CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
THE EFFECT OF BODY CONDITIONING ON BODY COMPOSITION,
STRENGTH, AND CARDIO-VASCULAR FITNESS
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Physical Education
by
Carol Anne Gulyas
June, 1972
The thesis of Carol Anne Gulyas is approved:
7
eommittee Chairman
California State University, Northridge
June, 1972
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
..•
• • • • • • • • • •
v
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
vii
LIST OF TABLES • • • • • • • • • •
ABSTRACT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
0
1
Chapter
I.
INTRODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •
3
The Problem
Statement o£ the Problem
Statement o£ the Purpose
Importance o£.the Study
Hypothesis
Scope and Limitations
De£inition of Terms
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
II.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE • • • • • • • • • • • •
10
Densitometry
Physiological Rationale
Water Displacement Technique
Physical Activity and Bo~ Composition
Effect of Participation in Sport Activity
Effect of Exercise Programs on Changing Body
Composition
Specificity of Body Composition Changes
Body Composition of women
Prediction of Specific Gravity and Body Fatness
Normative Data Studies
Age Trends
Summary
III.
RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Overview of Experimental Design
Selection and Orientation of Subjects
Criterion Measures
Testing Protocol
Controls Instituted
Instrumentation
Statistical Design
iii
26
Page
IV.
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
37
Significance of the Differences Among Groups
for Body Composition Parameters
Significance of the Differences Among Groups
for Cardio-Vascular Fitness Measures
Significance of the Differences Among Groups
for Strength Measures
Summary of Major Findings
v.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
47
Summary
Major Findings
Discussion of the Findings
Body Composition Battery
Strength Battery
Cardio-Vascular Fitness Test
Conclusion
Recommendations for Future Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
55
APPENDICES •
65
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
0
Data Card for Body Composition, Strength,
and Cardio-Vascular Fitness
Raw Data for Validity Test of Student
Heart Rate Monitors
Descriptive Data for Body Composition, .
Strength, and Cardio-Vascular Fitness
iv
•
•
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
1.
The Validity Coefficients for Heart Rate as Monitored
by Student Testers • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
34
2.
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Boqy Density. • • •
38
3. The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Per Cent Body Fat •
39
4. The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Lean Body Weight. •
39
5. The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Kilograms of
Body Fat • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
40
6. The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Total Body
Weight • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
7.
40
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Resting Heart
Rate • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
B. The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
10.
ll.
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Post-Work
Heart Rate • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
42
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for 30 Second
Recovery Heart Rate. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
42
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for 60 Second
Recovery Heart Rate. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
43
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for 90 Second
Recovery Heart Rate. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
43
v
Table
Page
12.
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Push-ups for
One Minute • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
13.
The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Sit-ups for
One Minute • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
45
1.4. The Significance of the Difference Between Pre,
Middle, and Post Test Scores for Grip Strength
in Kilo gr alllS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
45
15. Raw Data for Validity Test of Student Heart
Rate Monitors. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
vi
69 .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
Page
1.
Measurement of Vital Capacity • • • • • • • • • • • • •
31
2.
Subject Entering Densitometric Tank • • • • • • • • • •
31
3. Subject Being Weighed Underwater. • • • • • • • • • • •
31
4.
31
Measurement of Grip Strength. • • • • • • • • •
o
•
•
•
5. Monitoring of Resting Heart Rate at Carotid Artery. • •
31
6.
31
Subjects Performing One Minute Step Test. • • • • • • •
vii
ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF BODY CONDITIONING ON BODY COMPOSITION,
STRENGTH, AND CARDIO-VASCULAR FI'lNESS
by
Carol Anne Gulyas
Master of Arts in Physical Education
June, 1972
The purpose of this investigation was to deter.mine the effects
of body conditioning, as experienced by participants in a body conditioning program, on selected parameters of body composition,
strength, and cardio-vascular fitness.
Seventy female volunteers from physical education body conditioning classes served as subjects for this study.
Body composition,
the principle criterion for this investigation, was determined
through the underwater weighing of each subject and the subsequent
calculation of body fat from body density.
A modified strength
index, including one minute push-ups, one minute sit-ups, and grip
strength, was utilized to indicate strength.
Cardio-vascular fitness
was determined by a one minute step test, which included the monitoring of resting, immediate post work, and thirty, sixty, and
ninety second recovery heart rates.
1
All of the measures were tested
2
at the beginning, middle, and end of the thirteen week experimental
period.
The data determined from the above tests were statistically
analyzed through analysis of variance
(£:
test) to determine the
significance of the within group differences which occurred between
pre, middle, and post test results for each of the selected parameters.
The following general conclusions appear to be justified:
1.
Bod;r conditioning, as experienced in a one semester
prograill, does significantly change body composition as shown by
decreases in per cent body fat and total body fat, and increases in
total body density and lean body mass.
2.
Although bod;r conditioning does appear to improve muscu-
lar strength, no significant improvement in cardio-vascular fitness
was indicated.
CHAPT.l!ffi I
INTRODUCTlON
It is generally accepted by Pnysical Educators that participation by college women in body conditioning courses involves an
intrinsic desire in each student to invoke same physical change in
the fitness dimension of her body.
A1 though the change may not be
clearly delineated by each student, it is assumed that this desire
for change does exist.
There are several physiological functions
which are usually assumed to undergo adaptation during one 1 s
participation in such courses.
For the purposes of this study,
selected parameters of body composition, strength, and cardiovascular fitness were monitored to determine if any changes occurred.
The effects of body conditioning activities on body composition, strength, and cardio-vasuular fitness have been studied through
various methods by several investigators.
Findings have generally
indicated that through exercise an individual may increase his lean
body
mass and decrease fat, increase strength, and improve cardio-
vascular fitness (4, 10, 29, 37, 56, 63).
It has been shown that the intensity and duration of physical
activity is one factor that influences the fitness aspect of the body
throughout life (1).
Studies involving athletes, a population which
is assumed to be physically active, have shown that they tend to have
3
4
a greater boqy density, less body fat, and greater lean body mass
than non-trained individuals (10,
48, 53, 71, 72).
In an investiga-
tion involving activity groups based on "least" and "greatest"
activity classifications, Conger noted that the more active an
individual was, the greater was his strength, lean body mass, and
specific gravity ( 85).
Similar to Conger 1 s study, Darwick investi-
gated physical education majors, non-physical education majors, and
activity groups in the parameters of strength, body composition,
and max::i.mum work capacity.
Results again indicated that most active
subjects possessed more fat free weight, exhibited greater maximum
oxygen consumption, and were significantly stronger than less active
subjects (86).
Selected exercise and body conditioning programs have been
examined to determine i f boqy composition changes occur from one's
participation in such programs.
Programs which included strenuous
workloads of treadmill running (45), calisthenics, gymnastics, track
and field, weight lifting, swi.nuning, games and dancing (37), maxl.mum
movement exercises, progressive resistive exercises, and individual
and dual sports ( 26) 1 have all resulted in the participants significantly decreasing body fat and increasing lean body mass.
In
accordance with these studies, this investigation sought to determine
i f changes in physiological parameters would occur as a result of
body conditioning.
5
The Problem
Statement o.f the Problem
The problem of this study was to investigate the possible
physiological changes occurring during one semester of participation
in body conditioning activities.
Statement of the ?urpose
The specific purpose of this investigation was to determine
what, if
~'
changes occurred in body composition, strength, and
cardio-vascular fitness of women students participating in a onesemester conditioning program at San Fernando Valley State College
(California State University, Northridge).
!3>ortance of the Study
The importance of this study is predicated on the thesis that
qualitative and quantitative changes can take place in body tissues
and physiological functions as a result of body conditioning
activities
(25, 29, 37, 45, 48, 56).
Traditionally, change in total
body weight has been employed as an indication of changes in body
compartments (15).
Body composition measurements of specific gravity,
per cent body fat, and lean body mass give a more accurate index of
the quality of tissue changes than the standard tables which are
interpreted in relation to height and weight.
This appraisal can be
pragmatically utilized by students of body conditioning classes in
order to more precisely realize what physiological changes are
occurring as a result of body conditioning activities.
6
!flPothesis
This investigation was designed to answer the following
e.xperimental question:
Does participation in a body conditioning
class for one semester achieve any of the assumed objectives of
altering body composition, and of improving strength and cardiovascular fitness?
Scope and Limitations
The subjects of this study were seventy students who volunteered from women's body conditioning classes at San Fernando Valley
State College.
The investigation was conducted over a thirteen week
time period during the Fall semester, 1971.
Subjects in each class
were given a general group orientation to the study at the first
class meetings, at which time they were requested to designate a
time when the initial hydrostatic weighing could be completed.
Initial cardio-vascular fitness and strength tests were administered
during the second class meetings.
Subjects were again tested in the
three selected parameters at mid-semester and at the end of the
semester.
It was necessary to determine the residual lung volume of each
subject in order to calculate the amount of air remaining in the
lungs during underwater weighing.
Immediately before hydrostatic
weighing, the vital capacity of each subject was determined by
having the subject exhale maximally into a wet spirometer.
The
7
average of three trials was multiplied by a constant factor in order
to estimate the residual volume of air in the lungs which would be
present after the subject's maximal exhalation during underwater
weighing (80, 87).
A caloric intake history was recorded by subjects of the study
for seven days in the first third of the experimental period.
subjects indicated if the record was typical of their dietar.y
The
hab~ts
and made comments in regard to what type of caloric intake they
anticipated for the remainder of the study.
