S a n Fe r n a n d o Va l l ey S t a t e C o l l e ge
T H E R E LATION S HIP BETWE E N T H E LI STENING C OM P RE H E N SION LEVE L S
AN� T H E S C H O LA S TI C S U C C E S S O F S E NIO R B U SIN E S S STU DENTS
AT SAN F E RNAN DO VAL LE Y STAT E C O L L E G E
A t h esis submi t ted in p a r tia l s a tis faction
of t h e requi remen t s fo r a deg ree of
Ma s t e r of S cien ce i n
Busine s s Adminis t ra tion
by
S e l ma Gams C ra n e
Jun e , 1 971
'
Th�
rhacic
nf
�Plmri
hrimS
Cr.a n e is. app roved :
C omm i t tee C h ai rman
S a n Fe r n a n d o Va l l ey S ta te C o l l ege
Jun e , 1 971
'
ii
D E D I CATION
To my hus b an d , Wi l l i am , and my th ree
chi l d ren , Law rence , Danie l , and Emi l y :
Fo r t h ei r s t a l wa r t fai t h i n my abi l i ties
a n d t h ei r compas sion a t e to l e ra n c e of my i n a bi l i ties ,
This thesis is dedica ted , wi t h j oy .
S e l m a Gams C ra n e
ii
i
\
TA B L E O F CONTE NTS
LIST OF TAB L E S
v
LIST O F I L L U STRATIO N S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
ABSTRACT O F T H E SIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
C HAPT E R I :
INTRODUCTIO N
N a tu re o f Lis t ening
Impo r ta n ce of Lis tenin g
C HAPT E R II :
A D E FINITIVE DI SC U S SION O F T H E STU DY . .
.
•
16
P a rame te r s o f the S tudy
Me t hodo l ogy of t h e S tudy
Limi t a tion s on t h e S tudy
CHAPT E R III : LIS T E NING IN T H E ACADEMIC E NVI RONME NT . . .
CHAPT E R IV :
28
38
T H E INVE STIGATION AN D ITS FIN DI N G S
B rown - Ca r l s e n Lis tening Comp rehen sion Tes t
Tes tin g P rocedure
Findi n g s of the Inves tig a tion
C HAPT E R V :
69
CONC L U SIO N S AN D RECOI1 H E N DATIO N S
BI B LI O G RAPHY
74
AP P E N DICE S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
iv
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L I ST O F TAB L E S
Tab l e
Page
1.
P e rcentage of T i me Spen t i n Va r i ou s
C ommun i ca t i on s Ac t i v i t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.
P rof i l e of Tota l Tes t Popu l a t i on o f
1 1 2 on t h e B rown - Ca r l sen L i s ten i n g
Comprehen s i on Tes t Pe rcen t i l e Sco res
and t he G rade- Po i n t Ave rages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
.
}.
F req uency D i s t r i b u t i on of P e rcen t i l e
Sco res on the B rown - C a r l s e n L i s te n ­
i n g Comp rehen s i on Test fo r Tota l
Tes t Popu l a t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
F requency D i s t r i b u t i on of G ra d e - P o i n t
Ave rages fo r Tota l Tes t Popu l a t i on
49
Coeff i c i en t s of Co r re l a t i on fo r t h e
B rown - C a r l sen L i s ten i ng Comp rehen s i on
Te s t Sco res W i t h G rade- P o i n t Ave rages
a n d T he i r P red i c t i ve Va l ue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
I n d i v i d u a l P e rcen tage Sco res o n t h e F i ve
Sec t i on s o f t he B rown - Ca r l s e n L i s ten i n g
C omp rehen s i on and G ra d e - P o i n t Ave r ages
fo r the Tota l Popu l a t i on ( 1 1 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
The F i ve Sec t i on s of t h e B rown - Ca r l s e n
L i s ten i n g C omp rehens i on Tes t : I nc i dence
of E ach S ec t i on Be i n g the H i ghe s t o r the
Lowes t Sco re
57
5.
6.
7
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8.
9.
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P rof i l e o f t h e S u b g roups of T ran s fe r and
Non - T r a n s fe r S t uden t s on the B rown ­
Ca r l sen Tes t a n d t h e G ra d e - Po i n t Ave rages
60
C oe f f i c i en t s of Co r re l a t i on fo r t h e T ra n s f e r a n d Non - T r an s fe r G roups on T he i r
B rown - Ca r l sen Tes t Sco res a n d G ra de P o i n t Ave r a ges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
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v
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LIST O F TA B L E S
( CONTINUE D )
Page
Tab l e
10 .
11.
12.
P rof i l e of t h e S u bg roups of Mo r n i n g
a n d Afte r noon C 1 a s s e s on t h e B rovm­
C a r l s e n L i s te n i ng Comp reh ens i on
Tes t a n d G ra d e - Po i n t Ave rages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
Coe f f i c i e n t s o f Co r re l a t i on fo r the
Morn i n g a n d A f te r noon S u b g rou p s
f o r t he B rown - Ca r l sen Tes t S co res
and the G ra de-Po i n t Ave rages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
C oe f f i c i e n t s o f Co r re l a t i on f o r t h e
F i ve S ec t i on s o f t h e B r own --Ca r l s e n
Tes t v·Ji t h t h e S AT Ve r b a l S e c t i on
S co re s f o r t h e Popu l a t i on of 5 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
vi
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LIS T O F I L L U S T RATI O N S
F i g u re
Page
1.
The Th ree L eve l s O f L i s te n i n g .
2.
F requen cy D i s t r i b u t i on of P e r cen t i l e
Sco res on t h e B rown - C a r l s e n L i s te n ­
i n g C omp reh e n s i on Tes t o n the T o t a l
Popu l a t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.
F requen cy D i s t r i b u t i on o f G r a de P o i n t
Ave rages o f the Tot a l Popu l a t i on ( 1 1 2 )
48
4.
Compa r i son o f the Coe f f i c i e n t s o f
C o r re l a t i on fo r t h e B rown - Ca r l s e n
L i s t e n i n g Comp rehe n s i on Tes t W i th
G ra d e - P o i n t Ave r ages f o r t h e Tota l
Pop u l a t i on ( 1 1 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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v it
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3
51
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I
I
ABST RACT
TH E RE LATION S HI P B EHJ E E N TH E LISTENING COH P R E H E N S I O N L E V E L S
A N D T H E SC H O LASTIC S UCC E S S O F S E NIO R B U SIN E S S S T U D E NTS
AT SAN F E RNAN DO VAL L EY STAT E C O L L E G E
by
Se l m a Gams C rane
Ma s te r of S cience i n Busines s Adminis t ra tion
Jun e , 1 9 7 1
B a ckg r oun d though t s to t h e s tudy a re, one , t h a t t od ay • s
l i fe s tyl e p r o l ife r a tes t h e s poken wo r d , p a r ticu l a r l y i n the co l l ege
c l a s s room whe re i n fo rma tive o r a l p resen t a tions p redomi n a t e ; a n d ,
two , t h a t the comp l ex physio l ogica l , p sych o l ogica l , a n d i n t e l l e c tua l
p roce s s es o f
I is tening
a re a f fected by many va riab l e s .
The pu rpose of this s tudy was t o gain insig h t i n t o the ro l e
of l i s teni n g abi l i ties i n s cho l a s tic succe s s a t the co l l ege l eve l .
The s co r e s on a l i s tening comp rehen sion tes t a dmini s t e red to a
s pe ci fic g roup o f s e ni o r busines s s tude n t s we re us ed a s evide n ce
of t h e l eve l o f l i s tening abi l i ties of busine s s s tuden t s a t S a n
Fe rnando Va l l ey S t a t e Co l l ege .
The s cho l as ti c succes s o f t h e s e
s tuden t s wa s evidence d by t h ei r g rade- poi n t average s .
In a d di tion ,
d a t a we re ga the r e d f rom t h e t e s t pa r ti ci p a n t s as t o t h ei r p e r s on a l
a n d educa tion a l b a ckg roun d .
T h e s e d a t a we re then submi t ted t o both
I
des c rip tive a n d co r re l a tive s t a tis tica l ana l yses .
vii i
I
'
A t temp t s we re made to con t ro l ce r t a i n f a c t o rs w i th i n the
tes t i ng s i t ua t i on : env i ronme n t fo r tes t i n g, p res en t a t i on o f the
tes t , and mot i v a t i on of the t e s t p a r t i c i pa n t s .
The re s u l t s of t h e a n a l ys es i nd i ca te tha t wh i l e t h e re i s a
pos i t i ve re l a t i on s h i p b e twee n 1 i s te n i n g ab i l i t i es and s ch o l a s t i c
s u cces s , t h a t r e l a t i ons h i p i s n o t necess a r i l y s i g n i f i ca n t .
I t was
ob s e rved that the re l a t i on s h i p b e twee n ce r t a i n l i s t en i n g ab i l i t i es
( the comp rehen s i on of cent ra l i de a s , i n fe re n ces , a n d o r g a n i za t i on
i n l e ctu r e fo rma t ) a n d s ch o l a s t i c s u c ce s s i s much more pos i t i ve a n d
s i g n i f i ca n t .
I mp l i ed i s t h e poss i b i l i ty t h a t a tes t comp r i s ed of
t h e l ec t u re fo rma t on l y i s a mo re re l i a b l e i n s t rumen t fo r te s t i n g
the l i s t e n i n g a b i l i t i es of col l e ge- l eve l b u s i n e s s s t uden t s t h a n i s
a tes t of s pe c i f i c l i s t e n i n g s k i l l s .
The h i g h i n c i d e n ce o f t h e
l e c t u re comp rehe n s i on s e c t i on s co re be i n g the l owes t of a l l s e c t i on
s co re s i nd i ca t e s a l a ck o f c r i t i ca l l i s t en i n g ab i l i t i e s among
b u s i ne s s s t u den t s .
A re a s f o r fu r th e r s t u dy i nd i ca ted by the f i n d i n g s of t h i s
s t udy a re t h e redes i g n of t h e l i s te n i n g comp rehens i on tes t i t s e l f·
and
the r a t e s o f reten t i on o f a u r a l l y p resen ted ma te r i a l ove r
va ry i n g s pa n s o f t i me .
ix
'
C HA PT E R I
I NTRO D U CT I ON
A De f i n i t i ve D i s c u s s i on o f L i s ten i ng Comp rehe n s i on
_______A_ s _B_ a ckg r o u n d to the S t ud_t_____
______
That ou r wo r l d i s h i g h l y ve rba l i s s e l f - ev i d e n t .
Wo r d s i n
p r i n t ed fo rm a re p re s e n ted fo r v i s u a l rece p t i on a n d i n te r p re t a t i on
i n news p a pe r s , ma gaz i nes , b ooks , and on t ra f f i c s i g n s a n d b i l l boa rd s .
S i nce the adve n t of the t ra n s m i s s i on of s ound , h oweve r ,
t h e p re s e n t a t i on of wo rd s fo r a u ra l recep t i on h a s be come i n c rea s i n g l y p reva l en t a n d i mpo r t a n t i n the env i ronme n t .
Now , i n ad d i t i o n
t o face- to- face t ra n s m i s s i on , t h e re i s the pos s i b i l i ty of mu l t i p l e
and s i mu l taneous l on g - d i s ta n ce a u ra l t ra n s m i s s i on s v i a the te l ephone , te l ev i s i on , rad i o , a nd phonog raph .
The rece p t i on o f t h e s e a u ra l wo r d t r a n s m i s s i o n s i s refe r red
t o , l oo s e l y , as 1 1 l i s te n i n g .''
I s l i s ten i n g , then , the me re recep t i on
of wo r ds by the ea r s o r i s i t , a s many expe r t s po i n t o u t , a comp l ex
p roces s req u i r i n g the i nvo l veme n t o f o t h e r h uman capabi l i t i e s s u ch
a s i n te l l ec t u a l s e l e c t i on and i n te r p re ta t i on .
As John C a f f rey 1
po i n t s ou t i n h i s a r t i c l e , 1 1An I n t rod uct i on to t he A ud i n g Con cep t , 1 1
l i s ten i ng h a s become a 11p o r tman teau i n to wh i ch i s d umped an end l e s s
va r i e ty o f mean i n g s : pay i n g a t t en t i on , recogn i z i n g g ramma t i ca l
l Joh n C a f f rey , 1 1An I n t rod u c t i on to the A u d i ng Concep t , 1 1
E d uca t i on , LXX ( Decemb e r , 1 9 49 ) , 2 3 4 .
'.
\
L.
errors , re t a i n i n g f a c t s , perce i v i n g phonem i c var i a n t s , compreh end i ng
s poken l a n g uage , a n d s i t t i n g u p s tra i gh t . ' '
Theor i s t s h ave a t t emp ted t o s i mp l i fy , a n d thereby c l ar i fy ,
the comp l ex i ty of t h e 1 i s te n i n g proces s throu g h the deve l opme n t of
con s truc t s of the proces s.
Typ i ca l of t h i s a p proa ch i s Ra l ph E .
Ke l l og g' s recen t l y p u b l i s h e d mode l wh i ch p i c t ures 1 i s ten i n g a s a
tr i - l eve l proces s ( F i g ure 1 ) . 1
Dr . Ra l p h G . N i ch o l s , a p i on eer i n t h e f i e l d o f l i s te n i ng
exper i me n t a t i on a n d res e arch , h a s hypothes i zed tha t there i s n o t
jus t o n e k i n d o f l i s te n i n g , b u t t hree , ea ch s erv i n g a d i f fere n t
p urpos e or n eed: " ( 1 ) a p prec i a t i ve l i s t e n i n g t o a n y k i n ds o f s t i mu l i
gra t i fy i n g t o the s e n s e s o f t h e hearer ; ( 2 ) cr i t i ca l l i s ten i n g t o
per s u a s i ve s peech f or the purpos e o f eva l u a t i n g t h e s pe a ker's arg u men t a n d ev i dence ; (3) d i s cr i m i n a t i ve 1 i s te n i n g for the p urpos e o f
c ompreh e n s i on a n d perh a p s l a ter u t i l i za t i on o f the i deas a n d i n forma t i on o f t h e s pea ker . " 2
The N a t ure of L i s t en i n g C ompreh e n s i on
A s h a s been p o i n te d ou t , the genera l con s en s u s among the
exper t s i s that t h e t erm " l i s te n i n g" i mp l i e s that more t h a n j us t
the per ce p t i on o f s o u n d i s i nvo l ved .
There i s , h owever , a d i ver-
gence o f o p i n i on on wha t l i s te n i n g comprehen s i on does cons t i t u te .
l Ra l ph E . Ke l l ogg , "A S tudy o f t h e E f fect o f a F ir s t Gra de
L i s te n i n g I n s tr uc t i on a l Program u pon A ch i evemen t i n Read i ng and
L i s t e n i n g ," S a n D i ego ( Ca l i forn i a ) Coun ty , Departme n t o f E d u ca t i on · ,
1 9 66 , 2 2 .
2 " Dr . Ra l ph G . N i ch o l s , "L i s t en i n g I n s truct i on i n t h e
Seco n d ary S choo l , " N a t i on a l As s oc i a t i on o f S econ d ary S choo l Pr i n c i ­
pa l s B u l l e t i n , ( May , 1 9 52) , 1 58 .
\
•
3.
F i g u re
T H E T H R E E L EV E LS O F L I ST E N I N G
A C onceptua l Mode l o f the P roce s s of L i s te n i n g
-------------------------- -----------------------
I . H EA R I N G
A . Scope o f I n pu t
To t a 1 -PhysTcaT Ho r 1 d C a pab l e of T ra n s ­
m i s s i on Aud i to r i a l l y
B . Req u i reme n t s o f I n d i v i d ua l
Aud i to r Acu i ty
C . Reac t i on Leve l o f I n d i v i d u a l
P hys i ca l Recep t i on , No C omp rehen s i on o�
I n te rp re ta t i on
�
�-- ----- ------- ----- ---- ----------
I I . L I STEN I NG
Ill.
AUD I N G
S ou rce :
A . Scope of I n pu t
Tot a l Wor l d o f S poken Language
B . Req u i reme n ts of I n d i v i d ua l
Aud i to ry D i sc r i m i n a t i on
C . React i on ieve l o f I n d i v i d u a l
Recog n i t i on of L i ke ne s s a n d D i f fe rence of
Phonemes
A . Scope of I n pu t
Tota l Wo r l d of S poken Language
B . Req u i reme n t s of I n d i v i d ua l
Aud i t o ry Comp rehens i on
C . React i on Leve l of I nd i v i d u a l
C omp rehen s i on a n d I n t e r p re t a t i on o f O ra l
L a n gua ge Symbo l s
Ra l ph E . Ke l l ogg , "A S t u dy of the E f fect of a F i rs t G rade
L i s t en i ng I n s t ruct i on a l P rog ram U pon Ach i evemen t i n Read ­
i n g a n d L i s te n i n g , " S a n D i ego C ou n ty ( C a l i fo rn i a ) ,
Depa r tmen t o f E d uca t i on , 1 9 66 , 2 2 . **
**Des p i te the a p pea rance o f t h i s s t r uc t u re i n a s t u dy on a f i rs t
g ra d e l eve l p rog ram , i t s u n i ve r s a l i ty of a p p l i ca t i on t o a l l
e d uca t i on a l l eve l s pe rm i t s i t s r i g h t f u l i nc l u s i on i n t h i s s t udy .
'
4.
O n one s i de t h e re a re t hos e , s u ch a s Pa u l Ra n k i n , Wen de l l
J oh n s on , J ames B rown , a n d D . S . S t i l l , who emph as i ze the con cep t o f
the a t tachme n t of mean i n g t o s poken l an g u a g e .
Ra n k i n refe rs to
l i s ten i n g as 11t h e ab i l i ty to u n d e rs tand s poken l an g u a g e . 1 1 1
Sti l l
def i ne s i t a s t h e 1 1 capa c i ty o f a n i nd i v i d u a l to unde r s t a n d s poken
l a n g uage i n the p re s e n ce of a s peake r . 1 1 2
These def i n i t i ons ,
h oweve r , exc l ud e the re ce p t i on of a l l o the r s ou n d s i n the e n v i ronmen t s u ch as t h e poet i c b a b b l i n g of a b rook , t he s on g of the b l ueb i r d , t h e j i n g l e o f co i n s , a l l o f wh i ch a re p e r ce i ve d a n d u n de rs tood , as b e i n g pa r t of the s pect rum o f l i s ten i n g s k i l l s .
Don Pa rdee B rown has p roposed t h a t a s pe c i f i c te rm ,
11a u d i n g , 11 mean i n g t h e com p reh e n s i on of au ra l l y p re s e n ted l an g u a g e
be a d o p t e d a n d t h a t the te rm 1 1 l i s ten i n g 1 1 b e u s e d t o denote the
mea n i ng f u l recep t i on o f othe r s o u n d s .
He d e f i nes th i s te rm 11a ud i n g1 1
a s 1 1 th e g ros s p roce s s o f l i s te n i n g t o , recogn i z i n g , a n d i n te r p re t i n g
s poke n symbo l s . 1 1 3
I n rev i ew i n g t h e l i s ten i n g de f i n i t i o n s wh i ch have
been p ropos e d , E d n a L u e F u r n es s , a l ea d i n g a u t h o r i ty i n the f i e l d of
I
i s ten i n g , s u pp o r t s the us age of the n ew te rm 11a u d11 a s the mos t
] P a u l T . Ran k i n , 1 1The Mea s u reme n t o f the Ab i l i ty t o U n de r ­
s ta n d S poken L a n g uage ,1 1 ( Docto ra l D i s s e r ta t i on , U n i ve rs i ty o f
M i ch i ga n , 19 2 6 ) i n L i s t en i n g : Read i n g s , ed . b y S a m D u ke r ,
(Metuchen , N ew J e rs ey : Sca rec row P res s , 19 66 ) , 2 5 .
