more experienced group).
There are no published norms for this testing instru-
ment, the Collett and Lester Scale, thus the present research used
between-group comparisons to test the
hypotheses~
The comparison
group's scores (Group I) are therefore stated to be the only norm for
·I
this test, near zero.
63
Table 1.
Results of major dependent variables.
Variable
Group I
College
Students
State-
1. Anxiety*
Group I I
First Jump
Parachutists
Group III
Experienced
Skydivers
3. 21
1. 96
4. 10
2.54
0.875
5.08
-10.58
Dying of
Self
3.46
3. 17
Death of
Self
1. 96
3.75
-1.04
Dying of
Others
-11. 50
-7.04
-9.375
Death of
Others*
6.96
5.21
-1.00
Physiological
2 ·Arousal*
Anxiety3 . Death
Overall
11.42
0.833
*Significant differences at the .01 level on ANOVA.
1. State-Anxiety: Subjects• average score on the questionnaire
items; Appendix IV, question #10, Appendix V, question #12.
2. Physiological Arousal: Subjects• average score on the Questionnaire items; Appendix III, question #8, Appendix IV,
question #9, Appendix V, question #11.
3. Death Anxiety Score: Subjects• average overall score on the
Collett and Lester Fear of Death and Dying Scale; Appendix I.
64
Figure 3.
Differences in Death Anxiety
Associated with Experience in Sport Parachuting
12
11
10
9
8
7
Q)
~
u
V')
~
6
5
4
Q)
~
"'
-I
3
Q)
2
"'0
1
s::
~
~
~
Q)
Dying of Self
0
Death of Others*
Death of Self
-1
-2
0
u
s::
-3
0
-4
Q)
-5
~
0
u
V')
-6
-7
-8
-9
Dying of Others
-10
OverallDeath Anxiety
-11
-12
Group I
College Students
Group II
First Jump Students
*Differences are significant at the .01 level.
Group III
Experienced Skydivers
65
Fear of Dying of Self
The subscale scores for the fear of dying of self form the second
variable; an inverse trend is evident.
The college students' data
showed the highest anxiety level, mean 3. 46; the student parachutists
were slightly lower, mean 3.17; and the scores of the experienced
divers again indicated the lowest anxiety levels, mean 0. 833.
sky~
These
results are straightforward and supportive of hypothesis 1, but they
are not strong enough to demonstrate statistical significance.
The
in~
verse relationship is clear, the college group scored the highest anxiety,
the
first~jump
students were moderates, and the experienced skydivers
demonstrated the lowest scores for the fear of oneself dying.
These
results are exactly in the direction predicted; that is, the greater the
experience in sport parachuting the lower the anxiety regarding death.
This subscale may be particularly relevant as an indicator of the
im~
portant differences between these groups; the risk of oneself dying is
the actual personal danger to participants in risky sports.
The results
on this scale indicate a reduced anxiety regarding personal demise in
just those individuals who engage in these sport risk-,-taking behaviors
most frequently.
Fear of Death of Self
The subscale score for the fear of death of self is the third vari-:able involved with the testing of hypothesis 1.
The college students
indicated moderate anxiety in this area_, mean score 1. 96; but the firsttime jumpers scored the highest anxiety level, group mean 3. 75; and
the experienced skydivers reported the lowest death-of-self anxiety,
group mean -1. 04.
The results on this subscale are mixed and not of
statistical significance.
The trends displayed are similar to the pattern
66
for overall death anxiety.
Although the results are not strong, they
do follow the hypothesized pattern in two of the three between-group
comparisons.
The student parachutists scored the highest, the college
students were the moderates, and the experienced skydivers showed
the lowest anxiety regarding the death of oneself.
Again, the assump-
tion holds that the college students provide a baseline for comparison.
The ranking on this subscale may be another relatively important indicator of group differences; this score is another index of the fear of
personal demise, which is the actual physical risk in this sport
environment.
Fear of Dying of Others
The score for the fear of dying of others is the fourth variable involved with hypothesis 1; the pattern of results appearing on this
sub~
scale is somewhat unique; all three groups reported very low anxiety
in this area.
The lowest scores were indicated by the college
students,~
mean score -11. 50; the relatively highest scores came from the firstjump students, mean -7. 04; and the moderately low scores were from
the experienced skydivers, mean ...-9. 375.
These results are mixed and
not of statistical significance; the student parachutists showed the
highest anxiety scores, the experienced skydivers were moderates and
the lowest anxiety scores were reported by the college group.
These
results provide the only contradiction to the hypothesis of an inverse
relationship.
Two of the three trends were not in the predicted
direc~
tion, both groups of jumpers scored higher anxiety than did the college
group.
This scale is the only instance in the results where the group
means are both very far from the overall norm for atJ the scales and
67
also very close together; this lack of statistical significance may truly
indicate no difference between groups on this variable.
Fear of Death of Others
The fear of death of others is the fifth and final variable involved
in testing hypothesis 1.
trend~
The results indicate a definite inverse
which is statistically significant at . 01.
The college student group
scored the highest anxiety on this variable with a mean score of 6. 96;
the first time parachutists were moderates with a mean of 5.21; and
the experienced jumpers demonstrated the lowest anxiety
-1. 00.
This relationship is clear
I
level~
mean
greater experience in sport para-
chuting is associated with lower anxiety regarding the death of others;
these differences are statistically significant at the . 01 level.
This re-
sult is exactly as predicted and provides the strongest support for the
hypothesis of an inverse relationship between experience in sport parachuting and death anxiety.
The results on this variable also provide a
counterpoint to the preceding subscale 1 which had a similar feared object~
yet found weak results.
Regarding the differences between the three experience-level
groups some tentative conclusions may be drawn from this data.
There
are 1 of course 1 three between-group trends.
The results show a mixed
trend between non-jumpers (Group I) and the
first~time
jumpers
(Group II); three scales show an elevated anxiety level for these stu'
dent parachutists
1
but the other two scales show a tower anxiety level.
There is apparently little difference in death anxiety between these two
groups.
There is a definite inverse trend evident between the non-
jumpers and the experienced skydivers; the skydivers show lower
68
death anxiety scores on four of the five scales.
That is, differences
are indicated on several dimensions of death anxiety.
Additionally,
there is a definite inverse trend between the first-time jumpers and the
experienced skydivers; all five scales indicated lower death anxiety
scores for the experienced jumpers.
Physiological Arousal Variable--Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 states:
experienced skydivers will have lower physicr
logical arousal scores than first-jump student parachutists, who will
have lower physiological arousal scores than college students.
In the
present study the variable of physiological self-reports was used to
test this hypothesis; the results for all three groups appear in Table 1
and Figure 4.
The college students demonstrated the greatest physio-
logical arousal while contemplating a parachute
jump_~
mean score 11.42;
the first-jump students showed a lower response, mean score 4.1 0;_ but
the experienced skydivers reported the least physiological upset at all
mean score 2. 54.
This
relationship~
1
greater experience in parachuting
associated with lowered physiological reactions was exactly as predicted
in the hypothesis, and is statistically significant at the .01 level.
State Anxiety Variable--Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 states:
experienced skydivers will have lower state
anxiety scores than first-jump student
parachutists~
er state anxiety scores than the college students.
who will have lowIn this study 1 one
variable defined as the subjective interpretation of negative affect associated with physiological arousal; that is
I
self-reported state anxiety
69
Figure 4.
Differences in Physiological Arousal and State Anxiety
Associated with Experience in Sport Parachuting*
12
11
10
9
Q)
s.. 8
ttl
c::
c::
0
7
.j..l
VI
Q)
:::1
6
CT
c::
0
Q)
5
s..