For the purposes of this
investigation, there was no attempt to control caloric intake since
it was assumed that inherent variations normally occur in students
participating in such body conditioning classes.
The investigation included seventy subjects from a pool of
143 students (49 per cent) enrolled in body conditioning classes.
Because of the panel design of the study, it would be inappropriate
to generalize from the findings of this investigation.
Therefore,
the interpretation of results was restricted to the particular
population examined.
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this study, the following terms were
defmed:
~~Composition.
Compartmentalization of the body
into water, body fat, mineral, and protein mass.
This is often
8
defined in a two compartment model (fat....,. lean body mass
= total
body mass), in which mineral mass is. included in the lean body mass,
and the body water in both
~ ~ ~·
(44).
Total body weight minus all body .fat except
indispensible fat (approximately two per cent of the lean body
mass (15).
~ ~ ~
Weight .2!: Fat
~ ~·
Weight of the body
less all amounts of .fat (44).
Density.
Mass per unit volume, usually expressed in grams
per cubic centimeter
(44).
Archimedes 1 Principle.
A body submersed in water displaces
a volume equal to its own (11).
~
Densit;y:.
Keys and Brozek
The density of the whole body, according to
(44), is as follows:
•• ·• the total weight in the air divided by the total body
volume, and the estimation of the latter is determined from
its displacement of the water, the difference between the
weight in the air and the weight completely submersed in
water being the weight of the displaced volUille of water.
Vital Capacitl•
Maximum volume of air that can be expelled
from the lungs by forceful effort following a maximal inhalation (4).
Residual Lung Volume.
Volume of air remaining in the lungs
rollowing the greatest possible maximal expiration
Strength.
Force of muscular contraction
(76).
(4),
as measured
by grip strength, and the number of bent knee sit-ups and modified
push-ups executed for one minute.
9
Cardio-Vascular Fitness.
Response of heart rate to exercise;
measured at rest and immediately following exercise, then thirty
seconds, sixty seconds, and ninety seconds after the performance of
a one minute step test.
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
This thesis is organized into five chapters.
The brief
explanation offered here indicates the format followed in the thesis.
Chapter II contains a review
o:f
related literature pertaining
to the rationale for densitometry, physical activity and body composition, and body composition of women.
Chapter III describes the research methodology and design
by
which the study was conducted.
Chapter IV includes the statistical analyses and interpreta-
tion
o:f
the data.
Chapter V gives the summary, findings and conclusion of the
study, and makes recommendations for further investigation.
CHAPTER II
Rl!.--viEW OF
~T.l!aJ
LITERATURE
Investigative interest in human
bo~
composition developed
mainly from its value as a criterion of man's response to environmental influences, especially those of a nutritional nature (11:19).
Boqy composition measurements provide for meaningful interpretations
of
bo~
weight, changes in body compartments in dii'ferent physiologi-
cal conditions, and relationships of composition of the body to
health and fitness (41, 53).
There have been numerous methods for determining body composition, including anthropometry (18), photomapping and roentgenography (30, 65), hydrometry (32), fat soluble indicators (19),
skinfold measurements (20, 31), direct and roentgenographic studies
of bone mineralization (69, 73), potassium 40 content (68), air
displacement (47), and the method employed in this study, densitometry
(48, 39, 40,
41,
42, 88).
In reviewing the literature, the rationale for densitometry
will be discussed first.
Physical activity, in the form of general
activity and specialized progrgms, and its effect on body composition
is revie-wed second.
Finally, studies concerned with body composition
of women are presented.
10
11
Densitometry
Discovery of the principle of density - a body submersed in
water displaces a volume equal to its own - was credited to the
Greek ~cientist Archimedes in about 200 B.C. (11:153).
Utilizing
his principle, the volume of the body is determined from its displacement of water, the difference between the bodyr s weight in the
air and the weight completely submersed in water being the weight of
the displaced volume of water (44).
Although ArchlJnedes made his
observations on the human body, subsequent applications primarily
used metallic substances until Robertson
(59)
attempted to estimate
the density of ten "middle sized" men who were "bribed" to submerse
themselves :in a wooden tank filled with water.
Accordingly, this
initial attempt to determine body density proved to be unsuccessful,
but was the forerunner of further research.
£grsiological rationale
The rationale for determining fatness or leaness from density
is based on the assumption that the body can be considered a two
component system with the components being of different, but constant
densities (44:266).
Thus, the proportions of the two components can
be estimated from the density of the whole body.
There is consider-
able evidence to indicate that the fat free body is relatively
constant in composition in mature adults (11, 12, 28), with the mean
specific gravity of the body being reported at 0.900 g/cc at 37 •
---12
Centigrade ( 28).
Densitometry is based on the assumption that the
lower the density of the body, the higher its fat content, since the
density of fat is lower than that of other body components (28, 35).
The relationship
bet1~en
density and body composition has been
derived from the densities of the two components being considered
and incorporating them into a theoretical equation, as done by Keys
and Brozek (20,
44). Originally, the t-wo constant density components
were fat and the fat-free body (11:1.54).
Behnke (1.5) introduced the
concept of "lean body mass", which included the essential body lipids
in addition to the fat-free body.
More recently, Keys and Brozek
have utilized a two component system., which was calculated on the
basis of chemical analysis of cadavers and consisted of a
body 11 , which contained
11
reference
15.3 per cent body fat or 11 obesity tissue 11
(20).
The single body component often considered to be an influence
on body density is the skeletal structure of the body" (11, 22).
Although the values of bone density have been reported to var.r from
1.7 to 2.0 (8), the density of bone is considered to approximate a
true constant (22, 32).
Water displacement technique
Following unsuccessful attempts by Robertson (59), Spivak ( 67),
and Boyd (17) to measure body volume by underwater weighing, in 1942
Behnke
(15) succeeded
in determining body volume corrected for
13
pneumatic volume at the time of weighing, a factor which had been
previously ignored.
Behnke demonstrated that underwater weighing
could give logical estimates of body composition after correcting
for residual lung volume either at the completion of a maximal
inhalation, or at the end of a maximal exhalation.
A human body volumeter apparatus for determining water displacement was designed by Allen (13).
Fat determinations for
eighty-one men were recorded, both with lungs full and less vital
capacityo
Both experimental co:r:rlitions showed a
±1
kilogram of
fat duplicate precision.
Katch developed a bydrostatic weighing apparatus which
utilized a swimming pool crib
(40).
The subject lies suspended
underwater in a prone position while breathing normally through a
skin diver's snorkel.
The subject holds a maximal. exhalation for
approximately five seconds while the scale is damped and underwater
weight is determined.
A portable fiberglass densitometric-volumeter was designed
and tested by Rich ( 89).
The tank is 30 inches wide, 48 inches
long, and 42 inches deep, containing approximately 225 gallons when
filled to working depth.
Rich found when weighing 198 college age
females that the average underwater weight of trials- three, four and
five yields valid
b~
densities, while measures six
ten added no real clinical value.
tr~ough
trial
Considerable research has been conducted in
dens~tometric
techniques for determining body composition since Robertson's initial
attempt.
A position concerning the future of this technique is
offered by Brozek:
The densitometric analysis involved a number of qualitative
assumptions. Methodologically, progress in this approach to
the study of body composition involves two things: (1) increased
precision in the quantitative constants used in the development
of the estimation equations, and ( 2) measurement of some of the
components that have been estimated only indirectly. (1:19)
Phys~cal
One
signif~cant
Activity and Body Composition
factor which influences whole body composition
throughout life is the intensity of physical activity (1:161).
Original evidence was provided through anthropometric studies by
Matiegka, who showed a difference in body composition between
"gymnasts" and non-trained individuals (48).
--
Brozek et al. examined
male populations engaged in occupations involving muscular work of
different intensities (1, 43).
comparing active and
sedent~
These investigators found that when
occupations, men performing physical
work tended to have less fat than men of the sedentary group.
A
review of these interrelationships, as studied by other investigators,
is presented.
Effect
2f
participation
~
sport activitz
The f'undamental findings of the marked differences in body
composit~on
of trained and non-trained individuals were first estab-
lished by Behnke ~ ~· (14, 20).
These studies indicate that
15
Alnerican football players, all of whom were very physically fit,
would have been classified as overweight, and thus unable to serve
in the Navy.
Behnke dete:rmined that speci.fic gravity, or the weight
of the tissue per unit volume, gives a more valid index of proper
weight than the standard tables which are interpreted in relation to
height and weight.
Consistent w.ith the findings of studies relating
physical activity and body composition, these athletes showed higher
specific gravities and lower amounts of adipose tissue.
In three similar investigations concerning athletics,
Thompson and Novak studied the body composition of varsity athletes.
Novak's investigation concerned itself with the differences in body
composition between adolescent boys who participated habitually in
high school basketball and football, and other boys who did not
participate in sports throughout their high school years.
density
Body
was determined by underwater weighing, and anthropometric
measurements were collected to supplement the densitometrical changes
in body compartments.
Novak found that the participants in
athletics had significantly less body fat than the non-participants
(53).
Thompson monitored the changes in body fat estimated from
skinfold measurements in two related studies of college basketball,
hockey: and football pl~ers during a season ('Vl, 72). No significant
weight losses were found in either study, but in both investigations
mean skinfold values decreased significantly.
16
Parizkova 1 s investigations were concerned primarily wi.th the
problem of prolonged physical training and its interruption on
changes in body composition in young people.