2 D . S . S t i l l , 1 1The Re l a t i on s h i p Between L i s t e n i n g Ab i l i ty
a n d H i g h S chool G rades , 11 ( Do c t o r a l D i s s e r ta t i on , U n i ve rs i ty o f
P i t ts b u rgh , 19 55 ) , D i s s e r t a t i on Ab s t r a c t s , XV (19 5 5 ) , 1761 .
3 Don P a rdee B rown , 1 1And H av i n g E a r s They H e a r Not , 1 1 i n
L i s ten i n g : Rea d i n g s , D u ke r , 4 1 .
'
5.
e f f ect i ve and a c c u rate one ava i l ab l e . !
A l t h ough i t i s a more
p re c i s e , s pec i f i c , and techn i ca l te rm than that o f 1 1 ] i s ten i ng 1 1 o r
' ' l i sten i n g comp rehen s i on" i t wou l d seem t h a t t h e t e rm 1 1a u d ing1 1 h a s
not been un i fo rm l y adop ted .
It i s q u i te un l i ke l y t h a t i t s cons i s -
tent u s a g e wi l l come abo ut i n t h e nea r f u t u re beca u s e of t h e w i des pread us age o f " l i sten i ng" i n the l anguage l i t e r at u re .
The refo re ,
f o r p u r poses o f th i s i nvest i ga t i on , t h e te rm 1 1 l i sten i ng 1 1 o r 1 1 l i s teni ng comp rehens i on" w i l l be used i nte rchangeab l y w i th t h at of 1 1a u d i ng 1 1
t o refe r t o the comp l ex p roce s s by wh i ch a u ra l l anguage i s rece i ved ,
recogn ized , and i nte r p reted i n t e rms o f p e r s ona l a s s u mp t i on s and
expe r i en ce .
Fact o r s Wh i ch A f fect t h e C omp l ex
P roce s s of L i s t en i n g_ Comp rehe_!lS i on
T h e r e a re t h ree b road a reas i n wh i ch p rob l ems occu r wh i ch
a f fe c t t h e l eve l o f l i s t en i ng comp rehens i on : ( l ) those p rob l ems
wh i ch a re a s s oc i a ted w i th the s peake r ; ( 2 ) those p rob l ems wh i ch
a re a s s oc i ated w i t h the mes sage and i ts env i ronment ; and ( 3 ) t h os e
p rob l ems wh i ch a re a s soc i a t e d w i t h t h e l i sten e r h i ms e l f .
Fa c t o�s Affec t i n g t he E f f i cacy
o f t h e S peak e r
I t i s t h e a u ra of t h e 1 1non-ve r ba l 1 1 type o f commun i ca t i ve s
s u r round ing t h e s peake r ra th e r t h an t h e rea l i ty of h i s phys i ca l
p re s ence wh i ch i s most l i ke l y to a ffect t h e l i sten e r's comp rehens i on l eve l .
T h e s t u d i e s o f Menne , K l i ng en s m i t h , and No r d ; Popham ;
] E dna L u e F u rnes s , "L i sten i ng : A C a s e o f T e rm i no l og i ca l
C on f u s i on , " J o u rn a l of E d u ca t i ona l P s ycho l ogy , XLVI I I ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 4 8 1 .
'
b.
and G a uge r indi ca t e th a t the lis tening comp rehension l eve l s of the
con t ro l g r oups in t h e v a rious s t udies l i s t ening di re c t l y to the
speak e r s were no t signi fi can t l y be t te r than the l eve l s o f comp re h ension of the expe rimen t a l g roups receiving the s ame l e c t u re via
t ape reco r dings an d p ub l i c add ress sys tems . 1
Ra l p h Nicho l s s t a tes
tha t 1 1non - ve rba l 1 1 communi ca tives s u ch a s t h e co l o r of t h e s peake r's
tie o r hi s facia l a t t r a ctivenes s h a ve t h e po ten tia l for reinfo r cing ,
modi fying , o r c on t ra di c ting the mes s a ge . 2
The magni t u d e of the
po ten tia l in f l uence whi ch the s peake r's p r es tige can h a ve u pon the
acce p t ance of his mes s a g e is s o g re a t t h a t Ma rga ret Arno l d be l ieves
tha t it is t h e ob l i g a tion and res ponsibi l i ty of a l l teach e rs to
poin t ou t that poten tia l to s t uden t s . 3
Ni cho l s and A rno l d a l s o
s u g ges t t h a t t h e ski l l and fine s s e of t h e s peake r can be a signifi can t fa c t o r in b o t h t h e comp rehension and a cceptance of t h e
mes sage b y t h e l i s tener .
.
1J.W. Menne , e_t_,_a.l. , "Use o f Taped L e c t u res t o Re p l ace
C l a s s At tendan ce ," Audio-Vi s ua l Communica tion Review , XV I I ( S p ring ,
1 9 6 9 ) , 44; \�.J. Poph am , "Ta pe- Reco rded Lec t u re- s in the C o l l ege
C l a s s room ,•• Audio-Vi s u a l Communica tion Review , I X ( S p ring , 1 96 1 ) ,
1 0 8 ; P a u l W. G a uger , "The E f fect of G es t u re and the P resence o r
Ab s en ce o f t h e S peake r on the Li s tening Comp rehension o f E l even t h
an d Twe l f t h Gra d e Hig h Schoo l P u pi l s , 1 1 ( Docto ra l Dis s e r ta tion ,
Unive r s i ty of Wis consin , 1 9 5 1 ) , S peech Monog raphs , X I X (June , 1 9 5 2 ) ,
1 1 6-7 .
2 Ra l p h G . N i c ho l s and Leona r d A . S tevens , A re You
Li s t ening? ( N ew Y o rk : McG raw- Hi l l s Book C o . , I nc . , 1 95 7 ) , 60- 1 .
3 Ma rga re t Arno l d , 1 1Teaching C ri ti ca l Li s tening , 1 1
I l l inois Eng l i s h B u l l e tinJ ( N ovembe r , 1 9 5 6 ) , 269 .
'
f.
The Me s s a g e and
I t s Env i r onmen t
I t wou l d s eem l og i ca l to be l i eve t h a t t h e env i ronmen t w i th i n
wh i ch commun i ca t i on takes p l a ce wou l d have s ome effect upon the
deg ree of comp rehens i on that oc c u r s .
N i cho l s has found in
two
s e p a r a t e s t u d i e s , one a t the Un i vers i ty of M i nnes o t a and the o t h e r
a t I owa S t a te Un i ve r s i ty , mo r e than 1 1 0 d i ffe ren t i t ems cou l d be
c i t�d by s t u den t s as be i ng f a c t o r s w i th i n the me s s a g e env i ronment
wh i ch h a d a t s ome t i me a ffected th e i r ab i l i ty to l i s ten .
His
conc l u s i on s we re t h a t env i ronmenta l d i s t ra c t i ons d o have s ome
effect on comp rehens i on ra tes , a l though the deg ree of t h a t ef fect
may be common l y ove r ra t ed . l
The i mp l i ca t i ons a re t h a t t h e effect
of d i s t ra c t i on on l i s ten i ng comp rehens i on i s more a ma t te r of
deg ree of s u s ce p t i b i l i ty to or the to l e rance of d i s t ra c t i on on t h e
pa r t o f t h e l i s tene r , r a t h e r than the q u an t i ty o r q u a l i ty of t h a t
d i s t ra c t i on p re s en t i n t h e env i ronmen t .
Re s e a r ch i n to the a rea of the effect of i n c reased s peeds
of s peak i ng on the r a t e o f comp rehens i on ( 1 1comp re s s ed s p eech 1 1}
i nd i ca t e s t h a t wh i l e t h e ave rage l e c t u re s peed i s abou t 1 2 5 wo r d s
p e r m i nu te , s peed s of u p t o 300 wo rds p e r m i nu te can be to l e ra ted
l N i ch o l s and S tevens , A re You L i s ten i ng? 7 7; N i ch o l s ,
1 1 Fa c to r s Accoun t i ng f o r D i ffe rences i n C omp rehens i on of M a t e r i a l s
P re s en ted O ra l l y i n t h e C l a s s room , 11 ( Docto r a l D i s s e r t a t i on , I owa
S t a te Un i ve r s i ty , 1 9 48) i n L i s ten i ng : Read i ngs , D uke r , 323.
'
8
by l i stene r s without si gnificant l y red u cing thei r rates of
comp re hension .
1
It is the deg ree of diffic u l ty of the mate ria l p re s ented
o ra l l y , rathe r than the o rganization of that o r a l p re sentation
which s eems to affect the comp reh ension rate of the mes s a ge ,
a c co rding to the res u l t s of two st udies done by K . C . Beigh l ey . 2
In st riving fo r inc re a s ed comp rehension of the a u ra l
me s s age , res e a rche r s f o r the p a st 1 5 y e a r s h a ve been exp l o ring
the fea sibi l ity of deve l o ping a 1 1 l istening abi l ity1 1 ya r d stic k
simi l a r t o t h o s e deve l oped b y R udo l f F l es ch fo r t h e 1 1 read abi l ity1 1
of w ritten mate ria l .
S o fa r t h e emphasis h a s been upon the adapta-
tion of th e e xisting readabi l ity ya rdsticks with the res u l ting
re commendations that any fu rth e r resea r c h s h o u l d rath e r be concent rated on the deve l opment of new y a rdsti cks than on any fu rthe r
attempts to ada pt t h e readabi l ity standa rds .
] Nicho l s and Steven s , A re You Li stening? 7 8 ; Nicho l s ,
1 1 Li stening Inst r u ction in t h e S e conda ry S choo l , 1 1 1 6 2 ; David B . O r r ,
1 1A N ote on Ra pid Li stening , 1 1 Phi D e l ta Ka p pan , (Hay , 1 9 6 5 ) , 460 .
2 K . C . Bei g h l ey , 1 1An Expe rimenta l Study of t h e Effe ct of
Fou r S peech Va riab l e s on Listene r C omp rehension , 1 1 S peech M onog r a ph s ,
XIX {Novembe r , 1 95 2 ) , 2 5 6 ; 1 1An Expe rimenta l Study of the Effect of
Th ree S peech Va riab l es on Listene r Comp rehension , 1 1 S peech Monog raphs ,
XXI ( N ovembe r , 1 9 5 4 ) , 2 5 2 .
3 o rvi l l e G . Manion , 1 1An App l ication of Readabi l ity Formu l ae
t o O r a l Communication , 1 1 {Docto ra l Dis s e rtation , Unive r sity of Michi­
g an , 1 9 5 3 ) , Dis s e rtation Abst r a cts , XIII ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 452 ; Kenneth A .
H a rwood , 1 1 Li s tenabi 1 ity and Rea dabi 1 ity , 1 1 S peech Honog raphs , XXII
(Ma r ch , 1 9 5 5 ) , 5 2 ; F ran cis A . Ca rtie r , 1 1Listenabi l ity and ' H uman
Inte r e st • , 1 1 S peech Monog ra ph s , XXII (Ma r ch , 1 9 5 5 ) , 5 5 .
'
9.
Facto rs Res i d i ng W i t h i n t h e L i s tene r
Wh i ch Affec t H i s L i s t en i ng
C omp reh ens i on
Fo r many yea rs , the ro l e of t h e 1 fs t ene r rn s u c ces s f u l
commun i ca t i on h a s been a l l b u t fgno red .
I t has been a s s umed t h a t
i f t h e con d i t i ons we re r i gh t , t h e env i ronmen t con t ro l l e d , the
s peake r ' s p resen t a t i on e f fect i ve , an d the mes s a ge s c i en trfrca l l y
d rawn , then , a u t oma t i ca l l y , comp rehens i on wou l d take p l ace .
Of
l a t e , howeve r , theo r i s t s and re s e a r ch e rs , pa r t i cu l a r l y thos e wf t h
a psycho l ogfca l o rren t a tron , h ave a t temp ted t o foc us a t t en tfon on
t h e ro l e o f t h e l i s tene r and hfs res ponsfbf l t ty rn s u cces s fu l
communrca tron .
1
Factors wf thfn the 1 i s tene r whfch a f fect hfs comp rehens i on
r a t e a re re l a te d to hfs phys i ca l a t t rfbutes , hfs cu l tu r a l b a c kg round , hfs fnt e l l ec t ua l capab i l i t i es , hfs p e r s ona l i ty , and hfs
p s ycho l og i ca l s e t .
£> hys1ca l A t tdbu te s o f t h e Us tene r A f fect i n g H i s L i s ten i n_ g
Comp rehensfon Leve l . - - One o f t h e fa l s e a s s ump t i on� wh i ch h a ve
b l ocked t h e tea chfng o f lfs ten i ng i s tha t l i s t en i n g abf l i ty i s
c l os e l y r e l a te d t o hea rfng a cu i ty .
I f t h e ea r s a re f unc t i on i ng
p ro pe r l y , t h en , the fn d i v i d u a l s h ou l d be a good l f s tene r .
s i mp l e s ta tfs t i cs , t h i s i s not s o .
By
On l y s i x p e r cen t o r l es s of
t he na tfon's s choo l c h i l d ren h a ve hea r i n g defects tha t m i gh t i mpa i r
t he i r ab i l i ty t o l ea rn i n a no rma l c l a s s room .
1S.
Th e tes t s o f ab i l i ty
I . H ay akawa , " H ow to A t tend a C on fe r ence ," ETC , X I I
( A u tumn , 1 9 5 5 ) , 5 .
'
I
to unde rstand what i s hea rd h ave s hown that nea r l y a l l ch i l d ren
h ave s ome d i f f i cu l ty . l
Nume rous st u d i es h a ve touched on the s ex of the l i sten e r
a s a cont r i b ut i ng fact o r i n t h e comp rehens i on l eve l . l
N i ch o l s ,
I rv i n , and B rewste r d i d f i n d s i gn i f i cant re s u l t s i nd i cat i ng that
f ema l es tended to b e b r i g hte r , b ut we re poo r e r l i stene rs , more
ea s i l y i n f l uenced by what they hea rd .
Ot h e r s , s u ch as B re i te r ,
C on d on , and J a ck s on found n o s u ch co r re l at i on .
C u l t u ra l B�ckg roun� a s an I n f l uenc i n g Factor on the
Comp rehens i on L eve l .- - As C h i s h o l m p o i nts o ut 1 1the re l at i on s h i p
between what the 1 i stene r s hea r an d t h e s peake r s say i s not on a
one-to-one ba s i s .
t i on s :
Beca u s e you may say i t i n you r f rame of a s s ump -
I hea r i t i n m i ne . 1 1 3
H aney , a l s o , a g rees that one ' s po i nt
1 N i cho l s and Stevens , A r e You L i sten i ng? 1 1 .
2 N i cho l s , Ib i d . , 8 ; C h a r l es E . I rv i n , 1 1 Eva l u at i ng a T ra i n i n g
P rog r a m i n L i sten i ng f o r C o l l eg e F res hmen , 1 1 S choo l Rev i ew , LXI
( J une , 1 9 6 3 ) , 29 ; L a u rence W . B rewste r , 1 1An Ex- p l o rato ry St u dy o f
S ome As pect s of C r i t i ca l L i sten i n g Amon g C o l l ege F re s hmen , 1 1
( Do cto r a l D i s s e rtat i on , Un i ve rs i ty of l ovva , 1 9 5 7 ) , S peech Honog raphs ,
XX I V ( J une , 1 9 57) , 8 7 ; J oan B re i te r , 1 1A Compa r i son of Read i ng and
L i sten i ng a s Te chn i q ues of Inst r u ct i on i n the S oc i a l St ud i e s at the
S i xth G ra d e Leve l , 1 1 ( D o cto r a l D i s se rtat i on , Co l o rado State C o l l eg e ,
1 9 68) , D i s s e rtat i on Ab st r a cts , XX I X ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 2 4 3 0A ; E . F . Condon ,
1 1An Ana l y s i s of t h e D i f fe rences Between Good and P o o r L i stene r s i n
G rades N i ne , E l even , and T h i rteen , 1 1 ( Do ctora l D i s s e rtat i on , Un i ve r­
s i ty o f Kan s a s , 1 9 6 5 ) , D i s se rtat i on Abst r a ct s , XXIX ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 3 1 46 ;
A . E . J a ck s on , ·�n Invest i g at i on o f the Re l at i ons h i p Between L i sten­
i ng and Se l ected V a r i ab l es i n G r ades Fou r , F i ve , and S i x , 1 1 Docto ra l
D i s s e rtat i on , A r i zona Stat e Un i ve rs ity , 1 96 6 ) , D i s s e rtat i on
Abst r a ct s XXVII ( 1 966) , 5 3 A .
3 F r an c i s P . C h i s ho l m , 1 1A New K i nd of Comp r ehens i on Test , 1 1
J o u rna l of Commun i cat i on , V ( Fa l l , 1 9 5 5 ) , 83 .
\
I I.
of v i ew i s a de t e r ren t to v i s u a l i z i ng ano th e r p e r s on's f r ame of
refe rence . 1 I t wou ld s eem t h a t i t was neces s a ry fo r t h e 1 i s tene r
to comprehend the mes s a ge des p i te t h e i n t e rference of h i s own backg r ound , o r a s K r i s hnamu r t i ref e rs to ' ' l i s t en i ng th rough a s c reen of
re s i s t an ce . " 2
of nume rous s t ud i e s have i nd i ca ted t h a t t h e l i s tene r ' s ab i l i ty to
comprehend a u ra l mes s a g e s i s re l a ted t o h i s na t i ve i n te l l ec t ua l
ab i l i ty; h ovveve r , the deg ree of t h e co r re l a t i on be tvJeen the two
f a c t o r s i s ra t h e r doub tfu l w i th coeff i c i en ts of c o r re l a t i on be i ng
found t o range f rom 0 . 0 5 t o 0 . 7 8 . 3
I t i s Pe t r i e's op i n i on t h a t
s i nce l i s ten ing com p r e h ens i on i s) bas i ca l l y , a men ta l a c t i v i ty ,
l w .v . H aney , C ommun i ca t i on and O r gan i z a t i ona l Behav i o r.
( H omewood , I l l i no i s: R i ch a rd D . I rw i n , I nc . , 1 967) , 6 3 - 7 3 .
2 J . K r i s hnamu r t i , The F i r s t and L a s t F reedom , c i ted by
D r . Dom i n i ck A . Ba rba ra , "On L i s t en i n g - - Th e Ro l e of the E a r i n
P s ych i c L i fe , " Today ' s S peech , V ( J anu a ry , 1 9 5 7 ) , 9 6 .