0
u
V)
4
Physiological
Arousal
Score
3
2
State
Anxiety
Score
1
Group I
College Students
Group II
First Jump Students
*Differences are significant at the .01 level.
Group III
Experienced Skydivers
70
during jumping, was used to test this hypothesis.
actually involved in parachuting were surveyed.
Only the two groups
The results, appear-
ing in Table 1 and Figure 4, show a strong difference between the
first-time jumpers, mean score 3.21, and the experienced skydivers,
mean score 1. 96.
This result indicates a lower state anxiety reation,
during parachuting activity, by the more experienced jumpers.
difference is statistically significant at the . 01 level.
The
This trend in
the data was exactly as predicted, an inverse relationship; state anxiety
was negatively associated with experience in sport parachuting.
State
anxiety reports may be a more definitive tool than physiological arousal
for research on anxiety in situations where some physiological arousal
is to be expected, even in the absence of perceived anxiety.
That is,
the presence of physiological arousal in all subjects may not be indicative of the subjects' subjective interpretation of state anxiety.
The
indication of increased state anxiety among the student parachutists,
relative to the more experienced group, provides further corroboration
of the preceding two hypotheses.
Both the trait anxiety variable (i.e.,
death anxietyt as well as the variable of reported physiological arousal,
point to elevated anxiety levels in the student parachutists.
The re-
sults on reported state anxiety confirm that the interpretation of ele-:vated anxiety levels in the student jumpers was also indicated by the
individual parachutists themselves.
Correlations Between Variables--Hypotheses 4, 5, 6
Hypotheses 4, 5, and 6 of the study tested the correlations between the three dependent variables, they were analyzed using the
71
Spearman RHO correlation technique.
The results indicate a definite
positive correlation between the three variables; these results are presented in Table 2.
Hypothesis 4 states:
the overall scores for death anxiety will cor-
relate positively with the score for physiological arousal reactions,
across all groups; that is, those individuals who score lower on the
overall death anxiety scale will also score lower on physiological arousal
(a direct relationship).
The findings were as predicted" a strong
positive correlation occurring, r = . 5385, between the overall score on
death anxiety and the physiological arousal scores.
The correlation
was statistically significant at the • Ol level; thus, strong support was
provided for this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 5 states:
the overall death anxiety scores will correlate
positively with the score for state anxiety reactions, across all groups;
those individuals who score lower on the overall death anxiety scale will
also score lower on state anxiety (i.e., a direct relationship).
results were as predicted:
a strong positive correlation, r
statistically significant correlation at the . 05 level.
The
= . 4693,
a
Thus, hypothesis 5
was supported by the results.
Hypothesis 6 states:
the scores for physiological arousal reactions
will correlate positively with the score for state anxiety reactions; those
individuals who score lower on physiological arousal will also score lower
on state anxiety (i.e., a direct relationship).
relation were also as predicted.
The results of this cor-
A positive correlation, r = 3734, sta.,-
tistically significant at the . 05 level was established.
Thus, the re-
sults provided support for the hypothesis of a direct relationship.
72
Table 2.
Correlations between dependent variables
Death Anxiety
Overall
Death AnxietyOverall
Physiological
Arousal
.5385**
StateAnxiety
.4693*
*Significant at the .05 level.
**Significant at the .01 level.
Physiological
Arousal
StateAnxiety
.5385**
.4693*
.3734*
.3734*
73
Motivations of Sport Parachutists
One of the stated purposes of the present research was to examine
several informal hunches of the author.
The first hunch concerned the
motivations of participants in sport parachuting.
Similar elements were
indicated by both parachutist groups in their responses to this variable (see Table 3); however, the differences between the student and
experienced jumpers may be illuminating.
When asked about their moti-
vations for the first jump (Appendix IV, question #7), the first-time
parachutists indicated thrill-seeking motivations most frequency, social
factors next (e. g., "Did it with a friend"
or "My friends are into it"L
childhood fascination third, then mental}self discipline, novelty-seeking,
and "wanted to say that I had done it".
The experienced skydivers
recalled a childhood fantasy most often when listing their reasons for
the first jump (Appendix V, question #9)
1
social factors were second,
thrill-seeking third, then curiosity }challenge, novelty
and "to fly".
1
to conquer fear,
In consideration of the motivations to try a first jump
course, two conclusions may be drawn.
First, the social factors are
very important, even at this initial stage.
Second, the difference be-
tween the most frequently listed motivation for each of the two groups
may be illustrative; the first jump students indicated they had wanted
a thrill, while the experienced skydivers (who did stick with the sport)
indicated a childhood fascination with parachuting.
Thus, this latter
may have provided a more lasting motivation for participation in sport
parachuting.
The other area of investigation into the motivations of participants
concerns the reasons for continued parachuting activity over a period
74
Table 3.
Motivations of Sport Parachutists*
Group III
Experienced Skydivers
Group III
Experienced Skydivers
Motivation for
First Jump
Motivation for
First Jump
Motivation for
Present Jumping
Adventure/ThrillSeeking
Childhood Fascination
Fun or Enjoyment of
the Sport
Social Factors
Social Factors
Social Factors
Childhood Fascination
Thrill-Seeking
Thrill-Seeking
Mental/Self Discipline
Curiosity/Challenge
Challenge/Competitive
Atmosphere
Novelty-Seeking
Novelty-Seeking
Mental Discipline
"Wanted to say that
I had done it"
Conquer Fear
"Hooked" or "It's the
only thing to do"
Group II
First Jump Students
"To Fly"
*Listed in descending order of frequency of response.
75
of years, by the experienced skydivers.
The ranking of motivations
for continuing participation (Appendix V, question #10) differed from
the participants' original motivations in that the simple enjoyment of the
activity was most prominent, the social factors were next most important, with the thrill and challenge factors becoming secondary reinforcers; also, the mental discipline and "hooked 11 were mentioned as motivations.
One other general conclusion may be drawn from this pool of
data on motivations for sport parachuting; out of 48 respondents, only
one indicated that his motivation was to conquer fear, all of the other
respondents specified such items as fun or the social factors.
Obvi-
ously, the scope of the research involving sport parachutists needs to
be expanded beyond the confines of an anxiety orientation to include
many of these additional variables.
Anxieties of Sport Parachutists
Another hunch of this author stated that death anxiety may not be
the primary anxiety among skydivers, rather the fear of looking foolish
in front of a powerful peer group may be the most common anxiety.
Respondents were asked to indicate the amount of anxiety they felt regarding six specific types of fear (Appendix IV, question #11; Appendix V, #13).
Results are summarized in Table 4.
The first jump stu-
dents' reports of specific anxieties indicated that the fear of equipment
malfunction was the most prominent, next was the fear of the unknown,
then the fear of failure, next the fear of death}dying, and then the
fear of injury.
The experienced skydivers rated their anxieties with
the fear of failure first, fear of equipment malfunction next, and the
fears of death/dying and injury following these.
The author's original
76
Table 4.
Anxieties of Sport Parachutists*
Group II
Group III
First Jump Students
Experienced Skydivers
Equipment Malfunction
Failure
The Unknown
Equipment Malfunction
Failure
Injury or Death & Dying
Death & Dying
The Unknown
Falling
Falling
Injury
Not Jumping
Airsickness
*Listed with highest anxiety items first.
77
hunch, that the fear of personal failure is the most prominent among
skydivers, received strong support from these findings.
Other conclu-
sions were that the fear of equipment malfunction is much stronger
than expected in both groups and that the fear of the unknown may be
the most dominant anxiety in the student parachutists.