When comparing groups
of trained and non-trained individuals o£ equal height, weight, and
age, a higher density (higher :fraction o£ lean body mass), was always
f'ound among individuals who were very active (10,
54).
One o£ Parizkova•s investigations involved a longitudinal
study of' male and female Czechoslovakian gymnasts
(54).
Measurements
were recorded before intensive training for the Olympics, then again
sixteen weeks later before departure, and final.ly after fifteen weeks
o:! relative relaxation from active training.
During the preparatory
phase, there were no changes in body weight, but there was a
5 per
cent and 7 per cent increase in body density among females and males
respectively.
She also recorded 7 per cent and 10 per cent decreases
in sld.n:!old measurements for females and males respectively.
competition and relative relaxation, the
bo~
After
weight of the gymnasts
remained constant, but the density decreased 9 per cent in women and
6 per cent in men, while skinfold measurements increased 26 per cent
for females and
14
per cent for males.
These findings were inter-
preted as indicating that changes in body density re£lect gains in
lean body mass during very intensive training and gains in adipose
tissue when training is discontinued.
These changes may be larger
than changes in body weight due to the simultaneous reduction of
the other component (1:163).
17
The body composition of female athletes was examined in a
study by Conger, w:hi.ch also considered strength and vrork capacity of
both participants and non-participants in wamen•s intercollegiate
sports (85).
Specific gravity, per cent body fat, and lean body mass
were derived from sld.nf'old data.
Results showed that participants
were significantly taller, heavier, and had greater lean body mass
and total kilograms of body fat.
The participants did have signifi-
cantly less thigh fat as indica.lfied by skinfold measurements.
The findings of the above study were partly repeated in another
investigation Conger conducted concerning physical performance and
body form as related to physical activity of college women.
In this
study, activity was based upon average daily caloric expenditure and
estimated fro.m an activity recall questionnaire.
Strength measures
were monitored through the cable tension technique.
When "most
active 11 and "least active" college women were compared, significant
differences were found in trunk, arm, and shoulder strength, lean
body mass, body weight, and specific gravity (23).
Darwick investigated differences between physical education
majors, non-physical education:majors, and activity groups in the
parameters of strength, body composition, physical activity, and
max:i.m:um work capacity (86).
Four activity groups were determined by
estimated average daily caloric expenditure.
11
Results showed that
active" subjects (upper 20 per cent), "most active" subjects (upper
10 per cent), and physical education majors possessed more fat free
18
weight, exhibited greater oxygen consumption, and were stronger than
the "less active" subjects (lower 20 per cent), "least active"
subjects (lower 10 per cent), and non-physical education majors
respectively.
Effect o.f exercise programs
~
changing
~
composition
One o.f the .first investigations relating external .fat to
physical education activities and .fitness tests was conducted by
Kirellis
~
!!• (45).
The .fat loss in three obese subjects was
observed through skin.fold measurements .following six weeks o.f
strenuous treadmill running without parallel weight loss.
Although
density was not measured, the author postulated that a concomitant
increase in lean body mass occurred.
In a study concerning cardiac
function, body composition and obesity,
T~lor
maintained that the
loss o.f .fat .following strenuous workloads was due to body .fat being
directly related to the basal arterio-venous difference, which is
in turn related to basal cardiac work (70).
The Kentucky Physical Fitness Experiment, reported by Jokl
(37), is another examination o.f the effect o.f exercise on body
composition.
The experiment evaluated a variety o.f effects of five
months of physical training upon adolescent children.
The diversi-
fied training program included calisthenics, apparatus, gymnastics,
track and field, weight lifting, swimming, games and dancing.
At
the end of the experimental period, findings showed that the mean
weight of' the subjects remained constant, but that significant
19
decreases in external fat (10-60 per cent) and increases in active
tissue (up to 30 per cent) occurred, while there were no corresponding changes in the control group.
Anthropometrically, Dempsey observed obese and non-obese
young men undergoing a program of vigorous exercise ( 26) •
Seven
obese subjects participated in the following eighteen week training
program:
daily training for eight weeks, normal activity for five
weeks, and daily training for five weeks.
The daily training
consisted of one hour sessions of maximum movement exercises, progressive resistive exercises, and individual and dual sports.
Results showed a mean decrease in total boqy weight of 12.30 pounds,
total body fat of 17.04 pounds (6.5 per cent), a mean increase in
.fat free weight o:f 5.24 pounds, and a mean decrease in skintold fat
of 79.85 mm and abdominal girth 1.00 inches.
All o:f these findings
were significant at the .01 level of confidence.
In a study conducted to determine the effects of two
different programs an body composition and dietary patterns o:f
college females, Katch observed ten tennis and :five swimming team
members (42).
Measurements of body density were determined by
underwater weighing and sldnfold measurements to estimate per cent
body fat.
A caloric intake history was recorded :for seven
each subject.
for
d~s
Measurements were taken during the first, fourth, and
sixteenth weeks of training.
Contrary to previous findings of other
investigators (26, 37, 54), Katch found no significant
E ratio
(.05)
within or between groups for any of the experimental parameters.
20
He concluded that physical activity without strict dietary control
has little effect on modifying body composition or
dietar~
patterns.
It is this investigator's contention that Katch 1 s findings are not
in complete contradiction to previously cited works which reported
changes in body composition from physical exercise, but that the
nature of the subjects (athletes), and the size of the population
studied (n=l5), may have influenced his results.
In a further investigation, Katch found dissonant but note-
worthy results concerning individual changes in the density of sixty-
two young men who participated in a ten week physical conditioning
program (39).
Changes in body density were shown to be more closely
related to changes in residual lung volume (r- .49) than to changes
in body weight (r=.31) or underwater weight (r=.26).
Katch concluded
that discretion should be used when attributing changes in body
composition to an experimental variable such as a physical exercise
program, especially i f an assumed constant value for residual volume
is employed to conpute density.
Observed changes in body density
for an individual subject due to an experimental treatment, such as
physical conditioning, may be masked by large changes in residual
lung volume.
§Eecificitz
2£
~ composi~
changes
The effect of exercise on segmental subcutaneous fat accumulations has been investigated by researchers under various selected
experimental treatments.
During a six week diet and exercise program
21
involving thirty students, Carnes (21) studied segmental volume
reduction as an effect of localized versus generalized exercise.
One
group performed generalized exercises while another performed
localized exercises for the abdomen, hips and legs (control group:
n=8).
Carnes' findings showed that there were no significant
differences between the two experimental groups, but significant
differences did occur between the experimental groups and the control
group in respect to body weight and volume for the body segment from
within the border of the twelfth rib to the greater trochanter of the
femur.
Shade ( 61) analyzed Carnes' data through the use of planimetric measurements of skeletal areas and transverse linear
measurements obtained from pre and post exercise photographs.
Shade's analysis indicated that a reduction in local areas had in
fact occurred where fat accumulations had been conspicuous, regardless of
the type of exercise program.
In a similar study concerning the effects of specific exercise
programs, Roby (60) :investigated the premise that subcutaneous fat
will be reduced in localities where muscles are active, and will be
reduced in proportion to their activity.
Fifteen male subjects
underwent a ten week weight training program which specifically
involved the triceps of the dominant arm.
arm acted as a control.
The inactive contralateral
The findings of this study showed no
significant change in mean skinfold thickness between the experimer.rtal
and the control arm, 'With the "inactive" arm actually showing greater
22
change.
It appears that the use of the contralateral ann as a
control was ineffective due to the difficulty in keeping the
inactive arm completely uninvolved during training.
:Employing a program of isometric exercises, Mohr (52) studied
the specific body region changes in the waistline, abdominal girth,
and subcutaneous fat.
For a period of one month, thirty volunteer
women subjects performed six isometric abdominal contractions, each
for six seconds.
The findings indicated a decrease of .6 inches in
waistline and abdominal girth, and a mean decrease of 1. 2 mm and
1.6 mm from the waistline and abdominal sld.nfold measurements
respectively.
confidence.
Both results were significant at the .01 level of
Contrar.r to Roby's research, Mohr concluded that a
specified exercise program for a boqy part could significantly change
the girth and skinfold measurements of that part.
Body Composition of women
Until recently, little data on the body composition of
healthy young women has been available.
Presented in this final
section are studies specifically concerning the body composition of
women.
Prediction of
~ecific
gravitz
~~fatness
Much interest in obesity and weight reduction has been shown
by Charlotte Young and her associates at the Nutrition Laboratory of
Cornell University.
One of her original investigations concerned
23
the problem of indirectly estimating body fatness without the
determinations of density through underwater weighing
(83). Young
attempted to predict specific gravity on the basis of skinfold
measurements and
11
standard
weight~1 •
Correlations between sld.nfold
th:i.ckness and density were obtained, and linear regression equations
were formulated to predict
specific gravity.
The sites best
correlated w.ith specific gravity (r=. 746) were found to be the lower
rib, pubis, supra-iliac crest, chin, chest at pectoralis major, and
lmee.
The average per cent body fat for the women in this study was
28.69 per cent.
Katch predicted body density in a study involving
college women (hJ.).
sixty~four
After underwater weighing, six skinfold and
four girth measurements were taken.
The highest multiple correlation
with density was from the iliac, tricep and scapula sk:i.n.folds, and
the buttock, abdomen and arm girths (r=. 72).
The mean per cent body
fat for this female population studied was 21.5 per cent.
Sloan also studied the possibility of prediction equations
for density from sk:i.n.fold measurements ( 65).