3 1 s abe l l a H . Tou s s a i n t , " I n te r re l a t i on s h i ps of Read i ng ,
L i s ten i ng , A r i thmet i c , and l n te l l i g en ce and T h e i r lmp l i ca t i on s , ' '
( Do c to ra l D i s se r t a t i on , Un i ve r s i ty of P i t t sbu rgh , 1 9 6 1 ) D i s s e r t a t i on
Abs t ra c t s , XX I I ( 1 96 1 ) , 8 1 9; C ha r l es B rown , "T h ree S t ud i es ofth-e�­
L i s ten ing of C h i l d ren , " S peech Monog ra p h s , XXX I I ( J une , 1 96 5 ) , 1 3 4;
J ohn A. H abe r l and , ' 'A Co-m pa r i s on of L i s ten i ng Tes t s w i th S t anda rd ­
i zed Tes t s , " Jou rna l of Ed uca t i ona l Resea r ch , L l l (Ap r i l , 1 9 5 9 ) ,
302 1 ; \�a l te r F . S t rome r , " L i s ten i ng and P e r s ona l i ty , " Educa t i on ,
LXXV ( J an u a ry , 1 9 5 5 ) , 3 2 3; R . B . S e l ove r and J . P . P o r te r ,
"P red i ct i on of t h e S c ho l a r s h i p of F res hmen Men By Tes t s of
L i s ten i ng and Lea rn i ng Ab i l i ty , 1 1 J o u rna l of Ap p l i ed P sycho l ogy , XX I
( O c tob� r , 1 9 3 7) , 5 87 - 8; E . E . V iney a rd and R . B . Ba i l ey ,
" I n te r re l a t i on s h i p s of Read i n g Ab i l i ty , L i s t en i ng S k i l l , I n te l l i ­
gen ce , and S ch o l a s t i c Ach i evemen t , " J o u rna l of Deve l opmen t a l Read ing ,
I ll ( S p r i n g , 1 9 60) , 1 7 8 .
\
1 2.
i t i s l i nked w i th ve rba l i nte l l i gence . l
H oweve r , i t i s not so
c l os e l y co r re l ated that i n t e l l i ge n ce tes t s co res can be u s ed as
a ccu rate p red i ctors of l i ste n i n g ab i l i ty .
O f f a r mo re s i gn i f i ca n ce on t h e l i sten i n g comp rehe ns i o n
rate i s the ab i l i ty to st r u ctu ra l i ze a u r a l mate r i a l . 2
Ab rams'
hypothes i s that th e ab i l i ty to st r u ctu ra l i ze co r re l ates s i g n i f i ca n t l y a n d pos i t i ve l y w i th l i sten i n g comp rehe n s i on was s u p p o rted
by a s i g n i f i ca n t co r re l a t i on f i g u re ( r
==
0 . 3 9 ; p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) betwee n
these two va r i ab l e s a s meas u red by the B rown - Ca r l s en L i s t en i n g
Comp rehe ns i on Te s t a n d the Knowe r - Gaye r O rg a n i z a t i on Te s t .
P s ycho 1 og i ca 1 Factors a n d P_:: r s ona 1 i ty S e t a s I n f 1 u e n c i n g
Facto r s i n L i s ten i n g Comprehen s i on:- - S oc i a l mat u r ity (t he re l i e f
f rom fee l i n g s o f s e l f- i nadequac i e s ) , a cco r d i n g to B i rd , i s a
neces s a ry p re r eq u i s i te to good l ea rn i n g . 3
The refo re the pe rson
who i s u n ab l e t o a ch i eve men ta l a n d emo t i on a l matu r i ty can neve r
be come a rea l l y good l i stene r .
Many of t h e a cknow l edged expe rt s
i n the f i e l d o f l ea rn i n g be l i eve t h a t emot i ona l rea ct i ons ( j oy ,
·------ -----
! c h a r l es R . P et r i e , J r . , "An Expe r i me n t a l Ev a l u a t i on of
Two Methods of I mp r ov i n g L i s t en i n g Comp rehen s i on Ab i l i t i es , "
( Docto r a l D i s s e r ta t i on , P u r d ue U n i ve r s i ty , 1 96 1 ) , i n L i s te n i ng :
Rea d i n g s , D uke r , pa s s i m .
2 P a u l I . McC l e n d on , "An Expe r i men ta l S t udy o f t h e Re l at i on ­
s h i p B e tween t h e Note-Tak i n g P ra c t i ce s a n d L i s ten i n g Comp rehen s i on
of Co l l ege F res hmen D u r i n g Expos i t o ry Lect u re s ," ( D octora l D i s s e r t a ­
t i on , S t a t e U n i ve r s i ty o f I owa , 1 9 5 6 ) , D i s s e r t a t i on Abs t r a cts , XV I
( 1 9 5 6 ) , 1 7 36 - 7 ; A r n o l d G . Ab rams , "The Re l a t i on s h i p of L i sten i n g
and Read i n g Comp reh e n s i on to Sk i l l i n M es s a g e St ructu ra l i z at i on ,"
Jou rna l o f Commun i ca t i on , XV I ( J u ne , 1 9 66) , 1 2 1 - 2 .
3 Dona l d E . B i rd , " L i ste n i n g , " NEA J o u r n a l , X L I X ( Novembe r ,
1 9 60) , 3 2 .
'
I:Jo
anger , fear , gr i ef ) , i n n er conf l i c t s , anx i e t i es , a n d r i g i d i t i es ,
p l ay havoc w i th t h e l i s t e n i n g compreh e n s i on l eve l , by i n h i b i t i ng
a n d b l ock i n g rea l unders t a nd i ng .
1
Never t h e l es s , the s tren g t h of t h e l i s t ener ' s des i re to get
i nforma t i on (mot i va t i on ) pre-determ i n e s t h e d e p t h of a t t en t i on and
c on cen tra t i on g i ve n t o the ma t er i a l be i n g pres e n ted .
Tr ue , i t i s
d i ff i cu l t t o q u a n t i t a t i ve l y mea s ure t h e pre s e n ce of mot i va t i on b u t
t h e opera t i on of mo t i va t i on h a s been ev i de n ce d b efore res earc hers
many t i me s a n d has been a t tes ted to by s urveye d l i s t eners . 2
Re l a t i on s h i p of O t h er Commun i ca t i on Sk i l l s t o LJs t e n i n g . - Even t h o s e t h eor i s t s wh o s ee s ome s i m i l ar i t i es b e tween a n d among
c . er t a i n a s pe c t s of t h e four c ommun i ca t i on sk i l l s (rea d i n g , wr i t i n g ,
l i s te n i n g , s peak i n g ) p o i n t o u t t h ere are d i s t i n c t an d s i g n i f i ca n t
d i fferen ces .
I nves t i ga t i on s i n t o t h e re l a t i on s h i ps have res u l ted
i n conf l i c t i n g con c l u s i on s , s ome i nd i ca t i ng s tr o n g corre l a t i on s ,
a n d other s weak corre l a t i on s , between l i s t en i ng a n d o ther l a n g uage
sk i l l s . 3
1 s tromer , "L i s ten i n g a n d P ersona l i ty , " 3 2 3 ; N i cho l s a n d
S teven s , Are You L i s te n i n g? 9 0 ; Bar b ara , "On L i s t en i n g --The Ro l e
of t h e E ar i n P s ych i c L i fe , " 9 5 - 6 .
2 c h ar l es E . I rv i n , "11ot i va t i on i n L i s te n i n g Tra i n i n g , "
J ourna l of C ommun i ca t i on , I V ( S u mmer , 1 9 54) , 42 ; C h ar l e s T . Brown ,
" S t ud i e s i n L i s t en i ng Comprehe n s i on , " S peech Monogr a p h s , XXV I
( November , 1 9 5 9 ) , 29 1 - 2 ; Ra l p h G . N i ch o l s , " Fa c tor s Accoun t i n g
for D i fferen ces i n C ompreh en s i on of Mater i a l s Pre sen ted Ora l l y , " 322 .
3 E d n a L u e F ur n es s , " I mprov i ng Read i n g T hro ugh L i s ten i ng , "
E l emen tary E n g l i s h , XXX I V ( Ma y , 1 9 5 7) , 30 7 ; Les ter Wh ee l er a n d
V i o l a Whee l er , " Some C h aracter i s t i c D i ffere n ce s a n d S i m i l ar i t i e s
Among t h e L a n g ua g e Ar t s , " J o ur n a l of E d u ca t i on , CXXXV I I I ( O c t ober ,
1 9 5 5 ) , 4 - 6; S ta nford Tay l or , " L i s ten i n g : Wh a t Res earch S ay s t o t h e
Tea cher , "No . 2 9 , Amer i can Ed u ca t i on a l Res earch , (Apr i l , 1 9 64) , 1 5 .
'
I 4.
Th i s conf l l e t h a s l ead t o d i f fe r i ng i n te r p re t a t i ons on the pa r t of
t h e expe r t s .
Some s ay t h a t the p os i t i ve co r r e l a t i ons p o i n t up the
l a ck of need to g i ve s pe c i f i c l i s t en i n g t ra i n i ng and tha t t r a i n i ng
in any o f t h e ot h e r l anguage a r t s wi1 1 ove r l a p i n to the a rea of
l i s ten ing.
Those advoca t i n g spe c i f i c l i s ten i ng t ra i n i n g c i te the
c l os e co r re l a t i ons among the l anguage a r t s a s i nd i ca t i n g
that
i mp rovemen t i n l i s ten i ng ab i l i t i e s wou l d mean a p a ra l l e l i mp rovemen t
i n othe r l anguage sk i l l s , pa r t i cu l a r l y f o r t h o s e s t uden t s who a re
hav i ng a c u t e d i f f i cu l t i e s i n the o t h e r l anguage sk i l l s , s u ch as
read i ng .
F o r examp l e , Les te r and V i o l a Wh ee l e r , i n an extens i ve
ana l y s i s
of
the ch a ra c te r i s t i c d i f fe rences and s i m i l a r i t i es among
t h e l anguage a r t s , l i s t
17
s i m i l a r i t i e s , no t i ng pa r t i cu l a r l y t h a t
deve l opmen t o f a l l of thes e sk i l l s i s dependen t u pon a s s oc i a t i ve
l ea rn i n g powe rs and capac i t i es fo r men t a l i ma g e ry ; t h a t t h e deve l op­
men t i s a f fe c t ed by mo t i va t i on , tens i ons , emo t i on s , p e r s ona l tas tes ,
ma t u r i ty, and fam i l i a r i ty w i th t h e s ubj e ct .
C i ted a s t h e p r i me
d i f fe rence amon g the sk i l l s i s t h e fo r m of the
1 ingu i s t
ic
symbo l i s m and t h e recep t i ve o r gan .
The facto r s d i re c t l y and ind i rect l y i n f l uenc i ng t h e
effect i vene s s of l i s ten i n g a re many .
To s ay t h e l ea s t , t h e ev i dence
as to the i r i nd i v i d ua l i mpo r tances i s o t h e r than conc l u s i ve .
Bak an 1 s s t a temen t bes t s umma r izes t h e s i t ua t i on :
'
Pau l
15.
L i s ten i n g s k i l l s may be depe nde n t_on i nte l l ec t ua l ,
mot i va t i on a l , a nd p e r s on a l i ty va r i ab l es . I f t h i s
i s t rue , then i t becomes i mpo r ta n t t o de t e rm i ne to
wh a t ext e n t d i ffe rences among peop l e i n l i s ten i n g
p rof i c i en cy a re due t o di ffe rences i n i n t e l l e c t ua l ,
mot i va t i on a l , and p e r s on a l i ty va riab l es . l
l P a u l B a ka n , ••some Ref l ect i on s on L i s t en i ng Behav i o r , • •
Jou rna l o f Commun i ca t i on , V I ( A u tumn , 1 9 5 6 ) , 1 1 2 .
'
C HAPT E R I I
A D E F I N I T I V E D I S C U S S I ON O F T H E STU DY
The tota l i ty o f t h e i mp a ct wh i ch the nume rous i n f l uen c i ng
facto r s can have u p on a u ra l commun i cat i on i s i mp res s i ve .
The fact
that s u c ces s fu l a u r a l commun i cat i on does take p l a ce - -that mes s a ges
a re rece i ve d , comp re hende d , an d accepted - - i s a l most amaz i n g , for
t h e odds appear to be sta cked aga inst i t s occu r rence .
Des p i te the odds , student s a re p re s ente d w i th a l a rge
p o rt i on of the i r i n fo rmat i ve mate r i a l by mean s of the bas i c
te chn i q ue o f a u ra l t rans m i s s i on i n the academ i c env i ronment - -the
l e ct u re .
Acco r d i n g t o the stud i es by Rank i n , t h e ave rage student 1 s
l i sten i n g ab i l i t i es a re taxed th ree t i me s a s o ften a s a re h i s
rea d i n g sk i l l s . l
As the deman d s ori h i g h e r ed u cat i on tod ay become
i nc reas i ng l y acute and the student-to- facu l ty r at i o g rows g reater
each year , the l e ct u r e - - and i t s c l os e s ubst i t utes , tape reco rd i n g s
and f i l mst r i p s - - i s be i ng emp l oyed w i th g r eater and g reate r f re quen cy .
On l y recent l y h a s the re been any exten s i ve i nvest i gat i on
i nt o the co l l eg e student1 s ab i l i t i e s to comp rehen d a u ra l l y
1 P a u l T . Rank i n , 1 1The I mportan ce o f L i sten i ng Ab i l i ty , 1 1
Eng l i s h J o u rna l , X V I I ( O ctober , 1 9 2 8 ) , 6 2 3-6 .
'
16.
17.
p re s e n ted �a t e ria l .
The i n t e res t o f this s t udy h a s b een to p r obe
th e exten t of the co l l e ge s t uden t 1 s lis tening cap abi l i ties a n d to
a t temp t to d e te rmi n e the e f fect of those abi l i ties u pon his l eve l
o f s cho l a s ti c s u cce s s .
This inves tiga tion has de a l t wi th the
s t udy o f the 1 is tening abi l i ties o f a numb e r of s enio r s t uden ts of
b u sine s s a t San Fe r n ando Va l l ey S ta t e Co l l e ge t o determi n e th e
re l a tion s hi p b e tween thei r evi d e n ced l i s tening abi l i ties a n d thei r
demon s t ra t e d s ch o l a s tic s u cces s .
The hypoth esis on whi ch this s t udy was b a s ed is :
T h e re is a posi tive and signi fica n t re l a tionship
be tween the l eve l of l is tening comp rehension o f
t h e s e ni o r s t ude n t maj o ring in b us ines s a t S an
Fe r n a n do Va l l ey S ta te C o l l e ge a n d his demon s t r a ted
s cho l a s tic s u cces s .
Seve ra l p re mi s e s unde r l ie t h e d eve l opmen t o f t hi s s t a temen t .
Fi r s t , and mos t basic , is the p remi s e t h a t man , a s a .mu l ti - s en s e
c reat u re wi th high l y deve l oped in te l l e c t u a l a bi l ities , is capa b l e
o f receivi n g d a t a in va rious fo rms f rom his envi ronmen t , and of
conve r ting those d a t a in to u s a b l e i n fo rma tion for the p u rposes of
l ea rnin g and a d a p ting to the envi ronme n t .
Secon d , is t h e p remi s e
t h a t whi l e d a t a a re p res en ted i n ve rba l ( o ra l and w ri t ten ) ,
pic to ria l , g raphic , a n d a udi to ry fo rms in the academic situa tion ,
a p reponde r ance of t h e ma te ria l p re s en ted a t t h e co l l e ge l eve l is
of a w ri t t en - or o r a l - ve rba l fo r m .
Thi rd , is the p remi s e t h a t
t h e re mus t be an a cknow l ed gemen t o f the exi s t ence of t he f a c t o f
l i s tene r res pon sibi l i ty in the s u cce s s o f o ra l communica tion .
T h a t is , t h e re ceiver , in this case the s t ud en t , is res ponsi b l e
'
I Uo
fo r g i v i n g the commun i ca t i on h i s a t ten t i on i n an e f fo r t to a ch i eve
unb i a sed as s i m i l a t i on .
Fou r t h , i s the p rem i s e t h a t the s cho l as t i c
s uc ce s s o f t h e s t uden t i s de pen den t u pon h i s a b i l i ty to as s i m i l a te
t h e ma te r i a l s p re s en te d an d to demons t ra t e th a t a ccomp l i shmen t
t h ro u g h va r i o u s means , p r i ma r i l y , tes t p e r fo rmances , c l a s sroom
p a r t i c i pa t i on , and w r i t ten repo r t s , on a l eve l p r e - de te rm ined by
the facu l ty as b e i n g a t l ea s t m i n i ma l .
P u r po s e o f � h e I nves t i g a t i on
C i t ed a s t h e p r i ma ry p u r pose o f th i s i nves t i g a t i o ri i s t h e
a t temp t t o ga i n a dd i t i ona l i n s i gh t i n to t h e ro l e o f l i s t en i n g
comp rehens i on on academ i c ach i e vemen t .
I t i s pos s i b l e t h a t con s i d ­
e ra t i on o f t h e f i nd i n g s o f th i s s t udy cou l d be o f va l ue to
e d u c a to r s i n th e i r eva l u a t i on and deve l o pmen t o f the i r own p re ­
s en t a t i on s o f co u rs e m a t e r i a l s .
S uch f i n d i ng s m i gh t a f fect
d e c i s i on s on t h e u s e o f a u d i o ve r s u s v i s u a l ma t e r i a l , t h e l en g t h
o f t i me a l l owed fo r a u ra l p resen ta t i ons , t h e o rd e r o f p resen t a t i on
o f d a t a i n i nd i v i d ua l l es son p l ans o r the fo rma t o f tes t ins t r u ­
men t s t o be u s e d .
I t i s a l so conce i vab l e t h a t t h e conc l u s i on s o f
t h i s s t u dy w i l l b e u s e d i f thou g h t i s g i ven to the i nc l u s i on o f
l i s ten i n g t ra i n i n g i n t h e cu r r i cu l um o f t h i s Co l l ege .
S cope o f t h e I nves t i g a t i on
C e r t a i n pa ramet e rs o f dep t h and f i e l d h ave been de f i ne d
fo r t h e th ree ph a s e s o f th i s i nves t i g a t i on , resea rch , te s t i ng , and
ana l ys i s .
T h e rev i ew o f t h e l i t e ra t u re , und er taken to dete rm i ne t h e
s t a t us o f cu r ren t r e s ea rch a n d theo ry , encompa s s e s a de f i n i t i ve
'
19.
d i s cu s s i on o f t h e na t u re an d i mp o r t an ce o f 1 i s ten i ng and l i s t en ing
ski l ls ,
t h e f a c t o r s a f fect i ng l i s t en i ng comp rehens i on , the re l a t i on ­
s h i p o f l i s t en i ng ab i l i t i e s w i th o th e r ab i l i t i es , and t h e teach ing
o f 1 i s t en ing s ki l l s .
Wh i l e the s i gn i f i can t f i nd i ng s of p rev i ous
s t ud i es dea l i ng w i th e l emen t a ry and s e conda ry l e ve l s t uden t s have
not been i gn o re d , emph a s i s h a s been u pon the resea r c h i nvo l v i ng the
c o l l eg e l eve l s t u d en t .
The t es t i ng p rog r a m wa s conducted to d e t e rm i ne t h e s ta t u s
of t h e 1 i s ten i n g ab i l i t i e s of a s e l e c t g ro u p of s en i o r l eve l
s t uden t s maj o r i n g i n bus i nes s a t t h e S ch oo l of B u s i ne s s and Econom i cs
a t S an Fe rnando V a l l ey S t a t e C o l l ege , N o r t h r i dge , C a l i fo rn i a .