Also, the rela-
tively low rankings given to death anxiety seem to downplay the importance of this variable, as both groups indicated only a mid-range
ranking.
The lack of significant findings by those studies concentrat-
ing on death anxiety variables may be explained by the relatively low
degree of import of this variable, as viewed by the parachutists themselves.
Inclination Towards Risky Sports
The next category of the additional data includes those items which
dealt with the inclination of the respondent towards risky sports; the
first item quantified past experiences in risky sports (Appendix Ill,
question #4; Appendix IV, #4; Appendix V, #6).
The responses were
nearly identical across all three groups; the overall mean score for
number of sports experienced on more than one occasion was 1. 86. The
means for each group were:
Group Ill, 1. 92.
Group I, 1. 83; Group II, 1. 83; and
The experienced skydivers had slightly more experi-
ence with risky sports in general, relative to the other two groups,
but the differences were small and not statistically significant; these
results are graphed in Figure 5.
Also, in Figure 5, are the results of an item regarding the subjects• evaluation of the physical risk in various sports (Appendix II t,
#6; Appendix IV, #5; Appendix V, #7).
The overall mean, quantifying
78
Figure 5.
Differences in Evaluation of Risk in Sports
and Prior Experience in Risky Sports
20
19
18
17
Evaluation
of Risk
in Sports
16
15
14
s..
...... 13
QJ
.,
~ 12
0
...... 11
~
~ 10
::s
0
r::
9
0
8
QJ
7
0
6
s..
u
Vl
5
4
Prior
Experience
in Risky
Sports
3
2
1
Group I
College Students
Group II
First Jump Students
Group III
Experienced Skydivers
79
the entire samples' perceived risk of nine different sports, was 15.57;
the mean for each group was:
Ill, 15. 70.
cance.
Group I, 19. 08; Group II, 11. 92, Group
These differences were not tested for statistical signifi-
It appears that the college students perceived the greatest po-
tential hazard, the experienced jumpers were moderates, and the firsttime parachutists saw the least risk involved in these risky sports.
Brushes with Death
The final item in this section dealt with the respondents' reports
of any brushes with death, as well as their reactions to these incidents
(Appendix Ill, question #7; Appendix IV, #6; Appendix V, #8); the
results appear in Figure 6.
The term "brush with death" was not pre-
cisely defined for the subjects; this was intended as an open-ended
stimulus item to tap a variety of subject experiences.
The percentage
of subjects in the entire sample who reported a brush with death was
55. 56% ( 40 individuals).
little:
Within each group this percentage varied
Group I, 54.17%; Group II, 54.17%; and Group Ill, 58.33%.
These responses were further analyzed as to the type of reaction provoked in the individual by these incidents; a negative reaction was
assumed in all cases except where a definite positive reaction was reported (e. g., "It was a good learning experience").
This distinction
did reveal a striking difference between these groups.
The percentage
of subjects who reported a positive reaction to a brush with death appears to be positively associated with experience in sport parachuting.
The results for Group I are 30. 77%; Group II, 38. 47%; and Group Ill,
SO%; these differences were not tested for statistical significance.
It
appears that one difference between non-jumpers, first-time jumpers,
80
Figure 6.
Differences in Reported Brushes with Death
and Subjective Reactions
60%
Brush with
Death*
Positive
Reaction**
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Group I
College Students
Group II
First Jump Students
Group III
Experienced Skydivers
*Brush with Death: Percentage in each group reporting such an incident.
**Positive Reaction: Percentage of those reporting a positive subjective
reaction to a brush with death.
81
and experienced skydivers may lie in the latter's ability to gain a
positive experience or a learning experience out of even a near-death
situation.
DISCUSSION SECTION
82
83
Death Anxiety Findings
The results of the present research on the variable of death anxiety were, for the most part, in the expected direction; these results
center around the low death anxiety scores of the experienced skydivers.
One expected finding was that the experienced skydivers
(Group I I I) scored lower death anxiety than the college students
(Group I) on four of the five scales.
This result may be another ex-
ample of the principle of the modification of individual anxiety levels to
fit the pattern of the existing social group (Feifel, 1967).
Another finding on death anxiety which was predicted, was that
the experienced skydivers (Group I I I) scored lower death anxiety than
the first-time jumpers (Group I f) on all five scales.
These differences
may point to consistent differences in coping styles between the two
groups.
The differences may be the result of training, conditioning,
or just experience in sport parachuting.
The principle that fear rat-
ings fall off with additional training and experience has been previously established (Walk, 1955).
Also, possible differences in coping style,
which may be attributed to a conditioning effect of increased
ence have already been noted.
experi~
It has been reported that experienced
skydivers react to the stress of this situation with increased relaxation (Fenz, 1964); it appears that this improved coping style is also
reflected in the experienced skydivers lower death anxiety scores.
The major unexpected result of the present study on the variable
of death anxiety was the mixed trend between the first-time jumpers
(Group II) and the college students (Group f).
The student parachu-
tists scored higher anxiety on three scales, but the college students
84
scored higher anxiety on the other two scales.
The relatively high
anxiety scores of the first-time jumpers were not predicted.
The Col-
lett and Lester Scale is a trait anxiety measure and should not be affected by situational variables; however, it is possible that the high
state anxiety potential in this approach-avoidance situation (Fenz, 196264) did affect the subjects' responses to the death anxiety measure.
It
is also possible that these are relatively weak differences between college students and student parachutists; these two groups may appear
very similar to one another when compared to the experienced skydivers.
The other unexpected result on the variable of death anxiety concerned the scores on the subscale of fear of dying of others; two of
the three between-groups trends were not in the predicted direction;
both groups of jumpers scored higher anxiety than did the college
group.
Several explanations may account for this anomaly in the re-
sults.
Although not statistically significant, it is theoretically possible
that there is a real difference between these groups on this variable.
Parachutists may indeed have a relatively elevated anxiety level regard..,.
ing the safety of their fellow jumpers.
This anxiety could be one re-
sult of the great emphasis placed on mutual safety checking in the
sport.
This could be an indication of an attitude towards personal
safety, sometimes referred to by skydivers as the Superman Complex;
this attitude is based on the assumption that if an accident is to occur
it will always be the other guy, but never themselves.
Thus, any
anxiety regarding death may be referred onto one's feJJow participants
Conversely, the lack of statistical significance may truly indicate no
difference between groups on this variable.
Regardless of the direction or degree of differences between these
85
three groups, there was a general scarcity of statistical significance
regarding the death anxiety results.
Of the five subscales, only one--
the fear of death of others--demonstrated statistically significant differences; this result did support the hypothesis of an inverse relationship
between experience in skydiving and death anxiety scores.
The Jack
of significance for the other scales may be due to an insufficient number of subjects per group, or possibly the research instrument Jacked
the necessary precision.
One definite factor was the great within-
group variance on this variable; there was a great range of scores
from subjects in each group.
It is possible that this variance is due
to the differences in coping styles of the subjects.
For example, the
two major coping styles found among the experienced skydivers, the
death defying style and the Safe Sport style .. may lead to great differences in death anxiety (as seen in the exploratory work with a competitive skydiver population).
The grouping of these individuals to-
gether may have contributed to the great variance in this group and
thus to the Jack of statistical significance.
Another possibility is that there are few actual differences in death
anxiety between these three groups or that these differences are not a
dominant factor in relation to other differences between the groups.
The prior research bearing the most direct relevance to the present
study (Alexander and Lester.. 1972) found a very similar pattern of
results; only one subscale showed significant differences.