After taking five
sld.nfold and five girth measurements, Sloan reported that the triceps
and iliac skinfolds correlated best with body density (r= .65).
The
per cent body fat of the women in this investigation was reported
as 22.91 per cent.
j
l.
I
l
I
l
l
J
I
Normative data studies
··-
Young
~
al. also reported findings on the lean body mass
and adipose tissue of 94 normal, middle and upper middle class
women, aged 16 to 30 years (82).
Her data revealed a mean density
of 1.0342 using Rathbun and Pace calculations (58).
Per cent body
fat of the women studied ranged from 15.81 per cent to 38.62 per
cent with a mean of 28.69 per cent.
This investigator determined
norms for lean body mass by interrelating densitometric analysis of
each subject with total body water, skinfold determinations, fat
pad measurements of soft tissue x-rays, anthropometric measures
(both skeletal and envelope), creatinine excretion, and basal
o~gen
consumption.
In a second study focused on the body composition of women,
Young examined older women, ages 30 to 70 years (84).
The findings
of the study closely paralleled those of the investigation with
young women in that mean per cent body fat was 28.75 per cent, with
no significant change in body weight.
Age Trends
Skerlj ~ al. (63) and Wessel (78) researched the body composition of women considering the effects of age.
Wessel reported
increases of 15 per cent total skinfold thickness in females from
20 to 69 years of age.
Skerlj, in accordance with Young's findings,
reported no significant change in body weight in women from 18 to 47
years of age, but an increase in total body fat was reported,
apparently at the expense of other tissues.
25
Summary
Attempts have been made by several investigators to measure
fatness in the living human by a number of indirect means.
The
basic method most frequently used has been to measure the density of
the body in which the volume has been detennined by underwater
weighing.
Behnke ~ .!!;• (15) began the modern application of this
technique, and Brozek et
!!:!•
(20) refined the method and made it more
precise by providing for the measurement of residual air in the lungs.
The intensity of physical activity has been found to influence
body composition throughout life.
Investigators have shown that more
physically active individuals tend to be more dense, have a lower
per cent body fat and have a greater lean body mass than less active
individuals (1, 10,
14, 19, 23, 43, 52, 53, 54, 71, 72, 76, 86).
Attempts have been made to predict specific gravity through
skinfold and girth measurements.
as
The highest correlation was reported
.746 and involved the skinfold sites of the lower rib, pubis,
supra-iliac, chin, chest, pectoralis major, and knee
(83).
Nonnative and age trend data were also reported and will be
further reviewed in the discussion of the findings of this study o
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN
The purpose of this investigation was to determine if body
conditioning activities would affect the participants' body composition, strength, or cardio-vascular fitness.
Overview of Experimental Design
Selection and Orientation of SubJects
The subjects of this study were seventy female volunteers,
ranging in age from 18 to 40 years, who were students in body conditioning classes at San Fernando Valley State College.
The subjects
were pooled from seven classes taught by three different instructors.
At the first class meeting, each of the subjects was given a
general orientation to the study by the investigator, at which time
volunteers were requested to indicate times at wh:ich they could
undergo baseline hydrostatic weighing in the laboratory.
Initial
cardio-vascular fitness and strength measures were collected during
the second meeting of each class.
At the beginning of the experimental period, an orientation
lecture was presented by the investigator to the subjects regarding
the mechanics of weight control (4:230), and caloric intake history
charts were distributed to each subjecto
26
Subjects were requested to
.I
27
record their food intake and comparable caloric values for a one
week time period, using the calorie charts for reference.
Finally,
subjects were requested to indicate whether their weekly food intake
was a valid indication of their normal dietary habits, and if a
similar intake was anticipated for the remainder of the experimental
period.
The results of this caloric monitoring are discussed in
Chapter V.
Criterion Measures
The principal criterion measure for this investigation, body
composition, was determined by underwater weighing o£ each subject
and subsequent calculation of body fat from body density.
The
formula used was Keys and Brozeks• (20), with corrections for
residual lung volume and gas in the intestinal tract:
1\: _MA_
MA.,.MW
---nw
~
= Density
= Mass in
- RV
•
..L
VGl
of body
MA
air
MW>= Mass in water
DW = Density of water
RV = Residual lung volume
VGI Volume of gas in intestinal tract
=
Percent body fat
= 4.570
~
- 4.142
X
100
28
Criteria for determining strength included three measures:
grip strength, bent knee sit-ups for one minute, and modified knee
push-ups for one minute.
Grip strength has been shown to correlate
.66 with total body strength of male non-athletes (57), and has an
objectivity coefficient of .953 for girls (49).
that a
corre~ation
Clark has maintained
of this magnitude is satisfactory for group
descriptive and comparative purposes (3).
Karpovich reported the
necessity of involving muscles of the legs, trunk and arms when
measuring total body strength, and included sit-ups and push-ups in
his suggested battery of four tests for strength
(6).
Cardio-vascular fitness was measured through the use of a
one minute step test, as suggested by several investigators (64, 90).
Resting, immediate post-work, and recovery heart rates after thirty,
sixty, and ninety seconds were recorded.
Cardio-vascular fitness
and strength were monitored as supportive data to the principal
parameter of body composition.
Testing Protocol
Subjects were treated individually in the laboratory on an
appointment basis for body composition measurement.
Innnediately
prior to the underwater weighing of each subject, a measurement of
v:i.tal capacity was made.
While standing, the subject was instructed
to stretch the upper body and take several deep breaths before
29
vital capacity was measured, since one of the functions of this
measurement appears to be the fie:xibility of shoulder girdle and
thoracic muscles.
A noseclip was placed on the subject's nose to
prevent the escape of air from the nasal cavity.
Enco1U'agement to
take the deepest possible inhalation was expressed to each subject,
so that the lungs were filled to maximum capacity.
Air was then
expired steadily, with a maximum exhalation, into the mouthpiece of
the wet spirometer (Figure 1).
Vital capacity readings were noted,
and the average of three trials was used to compute residual volume,
as discussed by Wilmore (80).
After being weighed in air on a balance scale, each subject
was given preliminary instructions for being weighed underwater.
Before the subject entered the tank, the tare weight of the swing
and the temperatura of the water were recorded.
After placing the
noseclip on, each subject assumed a sitting position on the side of
the tank (Figure 2), and commenced to slowly lower herself into the
water to stand straddling the swing.
Subjects sat cross legged on
the suspended swing platform at approximately neck depth.
To
completely submerge, the subject held the bottom of the swing and
bent forward until the head was well below the water surface (Figure
3). A complete forced expiration was made before and during the
submersion until the subject could no longer expire.
Because it has
been reported that the difference between a half and a maximum
expiration could result in a small, but significant ( .01) error in
body density, it was emphasized to each subject that all of the air
ilLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1.
Measurement o:f Vital Capacity
2.
Subject Entering Densitometric Tank
3.
Subject Being Weighed Underwater
4.
Measurement o:f Grip Strength
5.
Monitoring o:f Resting Heart Rate at Carotid Artery
6.
Subjects Performing One Minute Step Test
30
.
Fiqure 1
Figure 2
Fiqure 3
Fiqure 4
Fiqure
5
F111ure 6
31
32
in the lungs must be expelled.
The investigator controlled the
subjects• movement and reduced the scale oscillation to less than
25 grams by lightly hand damping the scale on the suspended cables.
Each subject wore a light weight nylon tank suit
the possibility of air being trapped by clothing.
L~
order to decrease
During the ten
trials, i f the investigator noticed air bubbles adhering to the
subject, a request was made that she wipe them o:ff her body or suit,
as suggested by Allen wen world.ng with subjects in his water displacement volumeter (13).
ten were employed as the
The average of trials eight, nine, and
11
true 11 underwater weight (36, 40) •
All
measurements -were taken by the investigator or Dr. George Q. Rich,
designer of the densitometric apparatus.
Measurements of strength were taken during the subjects•
respective body conditioning classes.
Subjects received an explana-
tion and demonstration of the tests to be performed.
It was
explained to the subjects that the sit-ups wuld be performed with
bent knees and hands clasped behind the head.
The modified push-ups
allowed each subject. to place her knees on the floor and execute a
push-up from this position.
for one minute.
Both push-ups and sit-ups were monitored
Subjects were then instructed how to test for grip
strength, holding the grip dynamometer over the head with the
dominant hand, and the contralateral arm behind the back.
Instruc-
tions were given to describe a sweeping downward arc with the dynamometer, while gripping maximally with each hand (Figure
4).
33
Readings were recorded, and the average of three trials was accepted
as the grip strength measure (36).
The cardio-vascular fitness measure was also administered
during the boqy conditioning classes.
The investigator supervised
class testing for both strength and cardio-vascular fitness.
The
fitness measure involved the performance of a one minute step test
to a count of 120 beats per minute, for a rate of thirty complete
trips per minute.
Subjects sat on chairs located behind a seventeen
inch high bench, as partners recorded the resting heart rates at
the carotid artery (Figure
5).
Pulse was recorded at each selected
interval for ten seconds, and conversion of these scores to pulse
rate per minute was
subse~ently
completed by the investigator.
The
subjects then performed the test with a metronome set at 120 beats
per minute and the investigator assisted in pace setting by giving
the word cues 11 up, up, down, down" (Figure 6).
Subjects returned
to the chairs after the test, at which time pulse rate was immediately
monitored for a ten second period.
Pulse rate was again recorded
from 30 to 40 seconds, 60 to 70 seconds, and 90 to 100 seconds post
work.