The
s e l e c ted g�o u p of s en i o r s t uden t s we re a l l those en ro l l ed i n
B u s i nes s 49 7 , Ana l y s i s o f B u s i ne s s O p e r a t i on s , i n t h e S p r ing of
1 9 70 .
Bus i ne s s 49 7 i s a req u i red cou r s e fo r g ra d u a t i on and i s
l i m i ted to s en i o r - s t uden t en ro l l men t .
I n a dd i t i on to t he i r res pon s e to t h e o ra l l y a dm i n i s te red
tes t, the p a r t i c i p an t� we re req ues ted t o s u p p l y ce r t a i n background
i nforma t i on a s to t h e i r a ge , sex , e d u ca t i on a l ba ckg roun d , and
hea r i ng ab i l i t i e s ; and t h i s i n fo rma t i on was used i n the ana l y s i s of
the tes t r e s u l t s .
The co r re l a t i ve and des c r i p t i ve ana l y s e s of t h e r e� u l t s of
the tes t i ng p rog r a m h a ve been done p r i ma r i l y for the p u r pos e of
p rov i ng or d i s p rov i ng the hypothes i s o f the s t u dy .
I n a d d i t i on, d e t a i l e d ana l yses of t h e tes t s co re s and
g ra d e- p o i n t ave rages i n re l a t i on to pe rson a l backg round f a c t o r s
we r e pe r fo rme d fo r the p u rpose of gene ra t i ng mean i ng f u l i nforma t i on
\
20 .
about t h e cau s a l fact o r s and re l at i on s h i ps ex i st i ng i n the p roce s s
of l i sten i n g .
Nat u re and Sou rces of D ata
Data gathe red i n th i s study a re of a q u a l i tat i ve and
q u ant i t at i ve nat u re .
The resea r ched mate r i a l , p resented i n
C h a pte r s I and II I , i s h i gh l y conceptua l and , the refo re , bas i ca l l y
q u a l i tat i ve .
The b u l k of the q uant i tat i ve d ata pres ented res u l ts
f rom the test i ng p rog ram con d u cte d .
In a d d i t i on to the test s co res ,
data s o u r ces i n c l uded : ( 1 ) the test p a rt i c i p ants thems e l ves who
p rov i ded ba ckg round i nformat i on a s to the i r s choo l attendance ,
hea r i n g d i ff i cu l t i e s , nat i ve l anguage , etc . , and ( 2 ) the Reg i st ra r's
reco rds on i nd i v i d u a l stu dents wh i ch conta i ne d g r ade- po i nt averages
and S cho l a st i c Apt i t ude Test s co re s .
Method of P rocedu re
S i nce the bas i s f o r deve l opment of data d u r i n g t h i s i nvest i ­
gat i on wa s the a dm i n i st rat i on of a l i sten i ng comp rehens i on test ,
t h e s e l e ct i on of s u ch a test wa s of p r i me i mp o rtance .
S e l ect i on of the Test
The c r i t e r i a deve l oped fo r the test i ng i nst r ument to be
used we r e : ( 1 ) the test must be va l i date d .
T h at i s , no rms f o r
p e rfo rmance on t h e t e s t must h ave been i nte r p o l ate d f rom
s uff i c i ent l y l a rg e popu l at i ons d rawn f rom a l l pa rt s of the country
t o be va l i d at a h i g h l eve l of
conf i dence .
( 2 ) T h e test must h ave
test norms estab l i s h ed fo r the co l l eg e o r ad u l t l eve l ; ( 3 ) the
test i n g t i me requ i re d must be no mo re than the no rma l c l a s s pe r i od
at S an F e rnan d o Va l l ey St ate Co l l eg e , 5 0 m i n utes ; and ( 4) the test
'
21 .
mus t b e con s i de red a t r ue tes t of l i s t en i n g ab i l i t i e s by a con s ens us
of s pec i a l i s ts i n the f i e l d o f l i s t en i n g .
U n d e r con s i d e ra t i on we r e The S t ephan s C o l l eg e Tes t of
L i s te n i n g Comp rehen s i on , The E d u ca t i on a l Tes t i n g U n d e r s t a n d i n g
Commu n i c a t i on ( Ve rb a l C omp rehen s i on) , The B rown- Ca r l se n L i s t en i n g
Comp rehen s i on Tes t , a n d the Sequen t i a l Tes t s of E d u ca t i ona l
P rog res s : L i s te n i n g .
O f these fou r , the B rown - C a r l s e n tes t f i t
t h i s s e t o f c r i te r i a mos t c l os e l y .
I n con s i d e ra t i on of t h e mecha n i cs of a d m i n i s t e r i n g the
te s t , the B rown- C a r l sen tes t ma de the mos t p r a c t i ca l s e l ect i on ,
s i n ce i t f i t we l l w i t h i n the 5 0 - m i n u t e t es t i n g t i me l i m i t a t i on .
No rms fo r co l l ege l eve l peop l e h a d been d eve l oped a n d a l l t he no rms
s e t fo r t h by the a u tho rs we re the res u l t of an exten s i ve na t i ona l
tes t i n g p rog ram .
S pe c i f i ca l l y , s t a n da rd i za t i on was a ch i eved
th rou g h the a dm i n i s t ra t i on of F o r m Am of the B rown - C a r l s e n
L i s ten i n g C omp reh e n s i on Te s t to a p p rox i ma t e l y 8 , 0 00 s t u d e n t s
a t t e n d i n g 2 5 d i f f e r e n t h i g h schoo l s i n 1 6 s t ates a n d to 300
col l eg e s t uden t s .
Fo rm Bm , wh i ch was u s e d i n t h i s i nves t i ga t i on , i s
a l a t e r e d i t i on o f the tes t a n d was s u bm i t ted t o a n i t em-by- i tem
equ i va l e n cy tes t i n g by the a u t h o rs w i th a tes t g roup of 1 , 3 6 7
s tu den t s . 1
I l l u s t ra t i ve of the pos i t i ve op i n i on s of theo r i s ts i n
l i s t en i ng towa r d the B rown - Ca r l s e n tes t was the obse rva t i on o f
l J a me s I. B rown a n d G . Robe r t Ca r l s en , B rown - C a r l s e n
L i s t en i n g Comp rehen s i o n Tes t , M a n u a l o f D i rect i on s, (New York :
H a r cou r t , B ra ce a n d Wo r l d , I n c . , 1 9 5 3) , 3 .
'
LL ,
S a m D u ke r t h a t the two fo rms o f the tes t ' ' s h ow a ve ry s a t i s fa c t o ry
re l i<; b i l i ty" a n d t h a t th e ev i dence of t h e B rovm- Ca r l s e n tes t
acce p t a b i l i ty l i es i n the gene ra l s a t i s fa c t i on exp res s e d by i t s
ma n y u s e r s . 1
Habe r l a n d , wh o compa red va r i ou s l i s te n i n g tes t s w i th
sta n da r d i ze d tes ts i n l i n g u i s t i c a ch i eveme n t a n d read i n g comp reh e n s i on , fo u n d t h a t the B rown - C a r l s e n tes t appea red to b e much
mo r e s a t i s fa c t o ry i n ref l e ct i n g ag r eeme n t w i th the l i n gu i s t i c
s e c t i on s of s t a n d a r d i zed tes ts . 2
F o r th i s i nve s t i ga t i on , a t tempts we re made t o con t ro l
ce r t a i n maj o r con d i t i on s : the tes t pop u l a t i o n , the man ne r o f
p re s e n ta t i on o f t h e tes t , the env i ronme n t i n wh i ch t h e tes t w a s
g i ve n , a n d t h e mo t i va t i on of the p e r s on s t a k i n g the te s t .
Beca u s e i t was known t h a t the tes t wou l d h ave t o b e a dm i n i s t e red mo re than o n e t i me , w i th the i n ve s t i ga to r mee t i ng w i t h
va r i ou s cla s s s e c t i on s of B u s i nes s 49 7 , i t wa s dec i d e d t o a ch i eve
t h e g re a te s t deg ree of u n i fo rm i ty of p re s e n t a t i on by p re- t a p e reco rd i n g t h e e n t i re tes t .
The s peed of s pea k i n g ( 12 5 words pe r
m i n u te) a n d t h e i n ton a t i on ( n o rma l , c l ea r v o i ce) u s ed i n the
record i ng were thos e s u gges ted by t h e authors of the tes t .
By s e l ect i n g the tes t popu l a t i on f rom among those
e n r o l l e d i n B u s i nes s 49 7 , a ra the r h i gh deg ree o f h omog en e i ty
l sam D u ke r , "hlh a t \.Je Know Abo u t L i s te n i n g : C on t i n u a t i on
o f a Con t rove rsy , " J ou r n a l of Commun i ca t i on , X I V ( D e cemb e r , 1 966) ,
2 46 .
2Joh n A . H a be r l a n d , 1 1 A Compa r i s on o f L i s te n i n g Tes t s W i th
S t a n da r d i zed Tes t s ," 2 9 9 - 3 0 2 .
'
23.
was ach i e ved .
B u s i n e s s 49 7 , An a l y s i s of � u s i n e s s O pe ra t i on s , i s a
s e n i o r l eve l cou rse .
The refo re , a l l those en ro l l ed i n th i s c l a s s
h a d a l ready pa r t i c i pa ted i n a s i m i l a r g roup o f core cou r s e s i n
b u s i ne s s .
The regu l a r c l a s s rooms we re u s ed as the te s t i n g rooms .
T h u s , the p a r t i c i p a n t s we re tes ted i n fam i l i a r s u r round i n g s .
Al l
the rooms we re i n S i e r r a Ha l l Sou th whe r e t h e re i s s ome deg ree of
u n i fo rm i ty of room l i gh t i n g , tempe ra t u re , s i ze , and acous t i cs .
Wh i l e i t i s b eyond the rea l m of th i s , o r any o th e r i n ves t i ­
ga t i o n , t o comp l e te l y con t ro l the i nd i v i d u a l 1 s mot i va t i on f o r
exce l l en ce of pe rfo rma n ce on a tes t , i t wa s dec i ded to make an
a t t emp t t o encou rage the s t ude n t 1 s act i ve a n d i n te re s ted pa r t i cJ pa ­
t i on b y o f fe r i n g h i m the oppo r t u n i ty o f know i n g h i s own s co re .
It
was fe l t th a t mos t peop l e we re i n te res ted i n know i ng t h e s t rength
of th e i r own capab i l i t i es a n d , therefo re , wou l d s t r i ve t o do th e i r
b es t .
The offer wa s made j u s t p r i o r t o the ad m i n i s t ra t i on o f the
te s t .
Of the 1 1 5 p a r t i c i pa n t s , 1 0 8 , or 9 5 pe rcen t , reques ted
i n fo rmat i on on th e i r own tes t s co res .
Adm i n i s t ra t i on of the Te s t
The adm i n i s t r a t i on of the l i s ten i n g comp rehe n s i on test
fo l l owed a bas i c s te p - b y - s tep p rocedu re fo r a l l g rou p s .
( l ) A l l ma te r i a l s neces sa ry for the a d m i n i s t ra t i on of the
tes t we re p repa red d u r i ng the 1 1pa s s i n g t i me•• b e tween c l a s s pe r i ods .
Th a t i s , the t a pe reco r de r was read i ed a n d pen c i l s , tes t s co re
s h ee t s , a n d person a l i n f o rmat i on fo rms we re s e t o u t i n f r on t of
the i nves t i g ato r .
24.
(2) The c l a s s was b ro u g h t to o rd e r by the regu l a r
i n s t r u c to r , i f he wa s p re s e n t , o r by the i nves t i g a to r .
( 3) I f the i n s t ru c t o r was p r e s e n t , he wou l d i n t rod u ce the
resea rch e r who wou l d exp l a i n t h e p u r pose of the i n ve s t i g a t i on , the
tes t to be adm i n i s te red , the type of pa r t i c i p a t i on be i n g r·eques ted
of the s t ude n t s , a n d ,• then , make a forma l req ues t fo r th e i r p a r t i c i ­
p a t i on .
An o f fe r to i n fo rm the pa r t i c i pa n t s of th e i r own s co res
wa s made at th i s po i n t .
a n swe red .
Any q ues t i on s p ro f fe red at th i s po i n t were
Of cou r s e , i f the i n s t r u c t o r was not p re s e n t , the
resea rche r i n t� o d u ce d he r s e l f a n d t h e n p r oceeded w i th the exp l a n a ­
t i on s .
( 4) The s i mu l t a n eous d i s t r i b u t i on of pen c i l s a n d pe r s on a l
i n forma t i on s h e e t s fo l l owed .
T i me was a l l owed fo r the comp l e t i on
of these fo rms .
( 5) The te s t a n swer s he e t s we r e then d i s t r i b u ted a n d
i de n t i fy i n g i n forma t i on e n te re d o n them .
( 6) The tes t wa s a dm i n i s te r ed by mea n s of the p l ay i n g of
the t a pe reco rd i n g wh i ch con t a i ned comp l e t e i n s t r u c t i on s fo r the
use o f the an swe r sheet (as p rov i ded by the a u t h o rs o f the tes t)
a n d t h e tes t i t s e l f .
The res ea r ch e r rema i ned i n the room d u r i n g
the p l ay i n g of the t a pe i n o r d e r to ob s e rve the react i on s o f the
pa r t i c i pa n t s a n d t o n o t e a ny rema rks made or ext raneous s o u n d s
h ea r d .
( 7) M a t e r i a l s we re g a t h e red a t the comp l e t i on o f the tes t ,
any rema i n i n g q u e s t i on s a n swe red , and a n y rema rks o r op i n i on s noted .
'
An a ly s i s of Tes t Re s u l t s
The r e s u l ts of a dm i n i s te r i n g the tes t t o a tot a l o f 1 1 5
s t uden t s were s u bm i t te d t o v a r i ou s s t a t i s t i ca l tech n i q ues a n d
tests .
T h e s e i n c l u d e d f requen cy d i s t r i b u t i on s o f the pe rcen t i l e
s co res on the B row n - Ca r l se n tes t a n d t h e g r ade-po i n t ave rages ,
co r re l a t i on a n a l y s i s of the B rown - C a r l s e n tes t sco res ( th e e n t i re
tes t and i t s f i ve i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i on s) w i t h the g rade-po i n t ave rages
and w i t h the s co res on the V e r ba l S ec t i on of the S cho l a s t i c
Ap t i tude t es t .
L i m i t a t i on s of t h e I n ves t i g a t i on
L i m i t a t i on of the un i ve r s a l i ty of t h e f i n d i n g s of t h i s
s t udy i s the re s u l t of con f i n i ng the tes t pop u l a t i on t o s e n i o r
l eve l b u s i n e s s s t u den t s a t S a n Fe r n a n d o Va l l ey S t a te Co l l ege .
Wh i l e the r es u l t s a re va l i d fo r t h i s g r oup , t h e s e f i nd i n g s
can not , w i t h o u t rese rva t i on , b e app l l e d to a l l col l ege s t u d e n t s
a t a l l i ns t i t u t i on s p u r s u i ng a l l maj o r f i e l d s of s t udy .
I t wou l d
not b e pos s i b l e t o gen e r a l i ze , t h e refo re , on wh e t h e r b e i n g a n
E n g] i s h o r e n g i nee r i n g maj o r m i gh t o r m i gh t not h e i g h ten 1 i s t en i n g
a b i l i t i es .
A l s o l i m i t i ng t h e s i gn i f i ca n c e of these f i n d i n g s i s t he
f a c t t h a t g r a d e s ( u s e d h e re as a n i n d i ca t i on o f s ch o l a s t i c s u cce s s)
a re no rma l l y b a s ed on tes t s co res , repo r t s , p roj e c t s a n d c l as s
p a r t i c i pa t i on .
T h e d eve l op me n t o f a p u re cor re l a t i ve r e l a t i on s h i p
i s dep e n de n t upo n the d e t e rm i n a t i on of the p o r t i on o f the f i n a l
g ra de wh i ch r e f l e c t s t he s t u den t1 s a b i l i ty to comp rehend a n d reta i n
the a u ra l l y-p res e n t e d mate r i a l .
Mos t p rob a b l y , the po r t i on o f the
\
26 .
g ra de wh i ch ref l e c t s ora l comp rehens i on a n d reten t i on i s l e s s than
ha l f .
N o a t tem p t h a s been made , i t may be noted , to tes t t he
pa r t i c i pa n t' s cu r r en t read i n g comp rehen s i on l eve l .
Rath e r , re l i -
a n ce f o r the d a t a h a s been p l a ce d on the Verba l Sect i on of the
S cho l a s t i c Ap t i t ud e Tes t , wh i ch i s n o rma l l y taken by s t u de n t s j u s t
p r i o r t o e n t r a n ce i n t o co l l eg e .
Acco r d i n g t o the E d u ca t i on a l
Te s t i ng S e rv i ce , t h e Ve r bal S e c t i on o f t h e S cho l a s t i c A p t i t u d e Tes t
emph a s i ze s the a b i l i ty to read w i th u n de rs t a n d i n g , and t o reas on
w i t h v e r b a l ma t e r i a l . l
As p rev i ously men t i on e d , ce r t a i n va r i a b l es cou l d n o t b e
comp l e te l y con t ro l l ed .
Among those we re the t i me of day ( a l though
a l l te s t i n g was done d u r i n g the n o rma l s ch oo l day , 9 a . m . to
3 : 3 0 p . m . ) ; t h e hea r i ng d i f f i c u l t i e s o f the pa r t i c i pa n t s ; the
gene r a l h ea l t h of the pa r t i c i p a n t s ; a n d thel r person a l a t t i tudes
at the t i me o f tak i ng the te s t .
I n a n a t tem p t to con t ro l one of the va r i a b l es , the p re s e n t a t i on of the t e s t , a f a c t o r wh i ch m a y o r may not p l ay a s i g n i f i can t
ro l e i n l i s te n i n g comp reh ens i on was e l i m i n a ted by the u s e of
t a pe reco r d i n g o f the te s t .
a
T h i s factor i s the effect of the
s peake r' s pe r s o n a l i ty a n d phys i ca l ma n n e r i sms upon the l i s te n e r's
comp rehen s i on l eve l .
Fo r t h e p u rposes o f t h i s s t udy , the fo l l ow i n g d e f i n i t i on s
] E d u ca t i on a l Tes t i n g S e r v i ce , C o l l e ge S co re Repo r t s , A
G u i de f o r C o u n s e l o r s a n d Adm i s s i on s O f f i ce rs , 1 9 6 9 - 70 .
'
Lf.
o f te rm i n o l ogy l i m i t s the i r a p p l i ca t i on :
S cho l as t i c Succes s :
A m i n i mu m g ra d e - po i n t ave rage
of 2 . 0 , or C , ou t of a pos s i b l e
4.0, or A.
L i s te n i n g C omp reh� n s i on :
The comp l ex p roces s by wh i ch
a u r a l l a n g uage i s rece i ve d ,
recogn i ze d , a n d i n t e r p re t e d i n
te rms o f p e r s on a l a s s ump t i on s
a n d expe r i en ce .
Aud i n g :
T h e g ros s p roce s s of l i s te n i n g
to , r e cogn i z i n g , a n d i n te r ­
p re t i n g s poken symb o l s . 1
P l an of P re s en ta t i on
Ch a p t e r
t h e I n t rod uc t i on , p res en ted a de f i n i t i ve d i s-
I,
c u s s i on o f t h e n a t u re o f l i s t e n i n g comp rehens i on a n d the fa c t o rs
w h i ch a f fe c t i t .