The assump-
tion had been made by this researcher that Alexander and Lester had
asked an innovative question regarding differences between the expertence levels in sport parachuting, but had found no significant differences because the question somehow was not structured appropriately.
86
However, since the present research also found very few significant
differences, it now appears more likely that the area of death anxiety
research is not the most fruitful with regard to experience in sport
parachuting.
State-Trait Interpretation
The physical risk on any given sport parachute jump may be equal,
yet the student parachutists perceive more threat and respond with
greater physiological arousal and state anxiety reactions.
These re-
sults were predicted by one postulate of the State-Trait Theory (Spielberger, 1972) :
the intensity of a state anxiety reaction is relative to
the amount of threat perceived, rather than the objective stress in the
situation.
Another contention is that stressful situations which are
encountered frequently may result in specific coping mechanisms to reduce their state anxiety.
In the present study, the experienced para-
chutists scored lower on state anxiety as well as physiological arousal;
thus, they may be inferred to have developed situation-specific coping
mechanisms to deal with the stress.
A further suggestion is that
through this process (i.e., differential perception of threat and situa..,.
tion-specific coping mechanisms) even the trait anxiety levels of individuals may be reduced; this may account for the lower scores by the
experienced skydivers on the death anxiety variable, a trait anxiety
measure.
Additionally, the positive correlations between the three dependent
variables, death anxiety, physiological arousal, and state anxiety, were
expected because, although they may be considered as separate elements, these are all components of the same process.
This process is
87
a response pattern to environmental stress involving the interrelationship of trait anxiety, reaction to stress, and response to threat.
Phys-
iological arousal is correlated with death anxiety, the situation--specific
trait anxiety measure, because to a large extent the physiological reaction is determined by the pre-existing trait anxiety of the individual.
State anxiety is correlated with physiological arousal because the response to threat (i.e., state anxiety) is to a large extent determined by
the initial reaction (i.e., physiological) to the stress.
Additionally,
state anxiety is correlated with death anxiety for much the same reason;
state anxiety is the next step in this process of reaction to stress,
which began with trait anxiety.
For purposes of the present research, the intercorrelations between
these variables helps to lend validity to each test instrument; that is,
the three instruments appear to verify one another.
tive
Also, these posi-
correlations with the physiological and state anxiety variables may
help to validate the findings on the death anxiety variable; these findings were generally in the direction hypothesized, but they were not
strong enough to achieve statistical significance.
However_~
the
ANOVA's for physiological arousal and state anxiety did show statistically significant differences between groups (i.e • .~ they are good predictors) and these variables correlate significantly with the death anxiety scores.
Existential Perspective
An interpretation of the anxiety and arousal findings from the
existential position, as presented by
perspective.
Koestenbaum_~
may lend yet another
Man's consideration of his own ultimate death follows
88
definite stages, and these stages appear to be reflected in the death
anxiety scores of the three groups in the study.
The initial stage in-
volves repression of thoughts of one's own death; this may account for
the discrepancy with regard to the college students data.
That is,
relatively low scores on the death anxiety variable, yet the highest
scores on the physiological variable, a possible indication of the denial
of anxiety.
The second stage, when one recognizes the reality of per-
sonal mortality and experiences death anxiety, may be a useful analogy
for the first-time jumpers.
These individuals are encountering the
reality of death-risk in a sport situation for perhaps the first time,
and the result is an increase in state anxiety and possibly death anxiety as well.
The third stage, when death anxiety has been faced and
mastered, thus leading to courage and integrity, may be applicable to
the experienced skydivers.
These individuals scored very low in death
anxiety, low in state anxiety, and also low in physiological arousal;
perhaps these scores indicate a more realistic interpretation of the risks
associated with sport parachuting and a true lowering of anxiety levels.
The cyclic process of these changes may be stated simply, the individual's risk-taking behaviors lead to the overcoming of anxiety in
specific areas, this greater perceived freedom in turn leads to further
risk-taking behaviors, and the cycle continues.
An investigation of
the intervening variables in this process would be a valuable subject
for future research .
.Limitations and Qualifications of the Present Study
The limitations and qualifications of the present study fall into
four areas.
First, any generalization of these findings must take into
89
account the limited scope of this research.
These results are based on
a situation-specific group, sport parachutists in southern California in
1981; no comparisons have been made to other geographic locales or to
participants in other sports activities.
Therefore, these findings must
be viewed as only tentative in any interpretation of the larger relationship of sports participation to anxiety.
The second qualification lies in the inherent limitations of the crosssectional design used in this study.
Of course, no subjects were ran-
domly assigned to experimental conditions, all were members of their
groups prior to inclusion in this study.
A further implication of this
self-selection process is the attrition rate.
It is probable that a ma-
jority of these first-time parachutists will never reach the stage of the
experienced skydivers.
Thus, it is not possible at this time to specify
an absolute cause and effect relationship between experience in sport
parachuting and reductions in individual participant's death anxiety.
Additionally, a third qualification of this research lies in the poterrtial problem of the denial of anxiety.
The study relied on written sulr
ject reports for all data; no direct physiological measures were employed.
Obviously, this data can include no more than what is
scious to the subject and what he is willing to make public.
anxiety, either to oneself or to others, could effect the data.
con~
Denial of
This
possible problem was checked by the use of multiple measures of the
indices of anxiety.
These differing measures, including trait, state,
and arousal, did correlate positively.
The experienced skydivers' low
death anxiety scores were reflected in their low scores on both of the
other measures; the first-time parachutists' higher death anxiety scores
were contradicted by their very high physiological arousal scores.
90
Thus, it appears that if denial was a significant factor with any of
these groups, it was the college students who may have denied their
death anxiety.
The final qualification of this research lies in the possible weaknesses of the research instruments.
The Collett and Lester Fear of
Death and Dying Scale has no published norms and has questionable
validity for some populations.
The instruments used to collect the re-
mainder of the data were constructed specifically for the present research study.
These three instruments (Appendices Ill, IV, and V)
were tested only briefly prior to their use in the study; there has been
no testing of their reliability or validity outside the present study.
Future Research
The relatively open-ended thrust of this present research may lead
in many directions; there are a variety of routes for future research
to take.
With regard to the investigation of parachutist groups, a
longitudinal study concerned with the changes occurring over time within the same individuals, as they gain experience, would prove invaluable.
It is recommended that a study of this nature include at least
the process from the first jump course to the end of the supervised
student phase (about 25 jumps per person).
Conversely, another
cross-sectional study, utilizing additional intermediate groupings of
parachutists as well as expanding the range of experience levels, is
also recommended.
Such a study could add more to our present knowl-
edge of just how these changes are reflected in individuals at different
experience levels.
Another variable with potential for comparison to
p '
91
death anxiety is individual coping style; additionally, the number of
geographic locations could be expanded to compare groups from different parachuting centers in the U. S., as well as an international sample
of parachutists.
Another very valuable line of research would be the comparison of
participants in other action sports to sport parachutists.
A study
comparing the motivations and anxieties of, for example, skydivers,
SCUBA divers, hang-glider enthusiasts, mountain climbers, or motorcycle racers, and a comparison group could prove extremely valuable
and is highly recommended.
In the larger area of research into the relationship between anxiety
and sports participation, the use of some situation-specific anxiety measures, as well as the use of multiple measures is recommended, regardless of the type of sport.
Research employing a broader perspective
might include, in addition to the death anxiety variable, an investigation of the fear of personal performance failure and also the fear of
the unknown.
Additionally, for air sports (e. g., skydiving, sailplane
or aerobatic flying, hang-gliding) the fear of falling should be investigated as a specific type of trait anxiety.