A pilot test was conducted to examine the validity of student
testers in monitoring pulse rate from the carotid artery.
Twenty-
five women volunteers underwent the step test in the exact manner
that it was presented during the investigation.
To check the
validity of the tester, the performer was monitored by an
34
electrocardiograph, and true pul.se rate was compared to the student
reported pulse rate.
The correlations between each cardio-vascular
fitness measure as determined by student testers and electrocardiograms are presented in Table 1.
The correlations range from .9245
for post-work heart rate to .9825 for resting heart rate, and were
sufficien~
high to assume that student testers validly monitored
heart rate.
TABLE 1
THE VALIDITY COEFFICIENTS FOR HEART RATE
AS MONITORED BY STUDENT TESTERS
Student Mean
EKG Mean
r
Resting heart rate
(trial 1)
82.48
82.80
.9825
Resting heart rate
(trial. 2)
81.48
82.20
.9824
Resting heart rate
(trial. 3)
81.20
83.32
.9741.
Post-work heart rate
144.72
1.42.88
.9245
30 second recovery
ll9.60
120.64
.9729
60 second recovery
94.16
1.4.60
.9586
90 second recovery
84.44
84.80
.9749
Measurement
35
Controls Instituted
Because of the nature and purpose of this investigation, no
attempt was made to subject external controls upon the population
studied.
Instrumentation
Equipment used to test the three criterion measures included
the following:
1.
The densitometry tank designed by Dr. George Q. Rich III
at the San Fernando Valley State College Human Performance Laboratory
was employed to measure
2.
An
bo~
density.
adjustable Stotling grip dynamometer which was utilized
to measure grip strength.
To insure maximum objectivity, an explan-
ation concerning dynamometer adjustment was given.
3.
The
one minute cardio-vascular fitness step test utilized
a seventeen inch high bench, a clock with a sweep second hand, and
a metronome.
The vali<tity test of student testers employed an
electrocardiograph apparatus with silver chloride electrodes.
Statistical Design
The data derived from the procedures previously outlined were
statistically analyzed by use of an
E test
to determine i f signifi-
cant differences existed between pre, middle, and post test results
for the following parameters:
body weight; per cent body fat;
36
kilograms of lean body mass; kilograms of fat; body density;
resting, immediate
post-~~rk,
30 second, 60 second, and 90 second
recovery heart rates; push-ups, sit-ups, and grip strength.
.05
The
level of confidence was accepted for each statistical analysis
an an appropriate measure of significance.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The purpose of the
stu~
was to determine w.hether
bo~
con-
ditioning, as experienced by participants in the women's body conditioning program at San Fernando Valley State College, would affect
body composition, strength, and cardio-vascular fitness of participants in the program.
Data were analyzed to determine:
1.
I f significant differences existed among the pre, middle,
and post tests for the parameters of
bo~
density, per cent
bo~
fat, ldJ.ograms of lean body weight, ldJ.ograms of body fat, and total
body weight.
2. ·If significant differences existed among the pre, middle,
and post test scores for the cardio-vascular fitness measures of
resting heart rate, immediate post work heart rate, and thirty,
sixt,r, and ninety second recovery heart rates, resulting from a one
minute step stool test.
3.
If significant differences existed among the pre, middle,
and post test scores for grip strength, and push-ups and sit-ups
per minute.
Statistical analyses and a summar.r of the major findings are
presented in the above order.
37
38
Significance o£ the Differences
.Am.ong Groups for Body Composition Parameters
aydrostatic weighing of each subject was performed during
the first, sixth or seventh, and twel.fth or thirteenth weeks o£ the
experimental period.
Tables 2 through 6 depict the differences
which existed among pre, middle, and post tests £or the body camposition criteria.
Differences sign:ificant at the .05 level of
confidence were found in per cent body fat, body density, lean body
weight, and total body fat.
Total body weight in kilograms did not
show a significant change as a result of the experimental treatment.
The significance of each measure is reported, with the .05 level of
confidence accepted an an appropriate level of significance.
TABLE 2
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR BODY DENSITY
Source
Mean Square
elf
Total
0.0002
209
Trials
0.0008
2
Error
o.oooo
138
p
<. .05
F-Ratio
64.547
Test
Mean
Pre
1.0415
Middle
1.0454
Post
1.0482
Probability
.oooo
39
TABLE 3
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR PER CENT BODY FAT
Source
Mean Square
df
TotaJ.
32.4615
209
TriaJ.s
14l:~0973
2
2.1967
138
Error
p
<
F-Ratio
64.232
Test
Mean
Pre
24.6777
Middle
23.0310
Post
21.8510
Probability
.oooo
.05
TABLE
4
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR LEAN BODY 'WEIGHT
Source
Mean Square
df
Total
25,5868
209
Trials
34.6ll8
2
Error
0.9090
138
P <..
.o5
F-Ratio
38.078
Test
Mean
Pre
42.2574
Middle
43.1309
Post
43.6487
Probability
.oooo
40
TABLE
5
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR KILOGRAMS OF BODY FAT
Source
Mean Square
df'
Total
19.0244
209
Trials
49.5893
2
Error
0_,8452
138
p
F-Ratio
58.669
Test
Mean
Pre
14.1097
Middle
13.1249
Post
12.4350
Probability
.oooo
< .05
TABLE 6
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR TOTAL BODY WEIGHT
Source
Mean Square
df'
Total
126.9642
209
Trials
20.8457
2
Error
14.2160
138
p )
.05
F-Ratio
1.466
Test
Mean
Pre
55.5424
Middle
54.6911
Post
54.5253
Probability
.2329
Si~icance of the Differences
Among Groups for Cardio-Vascular Fitness Measures
A one minute step test was adminjstered to the subjects
during the first, sixth or seventh, and twelft.h or -thirteenth weeks
of the exper1Jnental period.
Resting heart rate, immediate post
work heart rate, and thirty, sixty, and ninety second recovery
heart rates of the pre, middle, and post tests appear in Tables 7
through 11.
A significant decrease at the .10 level was found for
heart rate immediately after work, and at the .07 level for sixty
second recovery heart rate.
None of the above results reached the
.05 level of confidence, and thus were not considered significant.
TABLE 7
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
PRE, MIDDLE, .AND POST TEST SCORES FOR RESTING HEART RATE
I
l
"'·"'
5--:
,f--
:.'-
i-
Source
Mean Square
Total
126.9396
179
df
F-Ratio
Test
Mean
Probability
I
I
Trials
47.6222
2
Error
85.2437
118
•
p .)
I
I
I
.05
0.559
Pre
86.7833
MiddJ.e
88.2167
Post
66.5633
.5789
43
TABLE 10
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE,
MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR 60 SECOND RECOVERY HEART RATE
Source
Mean Square
df
Total
301.5450
179
Trials
318.3500
2
Error
122.6890
ll8
p
F-Rat:io
2.595
Test
Mean
Pre
121.4500
Middle
119.8000
Post
116.9000
Probability
.0770
>.05
TABLE 11
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE,
MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR 90 SECOND RECOVERY HEART RATE
Source
Mean Square
df
Total
2402.1820
179
Trials
4607.6223
2
Error
2164.3002
118
p
> .05
F-Rat:io
2.129
Test
Mean
Pre
122.0000
Middle
108.9000
Post
Probabi.l:ity
.1214
Sif2?ilicance of the Differences
Among Groups for Strength Measures
The three selected measures of strength in this investigation
included one minute bent knee sit-ups, one minute modified push-ups,
and preferred hand grip strength.
The results of the pre, middle,
and post tests for these measures are presented in Tables 12 through
14.
A
significant increase at the .05 level of confidence was
found in both the sit-up and push-up measurements, while grip strength
changes did not reach significance.
TABLE 12
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE,
MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR PUSH-UPS FOR ONE l.fiNUTE
Source
Mean Square
Total
113.7373
179
Trials
1220.3722
2
30.3666
ll8
Error
p
< .05
df
F-Ratio
40.188
Test
Mean
Pre
20.0500
Middle
24.3500
Post
29.0667
Probability
.oooo
45
TABLE 13
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE,
MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR SIT-UPS FOR ONE MINUTE
df
Source
Mean Square
Total
61.4648
179
Trials
163.4667
2
Error
17.1785
118
p
F-Ratio
Test
Mean
Pre
27.8333
Middle
28.5000
Post
30.9667
Probability
.0003
< .05
TABLE
14
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE,
MIDDLE, AND POST TEST SCORES FOR GRIP STRENGTH IN KILOGRAMS
Source
Mean Square
df
Total
30.9721
179
Trials
24.0500
2
Error
12.0161
118
p ')
.05
F-Ratio
2.001
Rest
Mean
Pre
26.1833
Middle
26.4333
Post
27.8333
Probability
.1376
46
Summary of the Major Findings
Findings from the anal7ses are summarized as follows:
l.
Significant within group differences were found between
pre, middle, and post test scores for body density, per cent body
fat, lean body weight, and kilograms of body fat, although no
significant change in total body weight was found.
2.
No significant within group differences were found between
pre, middle, and post test scores for the cardio-vascular fitness
measures.
3.
Significant within group differences were found between
pre, middle, and post test scores for the strength measures of
push-ups and sit-ups, although changes in grip strength did not
reach significance.
CHAPTER V
SUMrv!ARY AND DISCUSSION
Summary
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the
effects of body conditioning, as experienced by participants in a
body conditioning program, on selected parameters of body composition, strength, and cardio-vascular fitness.