Th i s Chapte r
I I,
h a s con ta i ne d a d i s cus s i on of
t h e s t udy , d e f i n i n g i t s p u rpos e , p ro ce d u re , and pa ramet e rs .
C h a p t e r I ll i s a d i s cu s s i on o f l i s te n i ng comp rehens i on as r e l a ted
t o s cho l a s t i c a c h i evemen t and i s d rawn f rom a n a na l ys i s of t h e
cu r ren t 1 i t e ra t u re re l a t ed t o the i mp o rt a n ce of l i s ten i n g i n t h e
academ i c env i ronmen t , t h e p rob l ems i nvo l ved i n l i s t en i n g i n
s choo l , a n d t h e expe r i me n t a t i on done i n t h e a re a o f tea ch i n g
1 i s t en i n g .
C ha p t e r
IV
i s a det a i l ed p re s e n t a t i on o f t h e a c t ua l
i n vest i ga t i on con d u c t e d a n d t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e f i n d i n g s of t h e
s t u dy .
C ha p t e r
V
i s a d i s u cs s i on o f t he con c l us i on s a n d
recomme n d a t i on s b a s ed on t h e f i h d i n g s of t h e s t udy .
1 Don P a r d i e B rown , 1 1And Hav i n g E a rs They H ea r N ot , 1 1 4 1 .
\
CHAP T E R I ll
L I ST E N I NG I N T H E ACADEM I C E N V I RONMENT
N o ma t t e r how i t i s d e f i ned o r con ce i ved of by theor i s ts ,
i t mus t be acknow l edged tha t l i s te n i n g p l ay s an extens i ve a n d
c r i t i ca l ro l e i n ou r l i ves .
Beca u s e o f the i n s t i n ct i ve q ua l i ty
o f l i s t en i n g a c t i v i t i es , the va s t amoun t s o f t i me s pen t i n these
a c t i v i t i e s a re not read i l y recog n i zed .
H oweve r , s t ud i es , d a t i ng
b a c k s ome 5 5 yea r s , po i n t u p , a ga i n a n d ag a i n , t h a t l a r ge po r t i on s
o f the wak i n g day a re n o rma l l y take n u p w i t h l i s t en i n g a c t i v i t i es .
Ra n k i n' s a r chetypa l s t u dy i n d i ca tes t h a t of the t i me s pe n t i n the
fo u r l a n g u a g e a r t s a c t i v i t i es ( the exp r es s i ve : s peak i n g and
w r i t i ng , and the u n d e r s t a n d i ng : l i s te n i n g a n d read i n g ) , 42 . 1
pe rcen t i s s p en t i n the p roces s o f l i s t e n i n g , a n d on l y 1 5 . 0 pe rcen t
i n read i ng . 1
O f ten , th i s l i s te n i n g t i me i s t i me s pe n t for s oc i a l l y
v i ta l rea s on s .
Fo r examp l e , t h e res u l t s of C o l u mb i a U n i ve r s i ty ' s Bu reau
o f App l i ed S oc i a l Res ea r ch s u r vey o f the i n f l uences on vo ters i n
E r i e C ou n ty , Pen n sy l va n i a , d u r i n g t h e 1 9 40 P res i den t i a l e l ec t i on ,
i n d i ca ted t h a t 3 8 p e r ce n t of t h e vot e r s i n t e rv i ewed repo r t ed t h a t
th e i r mos t i mp o r ta n t i n fo rma t i on f o r ma k i ng d e c i s i on s came f rom
62 3 - 6 .
l P a u l T . Ran k i n , ' 1The I mp o r t a n ce of L i s t en i ng Ab i l i ty ,"
'
28.
L'j.
1 i s ten i n g t o the rad i o .
The en t i re Ame r i ca n sys tems of t r i a l by
j u ry , t h e key to our democ r a t i c j ud i c i a l f ramewo rk , depen d s upon
t h e l i s ten i ng a b i l i t i es of the ju ro rs . l
L i s t en i n� i s a cknow l e d ged to be one o f t h e b a s i c too l s of
l ea rn i ng.
M i r i am W i l t ' s wo r k done i n c l a s s rooms revea l e d t hat
tea ch e r s es t i ma ted the numbe r of m i nutes pe r day s tuden ts s pen t
i n l i s ten i n g i n e l emen t a ry s ch o o l a t 7 7 .
He r own o b s e rva t i on of
1 8 c l a s s r ooms , h oweve r , i nd i c a t ed t h a t the a c tua l numbe r of m i nute s
was c l os e r t o 1 5 8 , w i t h 5 4 p e r cen t of th i s t i me s pen t l i s ten i n g to
the teache r . 2
Ma r kg ra f ' s obse rva t i on of h i g h s choo l s tuden t s i nd i -
ca ted tha t l i s ten i ng a c t i v i t i es consumed a p p rox i ma t e l y 46 pe r cent
of the s tuden t ' s t i me i n the c l a s s room . 3
O n the co l l ege l eve l ,
Dona l d B i rd ' s s tudy a t S te p h a n s C o l l ege determ i ned the p ropo r t i on
o f d a i l y commun i ca t i on t i me t h a t wa s s pen t i n l i s ten i n g .
I n com-
pa r i n g t he resu l t s o f h i s s tudy w i t h t he f i n d i n g s of Ra n k i n
1 N i ch o l s a n d S teven s , A re You L i s ten i ng? 8-9 .
2 M i r i am E . \.Ji l t , "A S tudy of Tea ch e r Awa renes s of
L i s ten i ng a s a Fa c t o r i n E l emen t a ry E duca t i on , " ( Do c t o ra l D i s s e r t a ­
t i on , Pen n s y l va n i a S t a t e C o l l ege , 1 9 49 ) , D i s s e r t a t i on Ab s t r a c t s ,
X I I ( 1 91!9 ) , 2 2 9 .
3 s ruce R . Ma r kg ra f , "An Observa t i on S tudy D e t e rm i n i ng t h e
Amoun t o f T i me T h a t S tuden t s i n t he Ten th a n d Twe l f t h G rades A r e
Expe c t ed t o L i s ten i n t h e C l a s s r oom , " i n L i s ten i n g : Rea d i n g s ,
Duke r , 1 3 3 .
\
30 .
( p rev i ous l y c i ted) (Tab l e 1 ) he found t h e 1 ike n e s s of figures to
be s t a r t l i ng l y c l os e . l
TAB L E 1
P E R C E NTAG E O F T I M E S P E NT I N VAR I OU S
COMMUN I CAT I O N S ACT I V I T I E S
ACT I V I TY
--------------
RAN K I N
S T UDY
( 1 9 2 8)
ST E P H P,N S
COL L E G E
( 1 9 5 2)
�-
--------
L i s te n i ng
S p eak i n g
42%
25%
42%
3 2%
Read i n g
W ri t i ng
1 5%
1 8%
1 5%
1 1%
S our ce : Dona l d E . B i rd , "Teach i n g L i s te n i ng
C omp rehension , 1 1 J ou r n a 1 o f Communica tion ,
I l l ( N ovemb e r , 1 9 531 , 1 2 7 .
Rec i t a t i on , deba te , a n d l e ctures a re a l l " l i s t en i n g to
I n mos t Ame r i can
l ea r n 1 1 situation s emp l oy ed o n t h e co l l eg e l eve l .
co l l eges today , pa r t i cu l a r l y i n t h e f res hman a n d s ophomo re yea rs ,
accord i n g to M c Fa r l a n d , t h e majo r p o r tion of the i n s t ruc tion in
t h e a re a s of h i s to ry a n d t h e s oc i a l s ciences fo l l ows ve ry o r th odox
l i n es vvit h l ectures , t e s ts , and textbooks .
The l ec tu re me t h od is
ce r t ain l y t h e mos t e f fic i en t me th od of expos i n g l a r ge numb e r s of
l Don a l d E . B i rd , "T ea chin g L i s t en i n g Comp rehen s i on , 1 1
J ou rn a l o f Commun i ca t i on , I l l ( N ovemb e r , 1 95 3) , 1 2 7 .
2 G e r a l d W . 11c Fa r l a n d , "Are Lec ture Cour ses Neces s a ry? 1 1
Socia l S tud i es , LX ( Feb rua ry , 1 9 69) , 6 5 .
'
31 .
s tuden t s t o upd a ted i n fo rma t i on .
Whe ther they l ea rn i n t h a t s i tua-
t i on i s s t i l l open to s tudy a n d d i s cus s i on .
But as the s tuden t - to-
facu l ty r a t i o keep s i n c rea s i n g , Popham , who con duc ted s tud i es on
the use of tape- reco rded l ectu res i n co l l ege c l a s s rooms , s t a tes
1 1 i t becomes i n c rea s i n g l y i mpo r t a n t to f i n d ways t o a l l ev i a te th i s
p res sure . 1 i l
N o t on l y i s o ra l i n s t ruc t i on t he mos t p reva l en t , i t h a s
been shown i n m a n y s tud i es to be a supe r i o r method when compa red
to the v i sua l mode of p resen t a t i on .
F o r i n s t a n ce , G reen found no
s i g n i f i ca n t d i f fe ren ces between the two modes (v i sua l and aura l )
i n a s tudy of 648 co l l ege s tuden t s . 2
C a rve r , wo rk i n g w i t h 9 1
co l l ege s tude n t s a n d a du l t s , foun d tha t the aud i to ry mode was
supe r i o r w i th ea s y mater i a l a n d the v i sua l p resen ta t i on mo re
effec t i ve w i th d i f f i cu l t ma te r i a l . 3
L a rsen a n d Fede r , i n 1 9 40 ,
sub s t an t i a ted Ca rve r ' s f i n d i n g s w i t h the i r own tes t i n g o f 1 5 2
co l l ege f reshmen a t the S ta te U n i vers i ty of l owa . 4
I n tes t i ng
1 60 c o l l ege s tuden t s fo r both i mmed i a te a n d de l ayed reca l l of
l w . J . P op h a m , 1 1Ta pe- Reco rded Lectu res i n the Co l l ege
C l a s s room , ' ' 1 09 .
2 E dwa rd R . G reen , c i ted by Ra l ph G . N i ch o l s , 1 1L i s ten i ng
I n s t ruct i on i n Secon d a ry S choo l s , 1 6 1 .
3 c a rve r , �·
4 Rober t P . La rsen a n d D . O . Fede r , 1 1Common and D i f feren t i a l
Fa c t o r s i n Rea d i n g a n d Hea r i n g Comp rehens i on , 1 1 J ou r n a l o f E duca­
t i on a l P s ycho l ogy , XXX I (Ap r i l , 1 9 40) , 1 5 1 .
'
o ra l l y a n d v i sua l l y p res en ted a dve r t i s i n g copy , F ra n k S t an ton con ­
c l uded tha t t h e aud i to ry mode was supe r i o r i n b o t h i n s t a n ces . 1
There a re those g roup s of s tuden t s whose l ea rn i n g l eve l s
seem t o f l our i s h i n the aura l s i tua t i on .
The l ovve r a n d m i d d l e
i n te l l i gen ce g roup s have been foun d to be the mos t s i g n i f i can t l y
i mp roved by sys tema t i c i n s t ruc t i on i n the 1 i s ten i n g s k i l l s a n d
tha t t h a t i mp rovemen t h a s ove r l a pped i n to the rea d i n g s k i l l s . 2
Then , there a re t hose s tuden t s who a re n a tu ra l l y "au ra l l ea rners . • •
These s t uden t s d i s cove r ea r l y i n the i r a ca dem i c ca ree r s t h a t the i r
re ten t i on a n d comp rehen s i on ra tes a re i n c reased by read i n g a l oud
the ma te r i a l s tud i ed .
I n o ther wo r d s , they f i n d i t neces s a ry t o
hea r not j us t s ee the wo r d s i n o rde r t o g ra s p the i r mean i n g .
The
v i sua l l y- h an d i ca p ped , of cou r s e , fa l l i n the ca tego ry of t hose
who a re i mp roved by a �r a l p res en t a t i on of mater i a l , as do those
s tuden ts who have rea d i n g d i f f i cu l t i es .
The recogn i t i on of the i mpo r t a n ce of l i s ten i n g b r i ng s
a l s o the recogn i t i on of t h e d a n gers i n h e ren t i n i neff i c i en t o r
i neffect i ve l i s ten i n g a b i l i t i es .
l F ra n k N . S t a n ton , 1 1�1emo ry F o r Adve r t I s i n g Copy P resen ted
V i s ua l l y vs . O ra l l y , • • J ou rn a l of App l i ed P s ycho l ogy , XV I I I ( J a nua ry ,
1 9 3 4 ) ' 62 .
2 A l l en G. E r i cks on , 1 1C a n L i s ten i 11 g E f f i c i en cy Be l mp roved? 1 1
J our n a l o f Commun i ca t i on , I V ( W i n te r , 1 9 5 5 ) , 1 3 1 - 2 ; Ch a r l es E .
I rv i n , 1 1 Eva l ua t i n g a T ra i n i n g P rog ram i n L i s ten i n g Fo r C o l l ege
F res hmen , • • S choo l Rev i ew , LX I ( June , 1 9 5 3 ) , 2 6 - 7 ; P ra t t , c i ted by
Paul W . Ke l l e r , 1 1Maj o r F i n d i ng s i n L i s ten i n g i n the P a s t Ten Yea rs , • •
i n L i s ten i ng : Rea d i n g s , Duke r , 1 48 ; A r thur He i l ma n , • • c r i t i ca l
L i s ten i n g a n d t h e E duca t i ona l P roces s , • • E duca t i on , LXX I I ( Ma r ch ,
1 9 5 2 ) ' 483 .
'
33 .
l n . a cu l ture wh i ch o f t en p re s en t s mu l t i p l e a n d s i mu l tan eous
aura l s t i mu l I , many s tud en t s fo rm t h e hab i t of s c reen i ng out
c� r ta i n of t h o s e s t i mu l i o r pay i n g on l y pa r t i a l a t t en t i on to them
in o r de r t o con cen t ra t e on the i r s tud i e s .
S tudy i n g w i t h a ra d i o
o r phonog raph b l a r i n g i n t h e room i s a common p l ace occu r rence .
The 1 1 ha l f - l i s tene r s , 1 1 s tuden t s who a l mos t automa t i ca l l y 1 1 turn --off1 1
pa r t of t he i r aura l env i ronmen t , unfo r tun a te l y , tend to t ra n s fe r
t h i s behav i o ra l pa t te rn t o the c l a s s room . 1
P e rh a p s the u l t i ma t e i mpo r t of i n eff i c i en t a n d i n effect i ve
l i s ten i ng s k i l l s on ou r cul ture i s bes t summed up by Me r s a n d 1 s
admon i t i on s :
I t was t houg h t . . . . . t h a t a popu l a ce t h a t cou l d read
t h e p r i n te d page cou l d , the refore , deve l op i n t o a
mo re c i v i l i zed and cul tura l g roup . The s a d s pectac l e
o f t h e mos t l i t e r a t e na t i on i n Eu rope fa l l i n g sway t o
t he d e cep t i ve s p oken wo r d s of H i t l e r s ma s hed once a n d
f o r a l l t h e not i on tha t a we l l - re a d p eop l e was , t h e r e ­
fo re , a d i s c r i m i n a t i n g o r t h ough t fu l one . The e ra o f
d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d t o ta l i t a r i an i sm h a s i n d i ca ted t h a t
o u r futu re c i v i l i za t i on w i l l b e s aved o r des t royed b y
Thos;-who l i s t en . 2�emph a s i s added�
T hus , t h e focus of many theor i s t s a n d educ a t o r s i s on the
pos i t i ve pot en t i a l i t i es i n s pe c i f i c t ra i n i n g fo r i mp r oved l i s ten i ng
a b i 1 i t i es .
l H a r l en Adams , 1 1Lea rn i ng t o b e D i s c r i m i n a t i n g L i s te n e r s , 1 1
Eng l i s h J ou r n a l , XXXV I ( J a nua ry , 1 9 47) , 1 4 .
2 J ohn M e r s and , 1 1Why Teach L i s ten i ng , 1 1 E n g l i s h J ou rna l ,
XL (May , 1 9 5 1 ) , 2 6 2 .
'
O f the nume rous p rojec t s i n t r a i n i n g f o r 1 i s ten i n g comp rehens i on unde r ta ken i n the pa s t 20 yea r s , many repo r t va ry i ng deg rees
o f succes s .
He i l man h a s foun d t ha t there was a s i gn i f i ca n t ga i n ,
beyond the 1 pe r cen t l eve l o f s ta t i s t i ca l con f i dence , i n l i s ten i n g
comp rehens i on when s pec i f i c t ra i n i n g i n l i s ten i ng wa s g i ven for
a tota l o f 4 per cen t o f the n o r ma l c l a s s t i me i n a f res hma n commun i ­
cat i on s cou r s e a t the Un i ve r s i t y o f O k l ahoma . l
H i s f i n d i n gs were
con f i rmed by the resu l t s of P ra t t 1 s s tudy when , ag a i n , the
expe r i -
men t a l c l a s s es rece i v i n g s pec i f i c t ra i n i n g showed a ga i n i n
l i s ten i n g comp rehen s i on s ta t i s t i ca l l y s i g n i f i ca n t beyond the
pe rcen t 1 eve 1 . 2
N i ch o l s repo r ted t h a t , a f te r p rov i d i n g 1 2 weeks o f s pec i a l
l i s t en i n g t ra i n i n g t o a g roup of f res hmen a t the Un i ve r s i ty o f
M i n nes o t a who h a d s co red i n the l owes t 20 percen t on p re l i m i n a ry
l i s ten i n g tes t s , the s tuden t s s howed a t l ea s t a 25 percen t ga i n i n
l i s ten i n g p ro f i c i en cy . 3
D r . C h a r l es I rv i n , i n eva l ua t i n g the t hen e i g h t-yea r -o l d
commun i ca t i on s cou r s e a t M i ch i g an S ta te Co l l ege , d rew s eve ra l
s i g n i f i ca n t co n c l us i on s .
F i r s t , a s u f f i c i en t numbe r o f the
p roces ses i nvo l ved i n l i s ten i n g were pos i t i ve l y i n f l uen ced by
tea ch i n g , resu l t i n g i n i mp rovemen t i n l i s ten i n g comp rehens i on .
] A r t h u r He i l ma n , • • c r i t i ca l L i s ten i n g and the Educa t i on a l
P roces s , • • 483
2 P ra t t , c i ted by Paul W. Ke l l e r , 1 1Major F i n d i n g s i n
L i s ten i n g i n the P a s t Ten Yea rs , i n L i s ten i ng : Read i ng s , Duke r , 1 48 .