Also, the investigation of
these anxiety variables could include a pre-post measure to more clearly
specify the direction of any
changes~
this pre-post design would be
particularly valuable with physiological arousal and state anxiety
measures.
A direct investigation into the motivations for participation in
active sports is recommended.
Some variables which have potential
value for research include the social factors, childhood history ..
novelt~
seeking behavior .. response to stress and also adrenaline reaction
92
seeking behavior (i.e., thrill-seeking).
These motivations may be cor-
related with sports participation history, anxiety variables, and many
other relevant variables.
Additionally, these relevant background variables may prove useful
for comparison to sports participation in general.
Areas of interest
would include the subject's education, occupation, birth order, marital
status, a detailed sports history, a perceived sports risk evaluation,
as well as a measure of willingness to engage in novel behaviors.
Practical Applications
The direct practical applications of the present research may be
somewhat limited; however, the indirect benefits may be more wideranging.
One direct application of the findings would be to incorpor-
ate into the student parachutist training programs some means of reducing the students• fear of the unknown, fear of equipment malfunction, and fear of personal failure.
These are the most frequently
listed areas of concern; the reduction of anxiety in these areas could
lead to great improvements in student performance and also in safety.
Additionally, some attention to the students motivations (e. g., thrillseeking vs. social factors) could lead to further improvements in parachuting instruction and increase the retention rate.
Another direct benefit could accrue from increased understanding
between the groups of experienced skydivers with different coping
styles.
If skydivers come to realize that the various coping styles are
all means to the same end (i.e., coping with the inherent anxiety and
thus improving safety), then perhaps this understanding can lead to
93
greater cooperation, the pooling of
resources~
and more effective de-
fense against threats from outside the sport (e. g., Federal regulation).
The indirect benefits of the present research are concerned with
the general applicability of these types of tests; at the present time,
no general use is made of pre-tests in skydiving
training~
parachuting activity is considered to be the only true test.
the actual
It is pos-
sible that pre-tests may be devised which can clearly discriminate students' anxieties, motivations, and histories.
These tests could be
good predictors of student performance, safety
would be an invaluable aid to the training
I
and retention.
process~
This
from the first jump
to the level of the master skydiver.
One example of a behavioral pattern which has been suggested as a
reaction to
I
or a coping mechanism for
1
the fear of death
I
are the be-
haviors and symbolic expressions (e. g. 1 clothing and jewelry) of participants in sport parachuting.
The assumptions regarding elevated
anxiety levels in experienced skydivers are open to serious question;
the findings of the present research tend to support a viewpoint emphasizing the more positive aspects of challenging and overcoming one's
anxiety.
The participants in skydiving are seen as mastering their
anxiety in that
situation~
thus reducing this anxiety and attaining
greater perceived freedom.
Reduction of anxiety in this one life areal
especially the reduction of such a basic trait anxiety as the fear of
death, may profoundly effect self-image and thereby affect one's reac,..
tions and behavior in many areas.
The courage and integrity which
were learned as a coping mechanism in response to stress 1 may help
the individual in many life situations.
It is possible that this information on the small community of sky-
94
divers may serve as a paradigm, a microcosm of the stresses and possible reactions to anxiety implicit in the larger society.
Modern man is
equipped with the inescapable knowledge of his own ultimate personal
demise.
His possible reactions include the repression of this anxiety,
thus perpetuating his fear of death; or conversely, he may face the
situation, mastering and overcoming his anxiety.
It is to be hoped
that the future of mankind, as with the example of the skydivers, lies
in using the profound knowledge of our finite existence to attain courage, integrity, and freedom from the fear of death.
REFERENCES
Alcorn, H. G., "The Relationship Between Death Anxiety and SelfEsteem", DAI, 1976, B-1391.
Alexander, M., and D. Lester, "Fear of Death in Parachute Jumpers",
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 34 (1972), p. 338.
Aran, G., "Parachuting", American Journal of Sociology, 80, No. 1
( 1980), pp. 124-152.
Becker, H., and D. K. Bruner, "Attitude Toward Death and the Dead
and Some Possible Causes of Ghost Fear", Mental Hygiene, 15
(1931), pp. 828-837.
Caillois, R., "The Classification of Games", Man, Play and Games,
London, 1962.
Champaign, S. D., "Relax", Well-being, 36 (1979), pp. 11-13.
Collett, L. J., and D. Lester, "The Fear of Death and the Fear of
Dying", Journal of Psychology, 72 (1969), pp. 179-181.
Davis, S. F., et al, "Relationship of Fear of Death and Level of SelfEsteeem in College Students", Psychological Reports, 42 ( 1978),
pp. 419-422.
Dickstein, L. S., "Death Concern:
Measurement and Correlates",
Psychological Reports, 30 ( 1972), pp. 563..,..571.
Dickstein, L. S., "Attitudes Toward Death, Anxiety, and Social
Desirability", Omega, 8, No. 4 ( 1977..,.78), pp. 369..,..378.
Diggory, J. C., and D. Z. Rothman, "Values Destroyed by Death",
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63 {1961), pp. 205-210.
95
96
Durlak, J., "Measurement of the Fear of Death:
an Examination of
Some of the Existing Scales", Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28
(1972), pp. 545-547.
Epstein, 5., and W. D. Fenz, "Theory and Experiment on the Measurement of Approach-Avoidance Conflict", Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 64 (1962L pp. 97-112.
Feifel, H., et al, "Physicians Consider Death", APA Proceedings, 75th
Annual Convention, 1967.
Fenz, W. D., and S. Epstein, "Measurement of Approach-Avoidance
Conflict Along a Stimulus Dimension by a Thematic Apperception
Personality.~
Test", Journal of
30 ( 1962L pp. 613-632.
Fenz, W. D., "Conflict and Stress as Related to Physiological ActivaFunctioning~'~
tion and Sensory, Perceptual .. and Cognitive
Psychological
Monographs.~
78,~
No. 8 ( 1964L pp. 1-33.
Fenz, W. D., and S. Epstein, "Gradients of Physiological Arousal in
Parachutists as a Function of an Approaching Jump", Psychosomatic Medicine, 29, No. 1 ( 1967L pp. 33-51.
Fenz, W. D., and G. B. Jones, "Individual Differences in Physiological
Arousal and Performance in Sport Parachutists", Psychosomatic
Medicine, 34, No. 1 ( 1972), pp. l-8.
Hardman, K., "A Dual Approach to the Study of Personality and Performance in Sport".
In H. Whiting .. et al.
formance in Physical Ed and Sport.
Hyche, S. L., "Fear of Death:
ality
Correlates".~
Hymbaugh,~
DAI,~
K., and J.
1977,~
Garrett,~
Perceptual and Motor
Skills,~
Personality and Per-
London:
Kimpton,~
1973.
an Exploration of Some of Its Person..,..
6157-B.
"Sensation-Seeking Among Skydivers""
38 ( 1974), p. 118.
97
Kenyon, G. S., 11 A Conceptual Model for Characterizing Physical
Activity 11 , The Research Quarterly, 39 (1968L pp. 96-105.
Koestenbaum, P. K., The Vitality of Death, Greenwood Publishing Co.,
1971.
Kupperman, S. K., and C. J. Golden, 11 Personality Correlates of Attitude Toward Death 11 , Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, No. 3
( 1978)
1
PP• 661-663.
Lester, D., 11 Fear of Death of Suicidal Persons 11 , Psychological Reports,
20 (1967), pp. 1077-1078.
Lester
I
D.
I
and M. Alexander
I
11 Suicide and Dangerous Sports:
Para-
chuting11, Journal of the American Medical Association, 215, No. 3
(1971), p. 485.