Seventy female volunteers from physical education body
conditioning classes served as subjects for
this study.
Body
composition, the principal criterion for this investigation, was
determined through the underwater weighing of each subject and the
subsequent calculation of body fat from body density.
A modified
strength index, including one minute push-ups, one minute sit-ups,
and grip strength, was utilized to indicate strength.
Cardio-vascular
fitness was determined by a one minute step test, which included the
monitoring of resting, immediate post work, and thirty, sixty, and
ninety second recovery heart rates.
All of the measures were tested
at the beginning, middle, and end of the thirteen week experimental
period.
The data determined from the above tests were statistically
analyzed through analysis of variance
47
(E
test) to determine the
significance of the within group differences which occurred between
pre, middle, and post test results for each of the selected parameters.
Major Findings
1.
Signli'icant within group differences were found between
pre, middle, and post test scores for boqy density, per cent boqy
I
fat, lean body weight, and kilograms of body fat, although no
significant change in total body weight was found.
2. No significant within group differences were found between
pre, middle, and post test scores for the cardio-vascular fitness
measures.
3.
Significant within group differences were found between
pre, middle, and post test scores for the strength measures of
push-ups and sit-ups, although changes in grip strength did not
reach significance.
I
Discussion of the Findings
The seventy subjects for this study were volunteers from
j
seven boqy conditioning classes taught by three different instructors.
Although the methods of instruction, program planning, and
motivation differed somewhat among the instructors, all of the
instructors were similar in their emphases -- to increase muscular
I
strength and endurance, to improve cardio-vascular endurance, and to
50
The significant results of the body composition measurements
appear to indicate clinical importance.
It could be predicted from
the statistical results that a 150 pound individual, over the course
of thirteen weeks of body conditioning classwork, would decrease
2.68 per cent body fat, 2.35 kilograms of fat, or approximately five
pounds of fat, and increase 2.5 pounds of lean body weight.
Con-
sidering the limited time interval involved -- forty-five minute
conditioning classes, two times a week for thirteen weeks -- the
quality of the tissue changes invoked can be considered of practical
importance.
The results also reflect significance when consideration is
given to the lack of dietary control placed upon the subjects.
At
the beginning of the study, the subjects reported a mean caloric
intake of 1381 calories per day, 'With seventy-seven per cent stating
that they planned to maintain the intake reported throughout the
experimental period.
It was not possible for the investigator to
maintain control over the caloric intake of each subject during the
entire thirteen week period, so no effort was made in this direction.
A further indication of significance in the findings of this
study is the fact that the decrease in per cent body fat was equivalent to the lowest of the means reported for the same variable by
Katch (40) and Von Dobeln (74).
It was understood that the subjects
w.ho were voluntarily enrolled in the body conditioning program
desired to bring about a change of some magnitude in body
51
com.partments.
The change invoked appears to be important because
the final per cent body fat was
m thin 0. 35 per cent of the lo"t-re st
mean of per cent body fat reported for women
withct-~
the age range
of the subjects in the present study.
Wilmore has suggested that when density, per cent body fat
and lean body mass are used for research purposes, the direct
measurement of residual lung volume should be attempted.
Because of
the number of subjects and the laboratory time alotment per subject,
it was necessary in this study to estimate residual lung volume from
vital capacity.
Katch reported in October, 1971, (39) that when
residual volume is not measured directly, changes in body density for
an individual subject, which are considered to be due to an experimental treatment like physical conditioning, may be more related to
variability in residual lung volume (r
weight change (r
= • 26).
= .49)
than to under-w-ater
Katch concluded that discretion should be
used when attributing changes in body composition to an experimental
variable such as a physical exercise program.
It was assumed that
in this study the measurement error in taking vital capacity was
reduced by having the subjects perform stretching exercises and
practice inhalations before their trials.
Since the direct measure-
ment of residual volume was not conducted in this study, it is not
possible to assess the effects of this factor upon the validity of
the findings.
52
Strength BatterY
The results of the pre, middle, and post test scores for
one minute push-ups and one minute sit-ups reflected significant
increases in both measures.
These two strength measures were chosen
from fitness batteries presented by Clark (3) and Karpovich (6).
The selected strength exercises were specific components of the body
conditioning program, and were performed with increasing intensity
during each class session.
Therefore, an increase in these measures
might be expected.
Grip strength has been shown to correlate .66 with total body
strength of non-athletes (57), and is a satisfactorJ measure for
group descriptive and comparative purposes (3).
During the condi-
tioning program the subjects did not appear to overload grip strength
in any specific manner, which may account for the failure of this
measure to reach significance (5).
Cardio-Vascular Fitness Test
Results of the pre, middle, and post test scores for the
one minute step test showed no significant changes in the fitness
measures of resting heart rate, :immediate post work heart rate, and
thirty, sixty, and ninety second recovery heart rates.
Although
running activities were a part of the conditioning program, it
appears that the training stimulus was not intense enough to induce
changes in the cardio-vascular fitness levels of the subjects.
53
Significant changes in one minute cardio-vascular fitness measures
have been shown to occur in basketball players after undergoing just
six weeks of conditioning (51).
Similarly, significant changes in
cardio-vascular fitness measures occurred in college women who underwent three different training programs on the bicycle ergometer
during a six week time period ( 8:1..).
Karvonen has concluded from his
investigations concerning the physiological principle of threshold
stimulus for training that resting heart rate plus sixt,y per cent of
the difference between resting and maximum heart rate is necessar,y to
improve exercise tolerance and cardio-vascular efficiency.
It appears
that the participants in the program studied did not reach this
workload intensity during the cardio-vascular fitness training.
Conclusion
The hypothesis of this investigation was designed to ask the
following experimental question:
Does participation in a body
conditioning program induce desirable changes in body composition,
strength, and cardio-vascular fitness?
The following general con-
clusions appear to be justified:
1.
Body conditioning, as experienced in a one semester pro-
gram, does significantly change body composition as shown by
decreases in per cent bocy' fat and total body fat, and increases in
total body density and lean body mass.
2.
Although body conditioning does appear to improve
nm.B:cTc1a::,~
strength, no significant improvement in cardio-vascular fitness ·wa'il
54
Recommendations for Future Research
'l'hn effect o:f body conditioning on body composition, strength,
and ca.rtt.lu-vaacular :fitness requires further investigation.
findin~J:I 0
The
.r this study suggest the following implications for
future rnnoarch:
1•
Mt attempt should be made to clinically control the
calorio intake of subjects during a body conditioning program.
inveeti~&ut:.ion
This
should probably occur in a regulated community, such
as a won1on • fJ penal colony, where diet could be readily controlled.
Future research should investigate the average caloric
e:xpendit:.urct during each body conditioning class.
Similarly, subjects
might bo rt!lldomly monitored to assess specific cardio-vascular workloads to determine i f a suf:ficient training stimulus to improve
cardio~~u~oular
J.
direct.
after
111
4
:fitness is achieved.
An attempt should be made in future studies to compare
aut;tures o:f residual volume with indirect measures be:fore and
oonditioning program.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
55
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1.
Brozek, Josef. Body measurement and human nutrition.
Detroit: W~e University Press, 1956.
2.
Brozek, Josef. "Research in human body composition." Human
body composition: Approaches and applications. Edite'd
by Josef Brozek. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965.
3.
Clark, H. Harrison. Application of measurement to health
and physical education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall,
Inc., 1959.
4. De Vries, Herbert A. Physiology of exercise. Dubuque:
William C. Br01111 Company Publishers, 1966.
5.
Hettinger, T. Physiology of strength.
c. Thomas Publisher, 1961.
Springfield:
Charles
6.
7.
Karvonen, M. J.
Inc., 1959.
VK>rk and the heart.
New York:
Paul B. Roeber,
8.
Lange, N. A. Handbook of chemistg.
Publishers, Inc., 1946.
Sandusky:
Handbook
9.
Mathews, Donald K.
Philadelphia:
Measurement in Eb.Ysical education.
B. Saunders Company, 1958.
w.
10.
Parizkova, Jana. "Physical activity and body composition."
Human body composition: approaches and aPElications.
Edited by Josef Brozek. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965.
ll.
Reid, J. T.
Body composition in animals and man.
D. C.: National Academ,y.;·of Sciences, 1968.
56
Washington,
57
Periodicals
12. Allen, T. H.; Krzywicki, H. J.; and Roberts, J. E.
11
Density, fat water and solids in freshly isolated
tissues. 11 Journal o.f Applied Physiology. 46:1005-
1008, 1954.
13. Allen, T. H.; Krzywicki, H. J.; Worth,
Ttl. S.; and Nims, R. M.
"Human body' volumeter based on water displacement. 11
United States
Medical Research and Nutrition
Lab'Oratog. Report 2 o, September, 19 o.
14.
Allen, T. H. "Measurement of human body' fat."
Medicine. 34:907-909, 1963.
Aerospace
15. Behnke, Albert R.; Feen, B. G.; and Welham, W. c.
11 The
speci.fic gravity of healthy men.~ Journal o.f the American
Medical Association. 118:495-498, 1942.
16. Berlin, Nathaniel;
~vatkin,
L. I.; Donald, M.; and Gevirtz,
N. R.
Measurement o.f changes of gross body composition
during controlled weight reduction in obesity by metabolic
balance and body" density water techniques." Metabolism.
11
11:302-314, 1962.
17. Boyd, E.
11
The speci.fic gravity of the human body'."
Biologz. 5:646, 1933.