3 N i ch o l s , 1 1He \.Jh o Has E a r s , • • 1 6 .
\
Secon d , t h e l i s ten i n g t ra i n i n g g i ven a t the C o l l ege cou l d be
c red i ted w i t h c rea t i n g a h i gh l y s i g n i f i ca n t d i f fe ren ce , at the
1 pe r cen t l eve l o f con f i den ce , between the con t ro l a n d exper i men t a l
g roups , a n d th i r d , l i s ten i n g t ra i n i n g cou l d b e c red i ted w i t h a very
app rec i a b l e g a i n i n 1 i s ten i n g s k i l l s a mong the b e l ow ·- ave rage
l i s tene r s . l
N i ch o l s . )
( Th i s l a s t co r robora tes the f i n d i n g s of P ra t t a n d
E r i ckson a l so wo r ked w i th i n com i n g co l l ege s tuden t s
a n d came t o t he s ame con c l us i on s a s I rv i n , et . a l� ; t h a t l i s ten i ng
comp reh en s i on can b e s i g n i f i ca n t l y i mp roved by sys tema t i c i n s t ruct i on
i n l i s ten i ng s k i l l s . 2
The p r i me con c l us i on s of E dwa r d H i 1 1 1 s doc to r a l s tudy w i th
f res h men a t I n d i a n a U n i ve r s i ty were t h a t t ra i n i n g i n l i s ten i n g
comp rehen s i on i mp roved the l eve l o f l i s ten i n g a n d rea d i ng comp rehens i on a n d t h a t s tuden t s who rece i ve s pec i a l t ra i n i n g i n l i s ten i ng
con t i nued t o deve l op those s k i l l s . 3
Howeve r , t h e 1 1 t ra i n i n g fo r l i s ten i n g1 1 con cep t h a s i t s
c r i t i cs , who po i n t t� t h e s tud i es wh i ch h ave been done where no
s i g n i f i ca n t rel a t i on s h i p s were foun d between the t ra i ned and
un t ra i ned g roup s or whe re the ev i den ce h a s been i n con c l us i ve .
l cha r l es E . I rv i n , 1 1 Eva l ua t i n g a T ra i n i n g P rogram i n
L i s ten i ng fo r C o l l ege F reshmen , 1 1 2 6- 7 .
1 3 1 -2 .
2 A l l en G . E r i ckson , 1 1 C a n L i s ten i ng E f f i c i en cy Be l mp roved? 1 1
3 E dwa rd S . H i l l , 1 1An An a l ys i s of t h e Res u l t s o f Spec i a l
T ra i n i n g i n L i s ten i n g C ompa red t o S pec i a l T ra i n i n g i n Read i n g
S k i l l s , 1 1 ( Docto ra l D i s s e r t a t i on , I n d i a n a U n i ve r s i ty , 1 9 6 2) ,
D i s se r t a t i on Abs t ra c t s , XX I I ( 1 962) , 309 3 - 4 .
'
36.
M a c k B ro i l e s , fo r exa mp l e_, wo r k i n g w i th f res hmen a n d s op homo res
on t h e co l l ege l eve l , con c l uded t h a t a p e r son ' s ab i l i t y to l i s ten
c a n n o t be i n c reased , rega rd l es s of h i s men ta l a b i l i ty . 1
D r . Pe t r i e debates t h e exten t o f va l ue wh i ch ca n be p l aced
on t h e resea rch a l ready d one b e caus e o f t h e l a ck of unan i m i ty of
the f i nd i ngs .
The r e i s , h e b e l i eves , a b a s i c l a ck of i n te l l e ctua l
s ke p t i c i s m i n re l a t i on to t h e body o f know l edge a l ready ac cumu l a ted .
H e fee l s tha t ( 1 ) we d o not know h ow to i s o l a te a n d mea sure
1 i s ten i n g ab i l i t i e s va l i d l y a n d re l i ab l y ; ( 2) that we do n o t know
i f t h e re i s one un i que 1 i s ten i n g a b i l i ty , o r many i nd ependen t
l i s ten i n g a b i l i t i es ; a n d ( 3) t h a t we do n o t know how t o i mp rove
1 i s ten i n g a b i l i t y th rough t ra i n i n g . 2
Mos t l i s ten i n g i n s t ruct i on
i s d i rec t e d towa rd i mp rov i n g s k i l l s wh i ch a re r e l a t e d to but not
i n t r i n s i c t o l i s ten i n g , h e s ta t e s , and t h a t the l on g - t e rm
e f fect i ve n e s s of mos t t r a i n i n g p rog rams i s ques t i onab l e .
In
a d d i t i on , t h e rea s o n s fo r ce r t a i n succe s s e s i n l i s ten i n g t r a i n i n g
a p pea r t o b e unce r ta i n a n d unexp l a i ne d .
Wa l te r S t rome r , of Co rn e l l C o l l e ge , ch a l l enges t h e
va l i d i ty of the ava i l ab l e tes t s t o d e t e rm i n e t h e l eve l of l i s ten i ng
ab i l i ty .
H e ra i s e s a pe r t i nen t ques t i on of whe t h e r t h e rea l l i fe ,
1 Mack R . B ro i l e s , ' 'A S tudy of t h e E ffect i ve n e s s of Teach ­
i n g L i s t en i n g i n C o l l e ge , " E a s t Texas S choo l S tudy Coun c i l , Ea s t
Texa s S t a te U n i ve r s i ty , 1 969 , 1 5 .
2 c h a r l es R . P e t r i e , J r . , 1 1 Wh a t We Know About L i s t en i ng :
C on t .i nua t i on of a Con t rove r s y , " 2 48 - 9 .
'
J I
emo t i on a l l y f r aug h t , face - to- f a ce s i t u a t i on can , w i th va l i d i ty , be
rep rod u ce d and me as u re d i n the h i gh l y con t ro l l ed s i t u a t i on of the
l i s te n i n g comp rehen s i on tes t . l
An d , f i n a l l y , the advocates of t r a i n i n g have been
cha l l en ged to p r ove that the i mp roveme n t s hown a s the r e s u l t of
s pec i f i c t ra i n i n g con t i nues to be ev i denced by the s t u d e n t s ove r
a n extended pe r i od of t i me .
I t wou l d s eem t ha t the need for i mp r ov i n g l i s ten i ng
a b i l i t i e s h a s b een f i rm l y es t a b l i s h ed .
T h e me thodo l ogy for
a ch i ev i n g t h a t i mp r ovemen t i s s t i l l s u bj ect t o con s i d e r ab l e deba te .
The a n swe r l i es i n mo re b a s i c resea r ch .
1 s t rome r , 1 1 L i s te n i n g a n d Pe rsona l i ty , • • 3 2 3 .
'
•
CHAPT E R I V
THE I N V E ST I GAT I O N AN D I T S F I N D I N G S
Th e foc us o f t h i s i nves t i ga t i on i s the s t udy o f two
va r i ab l es to dete rm i ne the q ua l i ty of t h e re l a t i on s h i p b e tween them .
I t was dec i ded to u s e the s co re s o f t h e B rown - C a r l s e n L i s ten i n g
Comp rehens i on Tes t a d m i n i s t e re d to a p re - d e f i n ed g ro u p o f s e n i o r
s t u den t s a s e v i den ce o f t h e l e ve l o f l i s ten i n g c omp rehe ns i on o f
s en i o r b u s i nes s maj o r s a t S a n Fe rnando Va l l ey S t a te C o l l eg e .
Sch o l a s t i c s u cces s was mea s u red i n t e r ms o f t h e ove ra l l g ra d e - po i n t
ave rages ea rned by t h e memb e r s o f the t e s t g ro u p ( s en i o r s t u den t s
en ro l l ed i n B u s i n e s s 49 7 , Ana l ys i s o f B u s i n e s s O p e ra t i on s ) on
c re d i t s t a ken a t San Fe r n a n do Va l l ey S ta t e C o l l ege or t ra n s fe r red
f ro m o t h e r i n s t i t u t i on s .
The B rown - C a r l s e n L i s ten i ng
C omp rehe n s i on T e s t
Conce i v i ng o f l i s t en i n g a s a compos i te o f b o t h r ece p t i ve
a n d r e f l ec t i ve s k i l l s , D rs . B rown a n d Ca r l s e n deve l oped the tes t
a s a n a t t emp t to mea s u re both types o f s k i l l s .
T h e a ccu racy of
recep t i on wa s g a u ged by the tes tee 1 s a b i l i ty to ( l ) get l e ct u re
d e t a i l s , ( 2) fo l l ow d i rect i on s , a n d ( 3) keep a s eq u e n ce of deta i l s
i n m i nd .
Ref l ec t i ve o r c r i t i ca l 1 i s ten i ng a b i l i t i e s we re t o be
mea s u red i n t e rms o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l 1 s capac i ty fo r ( l ) ge t t i n g
cen t ra l i d eas , ( 2) d raw i n g i n fe rence s , ( 3) d i s t i n g u i s h i n g re l eva n t
'
38 .
f r om i r re l evan t ma t e r i a l s , ( 4) u s i n g con tex t u a l c l ues t o d e t e rm i n e
wo r d mea n i n g s ; a n d ( 5 ) i d en t i fy i ng t rans i t i on a l e l eme n t s .
I n i t s f i n a l f o r m , the B rown - C a r l sen tes t cons i s t s of f i ve
parts :
( 1 ) I mmed i a t e Reca l l , wh i ch i s des i g n ed to me a s u re the
i n d i v i d u a l 1 s ab i l i ty to keep a s eq uence o f d e t a i l s i n m i n d u n t i l
a n a s ked q ues t i on requ i res h i s th i n k i n g back ove r t h e s equence .
( 2 ) Fo l l ow i n g D i rect i on s , vJh i ch mea s u re s the a b i l i ty to
fo l l ow o ra l i n s t r u c t i on s .
( 3) Recog n i z i n g T ra n s i t i on s , wh i ch mea s u res t h e i n d i v i d ua l
awa renes s of t h e fun c t i on o f t ra n s i t i on wo r d s a n d ph r a s es i n
s e n ten ces .
( 4) Recog n i z i n g Wo rd Mean i n g s , wh i ch g a u ges t h e pe r s on • s
ab i l i ty to recog n i ze wo rd mean i n g s f rom s e n tence con tex t .
( 5 ) Lec t u re Comp rehens i on , wh i c h me as u res t h e ab i l i ty to
1 i s ten to the p re s e n t a t i on of a b r i ef l e c t u re a n d t o g ra s p t h e
cen t r a l i deas a n d de t a i l s , to d raw i n fe rences , a n d to u n d e rs tand
o rgan i za t i on .
I t s hou l d be re-emp h a s i ze d t h a t t h e des i g n o f the tes t
exc l u de s any mea s u remen t o f the i n d i v i d u a l 1 s a b i l i ty to reta i n
o r a l l y p re s e n t e d ma t e r i a l b eyon d what ca n be i mmed i a te l y reca l l ed .
Th i s l i m i t a t i on h a s a l ready b een con s i de red i n C h a p t e r I I a n d w i l l
b e d i s c u s s ed aga i n l a te r i n t h i s chapte r .
'
1S
�e s t�£!oced u re
A s te p - by - s tep des c r i p t i on of t h e a dm i n i s t ra t i on o f the
tes t h a s a l rea dy been p resen ted i n C h a p t e r I
I.
Two as pects o f the
t es t i n g p ro g r a m , h oweve r , wa r ra n t f u r t h e r d i s c us s i on a n d exp l a n a t i on ;
the tes t po p u l a t i on a n d the res ea rche r ' s obs e r va t i on s on the adm i n !
i s t ra t i on of the t es t .
Tes t Popu l a t i on
A tota l o f 1 1 5 pe rsons en ro l l ed i n B u s i ness 49 7 , Ana l y s i s
of B u s i n e s s O p e r a t i on s , we re tes ted .
The d a t a p e r ta i n i n g t o th ree
s t uden t s h a d to b e e l i m i n a te d beca u s e t hes e s t uden t s were n o t yet
s e n i o r s and t h e popu l a t i on h a d been p re - res t r i c ted to s en i o r l eve l
s t uden t s .
T h u s , fo r p u rposes of a n a l y s i s of d a t a , a tota l popu l a­
t i on of 1 1 2 was u s ed .
Wh i l e the 1 1 5 rep resen t 46 p e r cen t o f the en t i re en ro l l me n t
of 2 49 i n t h i s cou r s e , t hey a l s o rep res e n t 1 00 pe r ce n t of t h o s e i n
a t tendance i n the e i g h t c l a s s es a t t h e t i me t h e tes t wa s be i n g
a dm i n i s t e re d .
I n o t he r wo r ds , no o n e r e f u s e d to p a r t i c i p ate i n
the s t udy once t h e p u r pose wa s exp l a i n ed .
O f the 1 2 s e c t i on s of
B u s i ne s s 49 7 s che d u l ed i n the S p r i n g , 1 9 70 , s emes te r , on l y e i gh t
w e r e a va i l ab l e fo r tes t i ng , and a l l o f t h e s e we re u s ed .
The
s t u den t s i n the o t h e r fou r s ec t i on s we re s e rv i ng a s p a r t i c i pan t s
i n ano t h e r s t udy .
Mos t text books on res ea rch me thodo l ogy g i ve a r a t h e r
vague d ef i n i t i on o f wha t cons t i t u tes a s u ff i c i en t l y l a rg e s a mp l e .
A u t h o r s Rumme l a n d Ba l l a i ne s t a te t h a t t h e mo re va r i a t i on t h a t
ex i s ts i n t h e popu l a t i on w i th r e s p e c t to a ch a ra c t e r i s t i c , t h e
\
l a r g e r the s a mp l i n g shou l d b e . 1
I n t h i s case , the s amp l e popu l a t i on
o f th i s s t udy was h i gh l y homogeneous i n many backg rou n d cha racte r i s t i cs .
So homoge neou s , i n fact , tha t a p o r t r a i t of the typ i ca l
membe r cou l d b e d rawn .
The pa r t i c i p a n t was mos t l i ke l y a ma l e
( 9 2 pe rcen t ) , u n de r 2 6 yea rs o f age ( 7 4 p e rce n t ) , a j u n i o r - co l l e ge
t ra n s fe r ( 76 p e r cen t ) , had n o known hea r i n g d i f f i c u l t i es
( 9 4 p e r ce n t ) , s poke En g l i s h a s a f i rs t l a nguage ( 9 4 p e r cen t ) , h a d
n eve r pa r t i c i pa t e d i n any co l l ege- l eve l remed i a l re� d i n g cou r s e
( 9 8 pe r cen t ) , h a d a g ra d e - p o i n t ave rage of 2 . 00 to 2 . 50 ( 5 3 p e r cen t ) ,
a n d was a s en i o r - l eve l b us i nes s maj o r ( 1 0 0 pe rcen t ) .
O b s e rva t i on s o n the Adm i n i s t r a t i on
o f t he Tes t
The p re- taped tes t was p res e n ted to each g roup i n a s i m i l a r
manne r , w i t h 1 i ke i n s t r u c t i o n s on t ak i n g the tes t g i ve n to ea ch
g roup .
T h e e n v i ronme n t fo r te s t i n g was con t ro l l ed to the exten t
t h a t the n o rma l c l a s s mee t i ng rooms were used a s the t es t i n g rooms .
The re we re c e r t a i n d i s t r a c t i on s ( n o i ses ) wh i ch cou l d n o t be
con t ro l l ed s i nce they came f rom ou t s i de the c l a s s room .
Fo r i n s t a n ce ,
the co l l eg e ca r i l l on rang o n ce d u r i n g t h e tes t i n g p e r i od for e a ch
of the s ec t i on s .
Howeve r , the s t uden ts d i d n o t s eem t o be
d i s t re s s e d by the ext raneous s o un d , s i n ce i t was a regu l a r
occu r re n ce .
As p rev i ou s l y noted i n C h a p t e r
I I,
i t i s i mposs i b l e t o com-
p l e te l y con t ro l wh a t may be one of t h e mos t i mp o r t a n t factors i n
l J . F r an c i s Rumme l a n d We s l ey C . Ba l l a i ne , Res ea r ch
Met hodo l ogy i n B u s i ne s s , ( N ew Yo r k : H a r pe r & Row , 1 963) , 66 .
'
'-t L ,
i n . t he l eve l o f l i s ten i n g comp rehen s i on a ch i eved , mot i va t i on .
H oweve r , i t wa s hoped tha t by o f fe r i ng t h e p a r t i c i pa n t s the oppor­
t un i ty of know i n g t h e i r own s co r e' , they wou l d b e s t i mu l a ted to
p e r fo rm i n a c cord w i t h th e i r capa b i l i t i es .
A l l but s even o f the
1 1 2 w i s h ed to know the i r ovm s co res , i n d i ca t i n g tha t they p rob ab l y
he l d a pos i t i ve a t t i tude t owa r d the tes t s i t u a t i on , a t l eas t a t the
ou t s e t of the tes t .
A f requen t l y exp res sed c r i t i c i s m o f the tes t d ea l t w i t h the
r a t e of s peech u s e d i n the p resen ta t i on o f the l e c t u re s e c t i on ,
Pa r t E .
I t was t h e con s e n s u s � h a t t h e s peed ( t he 1 2 5 words pe r
mi n u t e re comme n d ed by D r s . B rown a n d C a r l s e n ) was t oo s l ow , t h e r e by
gen e ra t i n g a ce r ta i n a moun t o f i n a t ten t i venes s a n d bo redom on the
pa r t of the 1 i s tene r s .
Th i s i n a t t en t i venes s cou l d not h e l p b u t
h ave a det r i men t a l e f fe c t upon t h e l eve l o f p e r fo rma n ce i n tha t
sect i on .
Th i s po i n t w i l l b e recon s i d e re d i n the a n a l y s i s of the
f i n d i n g s wh i ch fo l l ows .
F i n d i n g s of t h e I n ves t i ga t i on
I n deve l op i n g i n fo rma t i on a s t o t h e deg ree of r e l a t i on s h i p
ex i s t i ng between t h e two va r i a b l es exp l o re d i n t h i s i nves t i ga t i on ,
l eve l o f l i s ten i n g com p r eh en s i on a n d s ch o l a s t i c s u cces s , the
o r i g i n a l data w e r e s ub m i t ted t o co r re l a t i on s t ud i es u s i n g the
S pea rman 1 s fo rmu l a fo r ra n k o rd e r co r re l a t i on :
Rho ( p )
=
1 - 6� o 2
N ( N2
-
1)
'
T h e maj o r f i n d i n g s we re deve l oped on the tota l s a mp l e
Howeve r , d u r i n g the s t udy of the ba ckg rou n d of
popu l a t i o n of 1 1 2 .
the tes t g r ou p , the a n a l y s i s o f s eve ra l s u b g roups s e emed pe r t i nen t
t6 th i s s t u dy .
These s ub g rou p s i n c l uded t h ose s t uden ts who we re
fou r-yea r attendee s at San Fe rnando Va l l ey S t a t e Co l l ege , those who
we re j u n i o r - co l l eg e t rans fe rs , those who vJe re tes t i n g i n the mo rn i n g
hou rs ( 9 a . m . to 1 2 : 30 p . m . ) , a n d those who we re tes ted i n the
a f t e r n oon hou r s ( 1 2 : 3 0 p . m . t o 3 : 30 p . m . ) .
A s u b g ro u p i n g on the b a s i s of s ex wa s con s i d e red b u t d i s ca rded beca u s e of the s ma l l n umbe r o f fema l es who we re tes ted (9) .
Too few s amp l es wa s the rea son for rej e c t i n g o t h e r pos s i b l e g roups
fo r a n a l y s i s s u ch as the g ro u p of those who had known h ea r i n g
d i f f i c u l t i es ( 7 ) , thos e fo r whom E n g ] i s h was a s e con d l a ngu age ( 7 ) ,
a n d those who h a d pa r t i c i p a ted i n s ome type of remed i a l read i n g
p rog ram a t the co l l ege l eve l ( 2 ) .