Lester, D., and L. M. Colvin, 11 Fear of Death, Alienation and SelfActualization11, Psychological Reports, 41 ( 1977), p. 526.
Malinowski, B., Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays,
Glencoe, Ill.:
Free Press, 1948.
Mandler, G., and S. B. Sarason,
11
A Study of Anxiety and Learning 11 ,
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47 { 1952), pp. 166-173.
Martens, R., Sport Competition Anxiety Test, Champaign, Ill:
Human
Kinetics, 1977.
May, R., Existential Psychology.
New York:
Moses, M., "Considering Death and Dying:
Random House, 1961.
Affective Correlates 11 ,
Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1973.
Oxendine, J. B.,
11
Emotional Arousal and Motor Performance 11 , Quest,
13 (1970), pp. 23-32.
Pollak, J. M.,
11
Relationships Between Obsessive Personality, Death
Anxiety, and Self-Actualization, DAI, 1977, 637..,-A.
98
Sarason, I. G., and E. D. Palola, "The Relationship of Test and General Anxiety, Difficulty of Task, and Experimental Instructions to
Performance", Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59 ( 1960},
pp. 185-191.
Shibels, W., Death, an Interdisciplinary Approach, Whitewater Wise.:
The Language Press, 1974.
Spielberger, C. D., "Theory and Research on Anxiety", Anxiety and
Behavior, New York:
Academic Press, 1966.
Spielberger, C. D., et a I.
Palo Alto, Cal.:
Spielberger, C. D.
Manual for the State-Trait Inventory.
Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970.
Anxiety.
New York:
Academic Press, 1972.
Stukey, D., "Attrition Rates of Students at a Sport Parachuting
Center".
Unpublished research.
Perris Valley Paracenter, 1980.
Templer, D., "The Construction and Validation of a Death Anxiety
Scale", Journal of General Psychology, 82 {1970), pp. 165-177.
Tolor, A., and M. 1 Reznikoff, "Relation Between Insight, RepressionSensitization, Internal-External Control and Death Anxiety",
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72 (1967}_, pp. 426"7'430.
Toynbee, A. J ., et al.
Man•s Concern with Death.
St. Louis:
McGraw-Hill, 1968.
United States Parachute Association.
"1980 Fatality Study".
Parachutist Magazine, March, 1981.
Vanderzwaag, H. J., Toward a Philosophy of Sport, Menlo Park:
Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1972.
Vernon, G. M.
Sociology of Death.
New York:
Ronald Press, 1970.
Walk, R. D., "Self-Ratings of Fear in a Fear-Invoking Situation",
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52 ( 1956}, pp. 171.,..178.
99
Walton, D. N.
On Defining Death.
Montreal:
MeGill-Queen's Uni-
versity Press, 1979.
Wexler, J. R., "Death-Threat, Self-actualization and Future-Time
Orientation", DAI, 1978, 1507-B.
Whitley, J. C., "The Direct and Indirect Measurement of Psychological
and Physiological Correlates of Death Anxiety Among Behavioral
Science and Non-behavioral Science Graduate Students", DA,
1978, 3387-A.
Works, M. T., "Comparative Risk in Sport Parachuting".
research, RW Underground
Publications~
Unpublished
1980.
Wyschogrod, E., "Sport, Death, and the Elemental", The Phenomenon
of Death.
New York:
Harper & Row, 1.973 ..
APPENDICES
Collett and Lester Fear of Death and Dying Scale.
Appendix
Appendix
II
Questionaire used in Exploratory Work With
Competitors.
Appendix Ill
College Student Research Questionnaire.
Appendix
IV
First Jump Student Parachutist Questionnaire.
Appendix
v
Appendix
VI
Appendix VII
Experienced Skydiver Questionnaire.
Occupations of Subjects.
Raw Data Tables.
100
101
APPENDIX I.
Identifier
COLLETT AND LESTER SCALE
Here Is a series of general statements. You are to Indicate how much you agree
or disagree with them. Record your opinion In this ~lank space In front of each Item
according to the following scale:
~ slight agreement
+! moderate agreement
+3 strong agreement
-1 slight disagreement
-2 moderate disagreement
~3
strong disagreement
Read each Item and decide quickly how you feel about It; then record the extent of
your agreement or disagreement. Put down your first Impressions. Please answer
every Item.
I
2
3
4
5
--6
-7
--8
_9
10
II
--,2
13
14
--,5
--,6
--,7
--18
--,9
--20
--21
--22
23
--24
--25
--26
27
--28
--29
--30
--3,
--32
--33
--34
-35
36
would avoid death at all costs.
I would experience a great loss If someone close to me died.
I would not feel anxious In the presence of someone I knew was dying.
The total isolation of death frightens me.
I am disturbed by the physical degeneration involved In a slow death.
I would not mind dying young.
I accept the death of others as the end of their life on earth.
I would not mind visiting a senile friend.
I would easily adjust after the death of someone close to me.
If I had a choice as to whether or not a friend should be informed he/she Is
dying, I would tell him/her.
I would avoid a friend who was dying.
Dying might be an interesting experience.
I would like to be able to communicate with the spirit of a friend who has
died.
I view death as a release from earthly suffering.
The pain involved in dying frightens me.
I would want to know if a friend were dying.
I am distrubed by the shortness of life.
I would not mind having to Identify the corpse of someone I knew.
I would never get over the death of someone close to me.
The feeling that I might be missing out on so much after I die bothers me.
I do not think of dead people as having an existence of some kind.
I would feel uneasy If someone talked to me about the approaching death of
a c0111110n friend.
Not knowing what It feels like to be dead does not bother me.
If I had a fatal disease, I would like to be told.
I would visit a friend on his/her deathbed.
The idea of never thinking or experiencing again after I die does not
bother me.
If someone close to me died I would miss him/her very much.
I am not disturbed by death being the end of life as I know it.
I would feel anxious If someone who was dying talked to me about it.
T~e intellectual degeneration of old age disturbs me.
If a friend were dying I would not want to be told.
I could not accept the finality of the death of a friend.
It would upset me to have to see someone who was dead.
If I knew a friend were dying, I would not know what to say to him/her.
I would not like to see the physical degeneration of a friend who was dying.
I am disturbed by the thought that my abilities will be limited while I lie
dying.
102
Appendix II: Exploratory Questionnaire- Competitors._
-
--n
--
pPERIENCED JUMPER QUESTIONNAIRE
IO
-w
1.
2.
S e x - - - - - 3.
Age
4.
Number of jumps
tot a1;
How long in sport?------------
5.
Other sports, hobbies, activitiest ______________________
6A. What are the reasons for your jumping today? ______________________
6B. What do you expect to get out of
7.
it7~-------------------------
Recall your own first jump.
A. What were your reasons for entering this sport?--------------
B.
What did you expect to feel on your first jump? How was it different from
what you expected?-----------------------------------------
SA. Do you recall being nervous before your first jump?
Yes
No
8B. If so, what were you nervous about?-----------------------------
9A. Do you feel nervous before a jump today?
Yes
No
9B. If so, what are you nervous about? _______________________
10. Before or d·uring a jump, are you ever nervous about death?__________
103
APPENDIX III.
COLLEGE STUDENT
Research Questionnaire
1.
Age _ __
4.
If you have engaged in any of these sports activities, please indicate about
how many times and about how long ago the last time was.
2.
Sex- M
# times
Aerobatic Flying- _ __
Car RacingHang Gliding_ __
Motorcycle Racing- _ __
Parachuting-
F
3.