Human
18. Brozek, Jose.f.
"Role of anthropometry in the study of body
composition: Toward a synthesis of methods. 11 Ann.
New York Acad. Sciences. 63:491-504, 1955.
19. Brozek, Jose.f and Mori, H.
Some interrelations between
somatic, roentgenographic and densitometric criteria of
fatness.". Human Biology. 30:322-336, 1956.
11
20. Brozek, Jose.f; Grande, Francisco; Anderson, J. T.; and
Keys, Ancel. "Densitometric analysis of body composition:
Revision of some quantitative assum.ptions. 11 Ann. New York
Acad. Sciences. 110:113-140, 1963.
58
21.
Carnes, M. L.; Schade, M. L.; Liba, H. L.; Hellebrandt, F. T.;
and Harris, c. w. "Segmental volume reduction by
localized versus generalized exercise. 11 Human Biologz.
32:370-376, 1960.
22.
Christian, John E.; Combs, L. W.; and Kessler, w. V.
"The body composition of obese subjects - studies of the
effect of weight loss on the fat and lean body mass."
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 15:20-28, 1964.
23.
Conger, Pat R. and MacNab, Ross. "Strength, body composition
and work capacity of participants and non-participants
in wanen 1 s intercollegiate sports." Research Quarterly.
38:184-192, 1967.
24.
Craig, A. B. and Ware, D. c. 11 Ef'fect of innnersion in water
on the vi tal capacity and residual volume of the lungs • 11
Journal of Applied Pnysiologr. 23:423-425, October, 1967.
25.
Darcus, H. D. and Slater, Nancy. "The effect of repeated
muscular exertion on muscle strength. n The Journal of
Pbysiolosz. 79:325-326, August, 1955.
26.
Dempsey, J. A. 11 Anthropometrical observations on obese and
non-obese young men undergoing a program of vigorous
exercise." Research Quarterly:. 35:275-281, 1964.
27.
Durnin, J. V. and Taylor, A. "Reliability of measurements of
density of the human body as determined by underwater
weighing." Journal of Applied Physiology. 15:142, 1960.
28.
Fidanza, Flamino; Keys, Ancel; and Anderson, J. T. 11Di!msity
of body fat in man and other mammals." Journal of "·· .·.· ·
Applied Pnysiologr. 6:252-256, 1953.
29.
Gardner, Gerald.. "Specificity of strength changes of the
exercised and the non-exercised limb following isometric
training." Research Quarterll• 34:98-101, March, 1963.
30.
Gam,
s.
fat."
M.
"Roentgenogrannnetric measurements of subcutaneous
Human Biology• 29:331-353, 1957.
31.
Gam, S. M. "Fat weight and placement in the female."
Science. 125:1091-1092, 1957.
32.
Gam, s. M. "Some pitfalls in the qualification of body
composition." Ann. New York Acad. Sciences. 110:171-174,
1963.
59
33.
Gnaedinger, R. H.; Reineke, E. P.; Pearson, A. M.; VanHuss,
w. D.; Wessel, Janet L.; and Montage, H. J. "Determination
of boqy density by air displacement, helium dilution, and
underwater weighing." Ann. New York Acad. Sciences.
L10:96-108, 1963.
34.
Goldman, R. F. and Buskirk, E. R. "Body volume measurement by
underwater weighing: Description of a method." Technigues
i'or Measurin Bo
Com osition. Washington,; D. C.:
Nation
Academy of Science, 1961.
35.
Heald, Felix P.; Hunt, Edward E.; Schwartz, Robert; Cook,
Charles; Elliot, Orville; and Vajda, Beno. "Measures of
body fat and hydration in adolescent boys." Pediatrics.
31:226-239, 1963.
36. Henry, Franklin H.
'"Best' versus • average' individual scores."
Research ~arter1y. 38:317-320, May, 1967.
37.
Jokl, Ernest. "Physical activity and body composition:
Fitness and fatness." Ann. New York Acad. Sciences.
110:778-794, 1963.
38.
Katch, Frank. "Apparent boqy density variability during underwater weighing." Research Quarterly. 39:993-999, 1968.
39.
Katch, Frank. "Changes in bocy density related to changes in
residual volume." Research Quarterq. 42:434, October,
1971.
40.
Katch, Frank; Michael, Ernest D.; and Horvath, Steven M.
"Estimation of body volume by underwater weighing:
description of a simple method." Journal of Applied
Pbysiolor_r. 23 :8ll-813, November, 1967.
~.
Katch, Frank and Michael, Ernest D. "Prediction of body
density from skinfold and girth measurements of college
females." -Journal of AEJ?lied Phy'siologz. 25:92-94, 1968.
42.
Katch, Frank; Michael, Ernest D.; and Jones, Evelyn. "Effects
of physical training on bocy composition and diet of
females. 11 Research Quarterq. 40:21-27, March, 1969.
43. Keys, Ancel and Brozek, Josef.
"Overweight versus obesity and
the evaluation of caloric needs." Metabolism. 6:425, 195'7.
44. Keys, Ancel and Brozek, Josef.
Physiology Review.
"Body fat in the adult man. n
33:245-325, July, 195'3.
60
45. Kirellis, Ramon
and Cureton, Thomas K. "The relationship of
external fat to physical education activities and fitness
tests." Research Quarterlz. 18:123-134, 1947.
46.
Kotilainen, M. and Kotilainen, A. "The effect of weight reduction on pulse rate, blood pressure, ventilation, and oxygen
consumption during rest and in connection with exercise. 11
Acta Mad. Scandinavia. 171:569-573, 1962.
47. Lim., T. P. K.
"Critical evaluation of pneumatic method for
determining body volume: Its history and technique. 11
Alln. New York Acad. Sciences. 110-:72-77, 1963.
48. Matiegka, J.
"The testing of physical efficiency. 11 .American
!!£urnal of Physical Anthropologz. 4:223-230, 1921.
49.
Metheny, Eleanor. "Breathing capacity and grip strength of
pre-school children." Universi
of Iowa Studies in Child
Welfare. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 19 o.
so.
Meyers, Carlton. 11 A study of the reliability of the Harvard
step test." Research Quarterly. 40:423, Ma,y, 1969.
51. Michael, Ernest and Gallon, Arthur.
"Periodic changes in the
circulation during athletic training as reflected by a
step test." Research Quarter1[. 30:303-311, 1959.
52. Mohr, Dorothy R.
"Changes in waistline and abdominal girth
and subcutaneous fat follow.i.ng isometric exercises."
Research Quarter1y. 36:168-173, 1965.
53. Novak, Ladislov P.
Physical activity and boey composition of
adolescent boys. 11 Journal of the American Medical
ASsociation. 197:891-893, 1966.
11
54. Parizkova, J ana.
"Impact of age, diet and exercise on man 1 s
body composition... Ann. New York Acad. Sciences.
ll0:661-674, 1963.
55.
Pierson, William R. 11 A photogrammetric teclmiqu.e for the
estimation of surface area and volume." Ann. New York Acad.
Sciences. 110:104-112, 1963.
56. Rasch, Philip and Morehouse, Laurence.
"Effect of static and
dynamic exercise on muscular strength and hypertrophy. 11
Journal of Applied PArsiolosr• 11:29-34, July, 1957.
61
57.
Rasch, Philip, et aJ.. "Total proportional strength."
Canadian de BiOlogy:. 19:369-376, 1960.
58.
Rathbun, E. N. and Pace, N. "Studies on body composition I:
The determination of total body fat by means o.f the body's
specific gravity." Journal o.f BiolosicaJ. Chem:i..strz.
59.
Robertson, J. nAn essay towards ascertaining the speci.fic
gravity o.f living man." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 50:30, 1757.
60.
Roby, Fred B. 11 E.ffect of exercise on regional subcutaneous fat
accumulations." Research Quarterly. 35:273-278, 1962.
61.
Shade, Maja; Hellebrandt, F. A.; Waterland, J. C.; and Carnes,
M. L. "Spot reducing in overweight college women: Its
influence on fat distribution as determined by photography. 11
Re.search Quarter1y. 33:461-471, 1962.
62.
Siri, William E. "The gross composition o.f the body."
Biological and MedicaJ. Phy'sics. New York: Academic Press,
Review
1956.
63.
Skerlj, B.; Brozek, Jose.f; and Hart, E. E. "Subcutaneous .fat
and age changes in body" build and body .form in women. 11
.American Journal o.f PhYsicaJ. Anthropology. 11:577, 1953.
64. Sloan, A. w. "A modi.fied step test for women." Journal of
Applied PhysioloSl•
65.
14:985-986, 1959.
Sloan, A. w.; Burt, J. J.; and B:cy.th, c. s. "Estimation o.f body"
fat in young women. n Journal o.f APElied Physiology.
17:967-970, 1962.
66.
&lith, Leon E. and Royce, J. "Muscular strength in relation to
body composition." .Ann. New York Acad. Sciences.
110:809-813, 1963.
67.
Spivak, D. D. "The speci.fic gravity o.f the human body."
Archives of Internal Medicine. 15:628-630, 1915.
68.
Talso, P. J.; Miller, C. E.; Carballo, A. J.; and Vasquez, I.
"Exchangable potassium as a parameter o.f body composition."
Metabolism. 9:456-471, 1960.
69.
Tanner, J. M.; Healy, M. J. R.; and Whitehouse, R. H. "Fat,
muscle, and bone in the limbs of young men and women:
Their qualitative interrelationships studied radiologically.n
Journal o.f .Anatomz. 93:563, 1959.