Re l a t i on s h i p of B rmvn - C a r l s en L i s t en i n g
Comprehens i on Te s t S co res to G ra d e _P o i n t Ave rages
- - --··--· --------
A coeff i c i e n t of co r re l a t i on b e tween the pe r cen t i l e s co res
on the B rown - C a r l s e n L i s ten i n g C omp rehens i on Tes t a n d the g r ade ­
po i n t · averages of the 1 1 2 was fou n d t o b e 0 . 3 7 1 , mea n i n g tha t on l y
1 3 pe r ce n t of the t i me , o r w i th one c a s e i n e i gh t , cou l d one
1 Th i s co r re l a t i on f i g u r e i s s i m i l a r to the f i n d i n g s of
D r s . B ro1-'ln a n d C a r l sen who ran th ree s e p a r a t e s t ud i es o f co l l eg e
l eve l s tu den ts , co r re l a t i ng t he i r c l as s r a n k i n g s a n d hono r po i n t
ra t i os v! l th the B rown - C a r l s e n tes t s co res vJ i th res u 1 tan t
coeff i c i e n t s of r
0 . 2 1 , 0 . 28 , 0 . 4 1 .
==
'
qq ,
va r i ab l e , the g r ade- po i n t a �e rage , fo r i n s t a n ce , be accu r a te l y
p re d i cted f rom spe c i f i c know l e dge of the o t h e r va r i ab l e , i n t h i s
ca s e the p e rcen t i l e s co re on the B rown - C a r l s e n tes t .
Deve l op i n g the p ro f i l e of the 1 i s te n i n g ab i l i t i es a n d
s chol a s t i c s u cce s s o f t h i s g ro u p f u r t he r , i t w a s fou n d t h a t the
mea n pe rcen t i l e s co re on the B rown - Ca r l s e n te s t ( Tab l e 2) v1as 7 5 ,
wh i ch i s i n t he h i g h - av e rage r a n g e , i n d i ca t i n g t h a t mo re s co res
fe l l a bove the 5 0 t h pe r cen t i l e t h a n fe l l be l ow ( F i gu re 2 ; Tab l e 3 ) .
The mod a l s co re i n the 78th pe rcen t i l e a n d the med i an of 63 f u r th e r
s ub s t an t i a t e t h i s f requency d i s t r i b u t i on .
( Refe r to Appen d i x A fo r
a comp l e t e l i s t i n g of t h e B rown - C a r l s e n pe rcen t i l e s co re s a n d g radepo i n t ave rages for the tot a l popu l a t i on o f 1 1 2 )
TAB L E 2
P RO F I L E O F TOTAL T E ST P O P U LAT I ON O F 1 1 2 O N T H E B ROHN ­
CAR L S E N L I ST E N I N G COMP R E H E N S I ON T E ST P E R C E NT I L E
S C O RES AN D T H E G RADE PO I NT AVE RAG E S
FA CT O R
B ROit/N - CARLS E N
P E RC EN T I L E
G RA D E - P O I NT
AV E RAG E S
Mean
75
2 . 46
Med i an
63
2 . 48
Mode
78
2 . 04
Range
-1
+9 9
to
1 . 87 to
3 . 74
\
45 .
F i g u re 2
FREQU E N CY D I ST R I B UT I O N O F P E R C E NT I L E S CO RE S O N TH E B ROWN ­
CARL S E N L I ST E N I N G COMP R E H E N S I ON T E ST O N T H E TOTAL
P O P U LAT I O N ( 1 1 2 )
�0
N umbe r o f P a r t i c i pa n t s
ti 1e
18
6
14
10
- 2
1 - - ��
1 ==
I
�� I §
I
I
+ 1 0 - - �� �
22
26
30
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
=:=: I��
--- �� I ��
��=
6 o - - !! !!:!!:!! == -�� �� I �� I ��
70--!! !! :!!:!!
so -90--
�� �� � �� � ��
--
--
-
- - == --
-
- ---
== == --- == == ::
;;: �;: ;i: iii iii lii ii i iii iii iii fi
=
�� � �� --
;; : ;; : ;; : ;; : ;; : ;; : ;; : ;; : ;� : ;; : ;; : ;; : ;;
�� �� � �
�� � � � �� � �� � �� � �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �� 1 �=
l OO - -�� I gg l gg l �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� � �� l §
'
46 .
TAB L E 3
F REQU E N C Y D I STR I B UT I O N O F P E RC E NT I L E S C O R E S O N T H E
B ROWN - CARL S E N L I STEN I N G C OMP R E H E N S I O N T E S T
F O R TOTAL T E ST P O P U LAT I O N *
--
-·--
G RO U P I NG O F
S CORES
�-------
N U�1 B E R I N
G ROUP
�
�
P E R C NTAG E O F
TOTAL T E ST POP U LAT I O N
-
--r---
- 1 to + 1 0
3
2 . 67 8
+ 1 1 to +20
0
0 . 000
+2 1 to +30
4
3 . 571
+ 3 1 to + 40
1
0 . 89 3
+4 1 to +50
2
1 . 7 86
+5 1 to +60
12
10.714
+6 1 to + 70
14
1 2 . 500
+ 7 1 t o + 80
21
1 8 . 750
+ 8 1 to +90
24
2 1 . 429
+9 1 to 1 00
31
2 7 . 679
1 12
1 00 . 000
TOTAL
-�
"To t a l Tes t Popu l a t i on
=
1 12
\
47 ,
The mea n g ra d e- po i n t average fo r the s ame pop u l a t i on , l i ke
t h e mea n p e r cen t i l e fo r t h e B rown - Ca r l s e n s co res , fe l l i n the u p pe r
a ve rage range a t 2 . 46 .
Howeve r , the mod a l g ra d e - po i n t ave rage wa s
a t a ve ry ave r a ge l eve l of 2 . 04 , i n d i ca t i n g t h a t t h e r e we re a few
ve ry h i gh g ra de - p o i n t ave rages to compen s a t e fo r the l a r ge n umbe r
of ave rage g ra d e - po i n t s ( F i g u re 3 ; Tab l e 4) .
T h i s i s b o r n ou t by
the ob s e rva t i on t h a t 45 pe r cen t of the t o t a l popu l a t i on fe l l w i t h i n
t h e 2 . 00 to 2 . 40 r a n g e { Tab l e 4 ) .
Both the B rown - Ca r l s e n pe rcen t i l e s co re s a n d g ra d e - po i n t
ave rages fe l l w i t h i n a n ext reme l y w i de range .
s co r e s we re f rom a l ow o f - 1 t o
a
h i g h o f +99 .
The pe rcen t i l e
The g ra d e - po i n t
ave rages ran ged f rom a b e l ow average 1 . 87 to 3 . 74 ( b a s e d on
a
4.0
p e r fe c t ave rage ) .
Ana l y s i s o f t h e S co re s on t h e F i ve
Sect i on s of the B rown - Ca r l s e n Tes t
a n d t h e G ra d e P o i n t Ave rages
The ba l d s t a teme n t t h a t the r a n k - o r d e r coeff i c i en t of
co r re l a t i on ( p ) be tween t h e g ra de-po i n t ave rages a n d the B rown C a r l s e n pe r cen t i l e s co r e s i s 0 . 3 7 i s rea l .
I t s mean i n g fu l n e s s ,
h oweve r , i s l i m i t e d u n l es s i t s rea l i ty i s p robed fo r u n de r l y i n g
cau s es a n d re l a t i on s h i p s .
T h e r e fo re , t h e s co res of t h e pa r t i c i -
pan t s on each of t h e f i ve componen t s e c t i on s of t he te s t w e r e
a n a l y zed , w i t h s ome i n t e res t i ng resu l ts .
Fo r co r re l a t i ve p u rposes , a l l the raw s co re s on ea ch of
( Refe r to
t h e s e c t i on s we re conve r t ed to pe r cen t ag e s co re s .
Appe n d i x B for the b a s i c da t a fo r t h e s e co r re l a t i on s . )
'
Whe n the
't O ,
F i g u re 3
FREQU E N CY D I ST R I B UT I ON O F G RADE PO I NT AV E RAG E S
O F THE TOTAL P O P U LAT I ON ( 1 1 2 )
·-------------,
G PA
6
N umb e r o f
10
14
26
30
'
49 .
TA B L E 4
F R E QU E N CY D I ST R I B UT I ON O F G RADE P O I NT- AV E RAG E S
FO R TOTAL T E S T P O P U LAT I ON *
GROUP I N G O F
AV E RAG E S
N UM B E R I
GROUP
� !�
I
.......
C E IHAG E O F
TOTAL T E ST P O P U LAT I O N
---
l . 80 t o l . 9 9
5
2 . 00 to 2 . 1 9
27
2 4 . 1 07
2 . 20 t o 2 . 39
23
20 . 5 3 6
2 . 40 to 2 . 59
19
1 6 . 964
2 . 60 t o 2 . 79
14
1 2 . 500
2 . 80 t o 2 . 99
13
1 1 . 607
3 . 00 t o 3 . 1 9
6
5 . 35 7
3 . 20 t o 3 . 39
2
1 . 7 86
3 . 40 to 3 . 59
1
0 . 89 3
3 . 60 to 3 . 79
2
1 . 786
.
-
r---
TOTAL
4 . 464
1 12
'�To t a 1 Tes t Popu l a t i on
=
1 00 . 000
1 12
'
.
.
.
50 .
pe r cen tage s co re s o n e a ch of t h e pa r t s we re co r re l a t ed w i t h the
g r ade-po i n t ave rages i t was found that the s co res on Pa r t s A
( I mmed i a te Reca l l ) , B ( Fo l l ow i n g D i rec t i on s ) , C ( Recogn i z i n g
T ra n s i t i on s ) , a n d D ( Recogn i z i n g \>lo rd �1e a n i n g s ) h ad r a t h e r l ow
coe ff i c i e n t s of co r re l at i on ( Ta b l e 5 ) .
d a t a fo r t hese co r re l a t i on s . )
( See Ta b l e 6 fo r bas i c
I n fa c t , none of the fou r sect i on
s co res cou l d b e u s e d w i th acc u ra t e p red i c ta b i l i ty mo re t h an 8
pe rcen t of the t i me .
The i r p red i c t i ve va l ue ranked b e l ow t h a t of
the pe r ce n t i l e s co re f o r the en t i re te s t .
The coeff i c i e n t of
co r re l a t i on fo r the f i f t h p a r t , E , dea l i ng w i th l e c t u re comp re­
hens i on , p roved to be a s i g n i f i can t l y h i g h 0 . 49 , wh i ch mea n s tha t
a t a 2 4 p e rcen t r a t e of p red i c ta b i l i ty i t i s a t l ea s t th ree t i mes
as accu ra te to u s e as a ny of the o t h e r s e c t i on s of the tes t a n d
a l mos t tw i ce a s s i g n i f i c a n t a co r re l a t i ve f i g u re as t h a t of the
p e r ce n t i l e s co re fo r the en t i re te s t , when re l a ted to the g r ade­
po i n t ave rages ( F i g u re 4; Ta b l e 5 ) .
The i mp l i c a t i on of t h i s f i nd i n g , the h i g h e r deg ree of
co r re l a t i on between the s co res on the l ec t u r e comp rehen s i on s ec t i on
and the g ra de - po i n t ave rage s , i s tha t t h e a b i l i ty to recog n i ze
the p rom i n e n t a n d s u p po r t i ng i deas i n an i n fo rma t i ve o ra l p r e s e n t a ­
t i on p l ay s a fa r mo re i mpo r t an t ro l e i n ach i ev i n g s cho l a s t i c
s u cce s s t h a n do t h e o th e r , mo re s pec i f i c 1 i s ten i n g a b i l i t i es
tes ted .
'
;J I
F i g u re 4
C OMPAR I S O N O F T H E C O E F F I C I ENTS O F C O R RE LAT I O N
FO R T H E B ROWN - CARL S E N L I ST E N I N G C OMP R E H E N S I O N
T E ST W I T H G RA D E P O I NT AV E RAG E S FO R T H E T OTAL
P O P U LAT I O N ( 1 1 2 )
--------:----
---:--- -----.--- ----:-----1
1
I
E N T I RE T E ST
I
������������i��§§§§§§§§§!§§§§§�§§§§§!§§§§§§§§
���§§§§§§§§§�§2222222�22�22222222222�22222222
I
I
PART A ( l mme� i a te Reca l l )
============i===========i====
§��§§�������f�����������f�§��
I
I
PART B ( Fo l l <bw i n g D i r e c t i on s )
============i===========i=
§��§����§�§§��§§§§§§�§§§�§
I
I
PART C ( Reco� n i z i n g T ra n i i t i on s )
§§§§§§��§§§§§!§§§§§§§§§§§!§§§§§§§§§§
222222222§§2�222�22���22¥2222�22�22
I
I
PART D ( Reco� n i z i n g Wo rd i Mean i n g s )
§§§§§§§§§§§§�§§§§§§§§§§§i§§§§§§§§§§
§ § 22�222222�¥22222 222222¥222222222§
I
I
PART E ( Le c t i!J re Comp rehem s i on )
������������-�����������-�����������-�����������-����������
I
I
�----- ----- -----o
II
I
I
-o
II
0
0
0
N
0
I
I -------�
I
I
-o
II
0
-o
II
-o
II
0
0
..J:;0
U1
0
'
•
)L .
TA B L E 5
C O E FF I C I E NT S O F CO R R E L AT I O N FO R T H E BROWN - CARL S E N
L I ST E N I NG C OMP RE H E N S I O N T E ST S CO R E S W I TH G RADE
P O I NT AV E RAG E S AN D T H E I R P RE D I CT I V E VAL U E
To t a l Tes t P o p u l a t i on of 1 1 2
-
G RAD E PO I NT AV E RAG E S
RE LAT E D TO :
p
'"
P R E D I CT I V E VAL U E
RA-(1 0
%
P e rce n t i l e S co res E n t i r e Te s t
0 . 37
13
l in 8
P a r t A S c o re s
I mmed i a t e Reca l l
0 . 24
6
1 in 17
P a r t B S co re s
Fo l l ow i n g D i rect i on s
0 . 21
4
1 i n 25
P a r t c S co res
Recog n i z i n g T rans i t i on s
0 . 29
8
1 in 13
P a r t D S co res
Recog n i z i ng \.fo r d
Mean i n g s
0 . 29
8
1 in 13
P a r t E S co res
L e c t u re Comp rehe ns i on
0 . 49
24
1 in 4
��
p
=
coe f f i c i en t o f co r re l a t i on
'
TAB L E 6
I N D I V I DUAL P E R C ENTAGE S C O R E S O N T H E F I V E S E CT I ONS
OF THE B ROWN - CAR L S E N L I ST EN I N G COM P R E H E N S I O N
AN D G RA D E-PO I NT AV E RAG E S FO R T H E TOTAL
P O P U LAT I O N O F 1 1 2
..
PART I C I PANT
N UM B E R
1---·-
G RADE·- PO I NT
AVE RAG E
PART
A
.J__ _
-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
PART
C
P ART
B
l . 87
l . 89
1 . 92
l . 93
1 . 99
2 . 00
2 . 00
2 . 00
2.01
2 . 02
2 . 03
2 . 04
2 . 04
2 . 04
2 . 04
2 . O lf
2 . 04
2 . 04
2. 10
2. 10
2. 10
2. 1 2
2. 1 3
2. 1 3
2. 1 4
2. 1 4
2. 1 5
2. 15
2. 15
2. 18
2. 19
2. 19
2.21
71
53
82
77
1 00
59
65
82
47
77
65
59
82
71
59
88
82
53
82
59
77
88
88
77
71
71
88
71
82
65
65
77
82
75
95
85
90
75
1 00
70
60
5
90
55
85
75
90
35
80
95
75
95
75
90
90
65
90
70
90
90
75
75
85
85
70
75
75
88
75
75
75
75
75
13
0
1 00
88
63
63
63
38
75
88
50
75
50
75
88
75
63
63
75
88
75
75
75
88
75
88
I
�-
'
--
PART
E
PART
D
f-
1 00
90
80
80
90
70
70
0
40
1 00
80
70
80
90
40
90
70
70
80
90
80
1 00
80
80
90
80
90
70
80
70
80
90
70
62
52
52
81
67
71
43
14
33
76
62
67
52
57
29
86
71
43
52
67
52
81
67
71
57
62
76
57
48
67
76
71
57
TAB L E 6 ( CONT I N U E D )
--
--c-·
PART I C I PANT
NUI'"'B E R
------
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
G RA D E--P O I NT
AV E RAGE
PART
A
PART
B
PART
PART
D
c
---------- -------
------- -- -�- - --� - ----
2 . 22
2 . 22
2 . 23
2. 24
2 . 25
2 . 27
2 . 27
2 . 27
2 . 30
2.31
2.31
2. 31
2 . 34
2 . 35
2 . 35
2 . 35
2 . 36
2 . 37
2 . 37
2 . 38
2 . 39
2 . 39
2. 41
2 . 42
2 . 42
2 . 43
2 . 45
2 . 46
2 . 50
2 . 50
2 . 50
2 . 52
2 . 52
2 . 54
2 . 55
2 . 56
2 . 56
2 . 57
2 . 58
2 . 59
71
82
82
71
94
94
71
82
82
88
77
88
47
77
71
82
94
77
88
71
77
88
65
95
82
77
88
88
82
82
82
82
82
53
82
77
82
94
71
82
95
90
80
80
90
90
65
85
80
90
80
85
70
90
75
75
85
90
75
95
80
65
85
75
85
85
90
85
95
80
85
85
90
80
85
85
95
75
60
80
�-- =-T- _
80
90
1 00
90
80
80
70
1 00
80
90
90
60
90
80
90
80
90
80
70
1 00
70
86
80
1 00
80
90
90
80
50
90
1 00
1 00
1 00
80
30
80
1 00
80
90
80
88
75
75
63
75
75
63
88
63
88
63
63
63
50
63
75
75
75
75
88
99
63
88
75
50
88
63
88
75
88
63
1 00
88
88
88
38
75
88
75
63
'
PART
E
-=
76
33
43
62
76
76
43
48
57
67
67
29
43
52
57
57
57
52
57
67
62
76
62
71
33
68
48
68
62
62
71
62
71
52
52
38
57
43
86
43
55.
TA B L E 6 ( CONT I N U E D )
--
PART I C I PANT
N UM B E R
G RADE - P O I NT
AVE RAGE
----,----·----
--
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
1 00
101
1 02
103
1 04
1 05
1 06
1 07
1 08
1 09
1 10
111
1 12
2 . 59
2 . 60
2 . 64
2 . 65
2 . 65
2 . 65
2 . 66
2 . 67
2 . 68
2 . 69
2 . 73
2 . 73
2 . 74
2 . 75
2 . 78
2 . 80
2 . 80
2 . 80
2.81
2 . 82
2 . 83
2 . 87
2 . 87
2 . 92
2 . 95
2 .96
2.98
3 . 00
3 .03
3 . 07
3. 10
3. 16
3. 1 7
3 . 30
3 . 33
3 . 49
3 . 62
3 . 63
3 . 74
PART
A
PART
B
PART
PART
D
c
l
E
1
--·
82
88
59
94
59
82
1 00
77
94
65
77
65
94
65
94
82
77
77
65
77
71
88
88
94
88
77
94
88
71
94
88
82
77
71
82
77
1 00
77
1 00
I P ART
--
I
75
85
85
90
65
95
95
80
85
70
85
80
1 00
90
95
75
85
75
95
85
75
80
75
85
85
75
90
80
1 00
85
95
80
85
95
95
80
85
90
90
75
63
88
75
88
75
75
75
88
75
75
63
1 00
88
88
75
88
88
63
75
88
75
88
1 00
88
1 00
88
85
75
88
63
75
75
63
1 00
63
75
1 00
1 00
70
90
88
90
70
70
80
90
1 00
70
1 00
1 00
1 00
90
90
70
1 00
90
80
1 00
1 00
90
90
1 00
90
90
70
1 00
1 00
80
90
90
86
80
70
1 00
90
80
90
'
57
52
67
57
81
71
67
67
62
62
57
43
71
67
62
76
52
76
76
67
62
52
52
52
62
67
52
67
81
62
67
57
67
67
52
57
71
95
62
)0 .