Occupation - - - - - - - - -
# times
when
when
Rock ClimbingSailplane Flying- - - SCUBA Diving--SkiingOther------
5. If you were given the. opportunity, which of these activities would you like
to try- definitely like to try (D), possibly like to try (P), or never (N)?
Rock ClimbingSailplane Flying- - - SCUBA Diving--SkiingOther-----
Aerobatic FlyingCar Racing--Hang GlidingMotorcycle Racing- - - Sport Parachuting-
:::=:=
6. Please indicate the degree of physical danger that you would associate with
these sports activities- none (NO), little (L), moderate (MO), or major (MA).
Aerobatic flyingRock ClimbingCar Racing--Sailplane Flying- - - Hang GlidingSCUBA Diving--Motorcycle Racing- - - SkiingSport Parachuting: - - Otherfirst jump& long-term jumping-
----
7.
Have you ever had a close brush with death?
If yes, what was your reaction?
Yes
No
8. Based on your experiences in the past, what do you think your physical
reactions would be if you were to make a Sport Parachute jump from an
airplane? (Please indicate with an •x•.)
REACTION
Dry Mouth
Rapid Breathing
Rapid Pulse
Stomach Upset
Sweaty Palms
Trembling
moderate
104
APPENDIX IV.
FIRST JUMP COURSE STUDENT
Research Questionnaire
1.
Age _ __
2.
Sex- M
F
3. Occupation -------------------
4. If you have engaged in any of these sports activities, pleaRe indicate about
how many total times and about how long ago the last time was.
# times
when
# times
Acrobatic Flying- ___
Rock ClimbingSailplane Flying- - - Car RacingHang Gliding_ __
SCUBA Diving--SkiingMotorcycle RacingSport Parachuting- ::::::
Other- - - - - - - ____
when
5. Please indicate the degree of physical danger that you would associate with
these activities- none (N), little (L), moderate (MO), or major (J.IA).
Rock ClimbingAcrobatic FlyingCar Racing----Sailplane Flying- - - SCUBA Diving--Hang GlidingMotorcycle Racing- -----SkiingSport Parachuting, -----Other- - - - - & long-term jumpingfirst jump-
6. Have you ever had a close brush with death? Yes
No
If yes, what was your reaction?
7.
~~at
were your reasons for taking the First Jump Course?
8. Do you expect to continue with more Sport Parachuting jumpR? (Please indicate
with an
•x•.}
definitely
will
continue
probably
will
continue
don't
know
probably
will
not
definitely
will
not
9. Did you experience any of these body reactions before, during or after
your jump? (Please indicate with an
REACTION
none
little
•x•.)
moderate
major
Dry MouthRapid Breathing- 7'--------~~--------~--------~
Rapid PulseStomach UpsetSweaty PalmsTrembling-
105
10.
Please indicate (with an 1 X1 ) your overall level of anxiety before, during
and after your parachute jump.
little
moderate
no
major
don't
anxiety
anxiety
anxiety
anxiety
~
Before JumpDuring JumpAfter Jump-
11.
If you were nervous, how much anxiety (none- N, little- L, moderate- MO,
major- MA) was due to each of these specific fears:
Fear of
Fear of
Fear of
(i.e.
Fallingthe UnknownFailure
performance)- ___
Fear of InjuryFear of Death/DyingFear of Equipment
Malfunction-
other- -------------------------------------------------
===
106
Research Questionnaire
1.
Age _ __
4.
Number of parachute jumps- total
6.
2..
Sex- M
3.
R.w.
Occupation----------
5. Length of time in Sport Parachuting- - - yrs,
months
If you have engaged in any of these activities, please indicate about how many
total times and how long ago the last time was.
# times
when
# times
when
Rock ClimbingAerobatic FlyingSailplane Flying---Car Racing----SCUBA Diving-----Hang GlidingMotorcycle Racing---SkiingOther---
7. Please indicate the degree of physical danger that you associate with•each of
these activities- none (N), little (L), moderate (MO), or major (MA).
Aerobatic FlyingCar Racing--Hang Gliding_ __
Motorcycle RacingParachuting for Sport: First Jump-
Rock ClimbingSailplane Flying---SCUBA Diving--Skiing
----- Long-Term Jumping- _____
8. Have you ever had a close brush with death? Yes
No
If yes, what was your reaction?
9.
What were your reasons for taking the First Jump Course?
_.- - - - - - - - - - - -
10.
-What are your reasons for continuing to jump presently?
11.
Do you experience any of these body reactions before, during or after a
typical jump at this time? (Please indicate with an •x•.)
REACTIQI
!!.5!!!!.
l.iill!. moderate
major
Dry Mouth
Rapid Breathing
Rapid Pulse
Stomach Upset
Sweaty Palms
Trembling
107
12.
Please indicate (with an 'X') ;rour overall level of anxiet;r
and after a t;rpical jump.
DO
anxiety
little
&riety
110derate
anxiety
11ajor
anxiety
before, during
don't
.t!E!:!!.
Before JumpDuring JumpAfter Jump13.
If you are nervous regarding sport jumping, how 1111ch anxiety (none- N,
little- L, moderate- MO, major- MA) is due to each of these specific fears:
Fear of
Fear of
Fear of
(i.e.
other-
Fallingthe Unknown- . - - failure
performance)-___
Fear of InjuryFear of Death/DyingFear of Equipment
Malfunction-
108
APPENDIX VI. Occupations of Subjects
Group I
College Students
Group II
First Jump Course
Group III
Skydivers
Accounting Clerk
Administrator (2)
Administrator(2)
Bookeeper
Advertisting
Architect
Circulation Mgr.
B-52 Tail Gunner
Army
Clerk
Boxboy
Self-employed
Credit Manager
Drugstore Asst. Mgr.
Data Processing
Executive Secretary(2)
Engineering
Draftsman
Financial Planner
Fiscal Adminiatrator
Engineer (2)
Housewife
Inventory Control
Marketing Res.
Mateorologist
Investment Agent
Navy
Office Mgr.
Insurance Agent
Office Copier Sales
Phobia Program Coord.
Machine Operator
Power Comoany
Physical Therapist Ast. Processar
Retail Sales
Registered Nurse
Retail, Self Employed
Retail Security
Retail Clerk
Sales (2)
Self-Employed
Secretary (2)
Self-Employed
Self-Employed, Sales
Self-Employed, Artist
Shipping Clerk
Service Rep.
Sheet Metal Fabrication Snap-On Tool Dealer
Student (2)
Student, Full-Time (3)
Stockbroker
Tehnical Illustration
Teacher
Student (2)
Teller
Unemployed
U.S.A.F.
U.S.M.C.
U.S.A.F. Retired
Welder
n
= 24
n
= 24
n
= 24
109
APPENDIX VI I. Raw Data Tables
Group I -College Students
Death Anxiety Scores
""'.....
u
QJ
.,...,
QJ
X
::I
V>
C'l
QJ
<(
V>
4
6
7
8
10
12
15
20
22
24
25
26
28
29
33
34
37
38
40
42
43
44
45
46
18
41
21
25
22
28
28
30
33
18
22
21
19
22
21
22
29
43
19
50
42
20
20
22
M
M
26.5
M
M
M
~1
M
M
~1
M
M
M
M
F
M
F
M
F
t·1
r~
M
t1
M
M
"'....
..r::
.....
..r::
'+-
'+-
QJ
QJ
V>
V>
0
0
'+-
'+-
'+-
'+-
0
0
0
0
QJ
..r::
C'l
..r::
>,
"'
>,
"'
0
.....
QJ
0
c:
0
General Questionnaire
....."'
QJ
.....