62
70.
Taylor, H. L.; Brozek, Josef; and Keys, .Ancel. "Basal cardiac
function and body composition with special reference to
obesity." Journal of Clinical Investigation. 31:976-983,
1952.
71.
Thompson, C. w. "Changes in body fat estimated from skinfold
measurements of varsity college football players during a
season." Research Quarter1y. 30:87-90, 1951.
72.
Thompson, c. \-1.; Buskirk, E. R.; and Goldman, R. F. "Changes
in body fat estimated from skinfold measurements of
college basketball and hockey players during a season. 11
Research Quarterly. 27 :418-LJO, 1956.
73.
Trotter, Mildred. 11 A preliminary study of estimation of weight
of the skeleton. 11 American Journal of Physical Anthropology.
12:537-552, 1954.
74.
Von Dobeln, w. "Human standard and maximal metabolic rate in
relation to fat free mass. 11 Acta P~siol. Scand. 37,
Supplement 126:1-79, 1956.
75.
Welch, B. E~ and Crisp, C. E. "Effect of level of expiration on
body density measurement." Journal of Applied Physiology.
13:399-402, 1958.
76.
Welham, W. c. and Behnke, A. R. "The specific gravity of
heal thy man. Body weight: Volume and other physical characteristics of exceptional athletes and of Naval personnel."
Journal of the American Medical Association. 118:498-506,
1942.
77.
Werdein, Edward J. and Kyles, Laurence H. "Estimation of the
constancy of density of the fat-free body." Journal of
Clinical. Investigation. 39:626-629, 1960.
78.
Wessel, J. A.; Ufer, A.; VanHuss, w. D.; and Cederquist, D.
"Preliminary findings of extended investigation into age
association changes of body composition and functional
capacity in normal women, 20 to 69." Ann. New York Acad.
Sciences. 110:608-622, 1963.
79.
Wilmore, Jack H. "The use of actual, predicted, and constant
residual volumes in the assessment of body composition by
underwater weighing. 11 Medicine and Science in SPorts.
1:87-90, June, 1969.
80.
Wilmore, Jack H. 11 A simplified method for the determination of
residual lung volumes." Research Quarterly. 40:421-424,
October, 1969.
6h.
81. Yeager, Susan A.
"Effects of various training periods on the
development of cardio-vascular fitness of college women."
Research Quarterly'. 41:589-592, December, 1970.
82. Young, Charlotte M.; Martin, Elizabeth Kerr M.; Chihan, Marion;
McCarthy, Mae; Manniello, Jane M. ; Harmuth, Elizabeth H. ;
and Fryer, Jeffrey, H. "Body composition of young women:
Some preliminary findings. 11 Journal of the American
Dietetic Association. 38:332-340, 1961.
83. Young, Charlotte M.; Martin, Elizabeth Kerr M.; Tensuan,
Rosalinda; and Blondin, Joan. "Predicting specific gravity
and body fatness in young women." Journal of the American
Dietetic Association. 40:102-107, February, 1962.
84. Young, Charlotte M.; Bondin, Joan; Tensuan, Rosalinda; and
Fryer, Jeffrey H. "Body composition studies of older
women 30 to 70 years of age." Ann. New York Acad. Sciences.
110:589-607, 1963.
Unpublished Papers
85.
Conger, Pat R. "Physical performance and body form as related
to physical activity of college women, " Unpublished
master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1964.
86. Darwick, D.
"Maximum work capacity as related to strength,
body composition, and physical activity in young women,n
Unpublished master 1 s thesis, Michigan State University, 1964.
87. Halpern, Larry
1-<I. "A comparison of two techniques for determining residual volume and their effects upon determining
body composition," San Fernando Valley State College,
August, 1968.
88. Katch, Frank.
"The assessment of body composition: Body
density and estimation of' body fat, 11 University of
California, Santa Barbara, 1968.
89. Rich, George
Q. 11 An effective and efficient laboratory method
of measuring bocy density, 11 Unpublished paper presented at
Southwest District American Association of Health, Physical
Education, and Recreation, Las Vegas, 1972.
APPENDICES
65
APPENDIX A
DATA CARD FOR BODY COMPOSITION, STRENGTH,
AND CARDIO-VASCULAR FITNESS
66
DATA CARD FOR BODY COMPOSITION, STRENGTH, AND CARDIO-VASCULAR FITNESS
Age_
Name
-------------------------------------------------------STEP TEST
Address
Resting _ _ _ Work _
Phone_____ Ht
wt_ _
----
Class hr.
30 s e c . _ 60 s e c . _ 90 s e c . _
STRENGTH
Grip
---
Sit-ups
---
Push-ups
---
BODY COMPOSITION
Tare
wt. - - - - H2o temp. _ _ __
Underwater weighings
v.c. _____________
APPENDIX B
RAW DATA FOR VALIDITY TEST OF STUDENT
HEART RATE MONITORS
68
TABLE 15
RAW DATA FOR VALIDITY TEST OF STUDENT HEART RATE MONITORS
Subject
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Rest II
Rest III
60 Second
90 Second
Rest I
30 Second
Work
EKG Tester EKG Tester EKG Tester EKG Tester EKG Tester EKG Tester EKG Tester
71
96
94
78
79
63
99
84
64
66
66
67
63
105
100
83
74
109
110
64
69
88
92
93
83
72
96
96
78
78
66
102
84
66
66
72
66
66
102
102
84
72
108
102
66
66
90
90
90
84
68
95
90
71
82
71
101
80
64
66
67
69
64
104
97
77
72
90
100
68
72
89
92
102
84
66
96
90
72
84
72
96
78
66
72
72
69
66
102
102
78
72
90
96
72
72
90
96
102
84
75
96
89
79
83
65
98
80
67
72
71
67
64
100
108
84
79
85
98
66
66
78
82
87
93
.-
78
96
90
78
84
72
102
84
66
72
72
66
72
96
108
84
78
90
96
72
66
78
84
90
90
175
160
162
168
158
120
172
138
120
136
126
135
116
163
160
152
138
141
128
125
145
146
156
128
150
180
174
156
162
144
120
186
120
120
138
126
144
108
156
162
144
138
132
122
126
138
144
156
132
144
135
132
135
121
123
86
145
110
105
106
105
100
95
145
144
140
106
125
118
105
132
122
130
107
ll8
138
1lJ4
138
126
126
84
156
114
108
108
108
102
96
144
140
144
102
120
116
102
132
120
132
102
114
112
117
112
92
84
69
130
71
83
76
73
15
74
108
116
77
92
95
113
74
112
114
97
19
109
114
120
114
96
84
60
146
66
84
72
78
72
78
108
120
84
90
90
113
78
96
114
96
84
108
84
117
96
86
70
60
122
78
65
72
69
70
65
100
91
90
79
84
llO
64
84
88
88
78
84
84
120
96
80
78
60
126
78
66
72
72
72
72
102
96
90
73
84
105
66
84
90
90
78
84
APPENDIX C
DESCRIPTIVE DATA FOR BODY COMPOSITION, STRENGTH,
AND CARDIO-VASCULAR FITNESS
70
•
TABLE 16
DESCRIPTIVE DATA FOR PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST
BODY COMPOSITION MEASURES
Pre
Parameter
Mean
tF
Post
Middle
1m
Mean
r
6
Mean
cr
rm
Body Density
1.0415
o.om
0.0141
1.0454
0.0129
0.0015
1.0482
0.0130
0.0015
Per Cent Fat
24.6777
5.9788
0.7146
23.0310
5.4053
0.6461
21.8510
5.4104
0.6407
Total Body Fat
14.1097
4.5975
o.5495
13.1249
4.1931
0.5012
12.4350
4.1716
0.4996
Lean Body Weight
42.2574
4.9533
0.5933
43.1309
5.1144
0.6113
43.6487
5.0800
0.6072
Total Body Weight
55.5424
9.9244
1.1862
54.6911
11.9594
1.4294
54.5253
11.9351
1.4265
•
TABLE 17
DESCRIPTIVE DATA FOR PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST STRENGTH MEASURES
Pre
Parameter
Mean
r
Post
Middle
rm
Mean
tr
Urn
Mean
tr
Um
Push-Ups
20.0500
9.8779
1.2752
24.3500
10.5104
1.3569 29.0667
9.7804
1.2626
Sit-Ups
27.8333
8.3304
1.0754
28.4667
7.8167
:1.0091 31.0000
7.0902
0.9153
Grip
26.1833
5.6613
0.7309
26.5000
5.9218
0.7645 27.3167
5.1139
0.6602
•
TABLE
18
DESCRIPTIVE DATA FOR PRE, MIDDLE, AND POST TEST
CARDIO-VASCULAR FITNESS MEASURES
Pre
Heart Rate
Mean
Resting
Post Work
30 Second
Recovery
0
86.7833 12.1238
Post
Middle
lin
1.5652
Mean
tr
Om
Mean
r
Urn
88.4833
10.5918
1.3674
86.3167
11.1043
1.4336
160.8667 18.7304
2.4181 159.2667
16.3478
2.1105 155.0500
17.1804
2.2180
138.6000 17.1743
2.2172 140.3667
14.5322
1.8761 135.7000
17.1170
2.2098
121.4500 19.5868
2.5286 120.3000
14.8385
1.9156 116.4000
17.2275
2.2241
122.0000 18.2034
1.4833 109.3000
14.9417
1.9297 104.9667
17.6395
2.2172
60 Second
Recovery
90 Second
Recovery