C'l
c:
..0
"'....
.....
QJ
0
0
9
10
13
-18
3
5
5
-2
2
-6
10
-8
10
-17
6
11
9
1
2
12
5
3
18
-11
7
-6
18
-9
17
-15
-6
-21
-6
-17
8
-9
6
-4
20
16
11
20
-5
16
4
3
10
-26
-12
-3
-7
-20
-14
-19
-7
-32
-11
-19
-7
-32
-1
-20
-9
-7
-9
-2
-8
-3
-9
4
-3
-1
5
1
10
2
18
12
25
8
-5
1
-5
0
16
-1
15
7
3
15
-3
13
0
3.46
1. 96
-11.5
6.96
11
20
....
<(
0
Q.
0
V>
....
0
"'....
QJ
>
....
Q.
0
""'
-38
9
2
34
-45
24
-17
17
-47
-20
-41
6
-49
31
-42
32
27
14
34
-14
38
0
21
45
4
1
2
1
3
2
0
1
0
2
1
0
5
0
5
2
4
2
2
1
1
0
3
2
-"
"'
Brush
s::
c:::
.....
"'
0
0
:z
....
.......
Q.
VI
QJ
0
V>
28
21
18
21
6
23
20
13
20
20
14
29
13
22
24
25
20
20
19
17
13
2
26
42
0.875 1. 83 19.08
ttl
W/ Death
>-
y
N
N
y
y
y
y
N
y
N
y
N
y
N
y
y
.....
u
ttl
QJ
c:::
pos
neg
neg
neg
pos
neg
neg
pos
pos
neg
N
y
y
y
N
N
N
N
neg
neg
neg
u
C'l
0
~
s::
0
0·~
·~
.....
"'u
>,"'
.S::QJ
Q.
c:::
5
15
9
16
10
18
10
14
14.
6
2
14
5
14
6
18
10
15
7
13
18
9
8
18
11.42
110
Group II - First Jump Course Students
Death
Anxiety
VI
QJ
QJ
V)
V)
.....
u
....,
"'
0
c
QJ
X
Cl
QJ
s..
QJ
QJ
.r:
.r:
VI
~
s..
~
~
0
0
0
0.
.....
.....
c
s..
0
0
.r:
.r:
Cl
~
c
"'
c
>,
QJ
~
"'
QJ
"'u
.;,(.
VI
V)
0
Cl
QJ
..c
.....
0
~
Questionnaire
VI
s..
.....
General
Scores
"'s..
s..
c...
QJ
>
c
0::
0
Cl
0
~
c
0
>,
·~
s..
o
z
..........
(/) u
.....,._
tn
tO
>,n:s
0..
QJ
Q)
..,C(lJ
ttSX
+JC:
>-
0::::
c..e:::
VI
~
0
+J
u
o·-
· - ....,
QJ Q)
2
tn<
4
1
2
N
0
0
20
N
2
3
1
18
y
8
2
-6
2
10
N
3
1
17
33
0
0
y
neg
8
0
-19
2
-14
1
3
y
neg
7
-12
25
21
2
21
y
neg
7
5
5
4
-5
11
15
0
2
y
neg
2
4
M
6
3
-9
15
15
3
3
y
neg
7
3
28
F
6
17
-3
10
30
3
10
y
pos
7
4
13
27
t-1
12
3
-3
-9
3
2
15
N
8
4
14
24
M
22
-8
0
15
3
12
N
1.5
6
15
25
r~
6
-2
0
2
6
2
20
N
9
3
16
27
M
7
21
6
9
43
2
15
N
8
4
17
39
M
7
2
-17
5
-3
2
3
y
neg
6
5
18
29
r-1
7 -1 -19
-9
8
-13
1
17
N
2
3
19
28
M
-10
12
-18
-6
-22
3
7
y
pos
0
2
20
28
F
-6
-7
8
7
2
3
14
y
neg
2
2
21
23
M
12
8
-1
5
24
2
21
N
3
3
22
19
~1
-3
3
-5
10
5
3
14
y
POS
3
2
23
22
M
4
4
-6
0
2
6
17
y
pos
2
2
24
18
M
8
4
-10
5
7
1
16
N
6
9
3. 17
3.75
0
0
0
1
18
M
8
-1
-7
-4
-4
1
14
N
2
32
M
0
-6
-11
-2
-19
1
0
Y
3
36
M
-4
-17
-13
-3
-37
0
14
4
40
F
5
5
-7
-11
-8
0
5
23
M
5
6
-5
21
27
6
28
t4
-1
-1
-12
8
7
30
M
2
17
-3
8
23
t4
-2
5
9
28
M
1
10
53
t1
11
39
12
V)
<(
28.625
V)
-7.04
5.21
""
5.08
V)
1.8 11.92
neg
pos
4
4.10 3.21
111
Group III - Experienced Skydivers
Death
u
.,....,
:::J
Vl
Ql
Vl
C>
Ql
J:l
....
Ql
Vl
<:
Ql
C>
c:r:
X
.....
Ql
..<:
.....
0
0
0
0.
......
....0
"'u
C>
Vl
<:
0
.....
......
"'.....
>,
0
"'
0
>
......
0
0
0
..<:
Ql
......
Ql
..<:
"'
Ql
Vl
VI
..<:
....0
0
General Questionnaire
.....
......
....
Scores
VI
VI
....
....0
......
Anxiety
Ql
VI
.....
:z
0
0.
Ql
QJ
>-
0:::'
Vl
0
O•r-
......
.....
"'--
Ql
0
...__
VI
1
27
M
2
3
-15
-4
-14
2
15
N
2
32
M
6
0
-4
9
11
1
8
y
3
28
M
-1
-7
-9
-16
2
18
y
4
40
M
-1
-1
-14
-6
-22
0
20
5
39
M
12
22
-7
14
41
3
6
20
F
0
-14
-6
3
-17
7
32
M
-4
-11
-5
2
-18
8
28
M
6
3
-15
2
-4
9
31
-11
-18
-20
-7
-56
10
27
t4
9
12
-12
11
27
t4
5
-18
-14
12
32
r~
4
-1
13
20
F
2
14
27
M
15
40
16
0<:
-0
..,
u
"'
.,.... +J
(/) u
>.tO
~QJ
c..o::
>,
I
+-J
QJ QJ
+J•r-
tO><
+JC:
V'lC::C:
8
4
pos
1
2
neg
2
2
N
2
3
3
N
7
3
2
18
y
2
17
pos
3
2
2
19
N
3
2
6
13
N
0
2
10
0
17
y
4
2
-8
-35
6
13
N
-11
5
-3
0
18
-14
3
9
2
18
N
-6
3
-17
-4
-24
3
22
y
M
-3
4
1
-13
-11
1
19
28
M
-10
-11
-18
7
-32
2
17
31
F
4
0
-15
3
-8
18
28
~,
1
4
-6
-4
19
27
M
-6
-11
-14
20
27
2
3
21
40
M
2
22
28
M
23
28
24
27
29.75
y
neg
0
neg
2
1
2
2
pos
2
1
y
neg
0
2
17
y
pos
~
0
15
y
pos
2
-5
3
14
y
neg
2
-6
-37
0
15
y
neg
4
-4
5
6
1
12
y
neg
4
1
-14
1
-9
-20
2
18
N
2
2
-1
-18
-5
-4
-28
12
N
0
2
M
6
18
5
30
3
16
y
pos
7
4
t1
0
3
-4
-11
3
22
y
pos
2
3
0.833
-1.04
-5
-9.38-1.00
-10.58 1.92 15.70
2
2.54 1.96