E xp l o r i n g t h e d a t a f u r the r , i t was found tha t i n 6 8 pe r cen t
of the cases , t he s co re on the l e c t u re comp rehen s i on s e c t i on wa s
the l owes t s co r e o f t h e f i ve s e c t i on a l s co re s ( Tab l e 7 ) .
Th i s
rep res e n t s a n i n c i d en ce of l ow s co re f i ve t i mes as o f te n i n the
'
l e c t u r e comp rehens i on s e c t i on as i n the i mmed i a te reca l l s e c t i on
a n d more t h a n 1 3 t i me s as o f ten a s i n t h e fo l l ovJ i n g d i rect i on s
s e c t i on .
Th i s i s p a r t i cu l a r l y s i g n i f i ca n t i n t h a t t h e l e c t u re
comp reh e n s i on s ec t i on mos t c l os e l y a p p rox i mates the rea l - l i fe
l ea rn i n g s i t u a t i on i n the co l l eg e c l as s room .
S pe cu l a t i on a s t o t h e rea s on s fo r the f requen cy of s u ch l ow
s co res i n t he l ec t u r e comp rehen s i on r evea l s t h a t the causes may l i e
pa r t l y w i th t h e t es t i n g i n s t r umen t a n d pa r t l y w i th the i nd i v i du a l
be i n g tes ted .
T h e f i rs t fou r s e c t i on s a re s o des i gned a s t o requ i re
as i mmed i a t e res pon s e a n d con s tan t concen t ra t i on on t h e pa r t o f
the i n d i v i d u a l i n o rd e r t o make t h a t i mmed i a te res pon s e .
In
acco rdan ce w i th t h e p u b l i s h e d i n s t ru c t i on s , the i t ems i n s eq u e n ce
i n P a r t A , I mmed i a te Reca l l , we r e read a t the r a t e o f one pe r
s econd a n d on l y f i ve s e conds ( a p p rox i ma te l y ) we re a l l owed fo r
ma k i ng t h e r e s p on s e on the a n swe r sheet .
I n Part
B,
Fo l l ow i n g
D i rect i on s , the i nd i v i d ua l was requ i red t o man i pu l a te , men ta l l y ,
a g roup o f l e t t e rs a n d n umbe r s p r i n te d i n one co r n e r o f the
an swe r s heet and �ga i n to res pond w i th i n a p p rox i ma t e l y f i ve
s e cond s .
T h e r e was n o t i me
l eeway fo r t h e f a c t o r s of f l ag g i ng
a t ten t i on o r f a t i g u e t o be ev i d e n ce d .
Wh i l e t h e a p p r ox i ma t e l y
1 1 - m i n u t e l e c t u re was be i n g read , t h e p a r t i c i pan t s we re requ i red
t o s i t and 1 i s t en and we r e n ot p e rm i t ted t o take notes as they
'
TA B L E
THE
F I V E S E CT I O N S O F T H E
I n c i d e n ce of
7
B ROWN - CA R L S E N
L I S T E N I N G C O M P R E H E N S I O N T E ST
E a ch S e c t i on B e i n g t h e H i g h e s t o r L owe s t S co re o f t h e
F i ve S e c t i on S c o r e s - - To t a l
P o p u l a t i on
( 1 1 2)
N UM B E R O F T I M E S S E CT I O N
�
I
S C O R E WAS :
S E CT I O N O F T E ST :
H i g h e s t S co re
of
I
I
I
II
I
... . I
I
'
"I
I
I
I
I
l
5
S co re s ;�
Lowe s t S co re
of
5
27
P A RT A
12
Re cog n i z i n g
L e c t u re C omp r e h e n s � o n
�
) Re f l ec t s
i n c i d e n ce s o f mu l t i
1
I
S co r e s
I
18
48
6
0
76
i nd i v i d ua l
�---
r!
'
I
13
rI
S co r e s
5
20
I
5
1 1
I
I
of
24
27
l e h i g h s co re s i o r s ome
l
Lowe s t S co re
i
I
I
R e cog n i z i n g Wo r d M e a n i n g s
P A RT E
I
5
5
T ra n s i t i ons
P ART D
of
30
Fo l l ow i n g D i r e c t i on s
P A RT C
S C O R E \�AS :
H i g h e s t S co re
S c o re s
I mmed i a t e R e ca l l
P A RT B
P E R C E NTAG E O F T I M E S S E CT I O N
43
I
I
I
I
I
1 1
5
68
0
�
i
J
\J
.....
�0 .
n o r ma l l y wou l d i n a l e c t u re s i t u a t i on .
A l s o , as noted ea r l i e r ,
t h e re commended ra t e of 1 25 wo rds p e r m i n u t e may have been too
s l ow t o h o l d the con t i n ue d a t t en t i on of the pa r t i c i p a n t s .
The
t op i c o f t he l e c t u re , i mp rov i n g read i n g ab i l i ty , wh i l e f i t t i n g the
s t a n d a rd of i n forma t i ve , non - tech n i c a l ma te r i a l , d i d n o t , i n
gene r a l , s eem t o i mp re s s o r s t i mu l a t e t h e pa r t i c i p a n t s , j udg i n g
f rom t h e ob s e rva t i on of the f a c i a l exp res s i on s , phys i ca l a t t i t u des ,
a n d f rom h ea r i n g t he i r a s i de comme n t s .
T h e l a ck of phys i ca l a ct i -
v i ty , t h e s ub j ect ma t t e r p re s e n t ed , the s peed o f p resen ta t i on , the
p l a ceme n t of the l e c t u re i n the tes t fo rma t cou l d a l l have b een
factors w i th i n the tes t i t s e l f wh i ch con t r i b u ted to the f requen t
i n c i dence of l ow pe r fo rmance .
Dec rea s e s i n i n te res t , a t t en t i on , a n d mot i va t i on a re among
the f a c t o r s s t emm i n g f rom the i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u de wh i ch cou l d
de f i n i te l y h a ve a f fected the s co re s on the l e c t u re com p rehens i on
s e c t i on .
The re i s a l s o the s t rong pos s i b i l i ty t h a t t h e re may b e
a l a ck o f c r i t i ca l l i s ten i n g ab i l i t i es among the l ow ach i e�ers o n
t h e l ec t u re comp rehen s i on s ec t i on .
The a b i l i ty t o l i s ten c r i t i ca l l y
can b e deve l oped , i t s h o u l d b e noted , t h rough s p ec i f i c t ra i n i n g , a s
t h e f i nd i n g s of resea rch e rs s uc h as E r i cks on , I rv i n , H e i l man , a n d
A r no l d p rev i ous l y c i ted i n C h a p t e r s I a n d I I I .
Ana l y s i s o f the S ub g roups o f J u n i o r
C o l l eg e T ra n s fe r a n d Non -Tra n s f e r
S t uden t s
S t u d en t s a t te � d two-yea r commu n i ty c o l l e ges f o r va r i ed
pe r s on a l reason s .
Among t h em a re t h e conven i ence of the co l l ege
t o h ome , the l a c k of educa t i on a l f u n ds , the i n dec i s i on a s to
'
f u t u re ed u ca t i on a l p l a n s , and t h e fa i l u re t o meet the h i gh e r m i n i ­
mum s t a n d a r d s f o r a dm i s s i on of t h e fou r-yea r i ns t i t u t i on s .
I n the
a cadem i c commun i ty , i t i s t h i s l a s t reas on , the i n ab i l i ty to meet
m i n i mum s t anda rds fo r en t r a n ce , wh i ch i s p rob ab l y the mos t f re­
quen t l y c i ted .
The refore , the j u n i o r co l l ege t ra n s fe r s t uden t i s
of ten con s i de red t o b e one poo r i n t h e ab i l i t i es a n d /o r mo t i va t i on
neces s a ry fo r a c h i evemen t a t a fou r- yea r i n s t i t u t i on .
I n o rde r t o
ga i n i n s i gh t i n to t h i s s t e reo ty pe i ma g e o f the j un i o r co l l eg e t ra n s ­
fe r , a n a l y s i s of the d a t a on t h e two s u b g ro u p s of j un i o r co l l eg e
t ran s fe r s and non - t r a n s f e r s was u n d e r taken .
The sma l l s i ze o f t h e s u b g rou p o f non - t ra n s fe r s t u den t s
( 23 ) , those who h a d a t tended S a n F e r n a n d o Va l l ey S t a t e C o l l ege f o r
t he i r en t i re co l l ege ca ree r , seve re l y l i m i t s t h e u n i ve r s a l i ty o f
any f i nd i ngs .
Howeve r , i t w a s ob s e rved t h a t t h e 2 3 non - t ran s fe r
s t uden t s s eem t o fo rm a s l i gh t l y mo r e s e l ec t and ca pab l e g rou p .
A l l des c r i p t i ve s t a t i s t i cs i nd i ca t e t h a t s u p e r i o r i ty .
The mean
for the g r ade- po i n t averages and the B rown - Ca r l s e n tes t pe r cen t i l e
s co res f o r the n on - t ra n s fe r g roup we r e s l i gh t l y h i g he r ( 2 . 5 1 ; 7 8
pe r cen t i l e ) t h a n those of t h e t ra n s f e r g ro u p ( 2 . 2 2 ; 7 5 pe r ce n t i l e ) ,
(Tab l e 8 ) and s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e f o r the t ota l popu l a t i on
of 1 1 2 ( 2 . 46 ; 7 5 p e r cen t i l e ) .
The moda l s co re on the B rown ­
C a r l sen tes t s co re s fo r the non - t r a n s f e r g ro u p was fa r s u pe r i o r
t o t h a t o f the t r a n s f e r g roup ( 78 pe rcen t i l e a s a g a i ns t 6 8 p e r ­
cen t i l e ) , a n d equa l t o t h a t o f the t ot a l popu l a t i on of 1 1 2 ( 78
pe r cen t i l e ) .
Aga i n , the med i a n B rown - Ca r l s en p e r cen t i l e s core
of t h e non- t ran s fe rees ( 82 pe rcen t i l e) was s i g n i f i ca n t l y s u pe r i o r
'
60 .
t o t h a t o f the t ra n s fe r g roup ( 6 8 p e rcen t i l e ) a n d to th a t of the
tota l popu l a t i on (63 p e r cen t i l e ) , i n d i ca t i n g that the range of
s co res fo r t h e n on - t ra n s fe r g ro u p was much n a r rowe r and h i gh e r
t h a n th a t o f t h e t ran s fe r g roup .
TAB L E 8
P R O F I L E O F TH E S U B G RO U P S O F T RAN S F E R AN D N O N - TRAN S F E R
S T U D E NT S O N T H E B ROWN - CARLS E N TEST S C O R E S A N D T H E
G RA D E- P O I NT AV E RAG E S
-
-
FACTO R
F I ND I NGS
J R . C O L L E G E TRAN S F E RS
B rown G r ade-- P t .
Ca r l s en
Ave rages
N O N - T RAN S FE RS
G rade-P t .
B rown C a r l s e n Ave rages
Mean
75
2 . 22
78
2.51
Med i an
68
2 . 38
82
2 . 43
Mode
68
2 . 04
78
2 . 42
2 . 80
Range
- 1 to
+ 99
1 . 87
to
3 . 74
4 2 to
99
1 . 93
to
3. 16
&
Mos t s i g n i f i can t o f the s ta t i s t i cs i s the coe f f i c i en t o f
co r re l a t i on wh i ch for the t ra n s fe r g ro u p w a s g rea t e r ( p
t h a n fo r t h e tota l popu l a t i on ( p
=
=
0 . 41 )
0 . 3 7 ) i n d i ca t i n g a h i gh e r
deg ree o f p re d i c tab i l i ty fo r t h e t ra n s fe r g ro u p ( 1 7% ) t h a n fo r
the tota l popu l a t i on ( 1 3% ) .
O n t h e othe r h a n d , fo r the non -
t ra n s fe r g roup wh i ch , by the des c r i p t i ve s ta t i s t i c s c i ted ( Tab l e 8 )
seemed to b e a mo re capab l e g ro u p , the coe ff i c i en t o f co r re l a t i on
'
was ve ry l ow ( p
==
0 . 1 2 ) w i t h a co r res pond i n g 1 p e r ce n t deg ree of
acc u ra t e p re d i c t ab i 1 i ty .
The i mp l i ca t i on h e re b e i ng t h a t fa c t o rs
oth e r t h a n i n n a te i n t e l l ec t ua l capa b i l i t i es w e re res pons i b l e for
the l eve l o f p e r f o rma n ce o n the B rown - C a r l sen tes t fo r t h e non­
t ra n s fe r g r ou p .
Or,
pe rhaps , i t vvas t he l a c k o f ap p l i ca t i on of
thos e a b i l i t i es wh i ch a ccou n ted fo r the l a ck o f p e r fo rmance .
I n a n a t tem p t to p i n po i n t t h e causes fo r the s h a r p d i ffe r ­
en ces i n co r re l a t i o n coeff i c i e n t s b e tween the two g ro u ps , co r re l a ­
t i ve a n a l y s i s o f t h e f i ve tes t s ec t i on s co re s w i t h t h e g r ade-po i n t
ave r ages wa s con d u c ted .
Fo r t h e s ec t i on s dea l i n g w i t h i mmed i a t e reca l l , fo l l ow i n g
d i rect i on s , a n d wo r d a n d t ra n s i t i on re cog n i t i on , t h e t ra n s fe r
g ro u p p rod u ce d h i g h e r co r re l a t i on s t h a n those deve l oped for the
e n t i re g ro u p ( Tab l e 9 ) .
The co r re l a t i on s on these s ame s ec t i on s
f o r t h e n on - t r a n s fe r g roup � e r e a l l l owe r a n d , i n fac t , two we re
nega t i ve co r re l a t i o n f i g u res .
I t m i g h t b e p roj ected f rom t h e s e f i n d i n g s t h a t wh i l e the
n o n - t ra n s fe r ' g roup 1 s l i s te n i n g a b i l i t i es a re s u p e r i o r , a s ev i denced
by th e i r B rown - Ca r l s e n L i s t e n i n g C omp rehens i on Tes t s co res , these
ab i l i t i es a re n o t neces s a r i l y s i g n i f i ca n t f a c t o r s i n ach i ev i n g
a cadem i ca l l y .
'
62 .
, - ', -'. 1
TABLE 9
CO E F F I C I E N T S O F CO RRE LAT I ON F O R T H E T RANS F E R AN D
N O N - T RAN S F E R G RO U P S O N T H E I R B ROWN - CARL S E N T E ST
S C O RE S AN D G RADE� P O I NT AV E RAG E S
-
,------
---
G RAD�- P O I NT AV E RAG E S
RE LAT E D TO :
F I ND I NGS
T RAN S - N O N -TRAN S - T OTAL T E ST
G RO U P 1 1 2
F E R G RO U P
FER
G RO U P
B rown - Ca r l sen P e r cen t i l e
S co res ( E n t i r e Tes t )
0 . 41
0. 12
0 . 37
P a r t A S co res
( I mmed i a te Reca l l )
0 . 30
- 1 . 49
0 . 24
P a r t B S co res
( Fo l l ow i n g D i rec t i on s
0 . 30
-0 . 2 4
0.21
P a r t C S co res
( Re cogn i z i n g T ra n s i t i on s )
0 . 30
0 . 27
0 . 29
P a r t D S co res
( Recogn i z i n g Ha r d
Mean i n g s )
0 . 33
0. 17
0 . 29
0. 14
-0 . 1 0
0 . 49
P a r t E S co res
( Lec t u re Comp rehen s i on )
'
Ana l y � i s o f t h e S u b g rou p s of S t u de n t s
Tes ted i n t h e Morn i n g a n d S t u de n t s
Tes ted i n t h e A f t e r n oon
·--- --------------------- ------
---
S i n ce oth e r s t u d i e s have men t i oned f a t i g u e a s a fa c t o r
wh i ch pos s i b l y a f f e c t s the l eve l o f 1 l s tc n l ng comp reh e n s i on , a
d a t a p rof i l e of the s co res of t h e a f t e rn oon g ro u p a s a g a i n s t the
mo r n i n g g ro u p was done ( Tab l e 1 0 ) .
H e re , a g a i n , one g roup , t he
mo r n i n g , t u rn e d ou t t o b e r a t h e r sma l l I n s i ze ( 3 6 ) , t h e reby
l i m i t i n g t he s t re n g t h o f any con c l us i ons d rawn f rom t h e da ta on
th a t g ro u p .
The co r re l a t i on coe f f i c i e n t be tween t h e B rovm - C a r l sen
pe rcen t i l e s co re s a n d t h e g ra de- po i n t ave rages fo r t h e mo rn i ng
g ro u p was tw i ce a s h i g h (0 . 5 5 ) a s the coe ff i c i en t fo r t h e a f t e r n oon g r o u p ( 0 . 2 6 ) a n d much h i g h e r t h a n t h a t fo r t h e tot a l popu l a t i on of 1 1 2 ( 0 . 3 7 ) .
Howeve r , the mea n pe r cen t i l e s co re on the
e n t i re t e s t was ve ry c l os e ( 75 . 5 pe rce n t i l e ) to th a t o f t h e tota l
popu l a t i on ( 75 ) a n d s l i gh t l y h i g h e r t h a n tha t o f t h e a f te rnoon
g r oup ( 73 ) .
The med i a n s co res on t he tes t a n d me d i a n g ra d e - po i n t
ave rages fo r both g ro u p s a l s o a re c l os e ( Tab l e 1 0 ) .
When cor re l a t i on an a l yses we re done on t h e f i ve s e c t i on
s co re s w i th t h e g ra de - p o i n t ave rages fo r both t h e mo r n i n g a n d
a f te rnoo n g roups , t h e coe f f i c i e n t f o r fou r of t h e f i ve s e c t i ons
fo r t h e mo r n i n g g ro u p we re h i g h e r t h a n those o f t h e a f te rnoon
g ro u p , pa r t i cu l a r l y I n t h e ca s e o f P a r t E , Lec t u re Comp rehen s i on
( Tab l e 1 1 ) .
\
TAB L E 1 0
P RO F I L E O F T H E S U B G RO U P S O F MORN I NG
A N D A FT E RN O O N C LAS S E S ON T H E B ROWN ­
C ARL S E N L I ST E N I N G C OMP R E H E N S I O N
T E ST AN D G RADE - P O I NT AV E RAG E S
FACTO R
..
F I N D I N GS
AFTE R N O O N G RO U P
G
RO
U
P
MORN
I
N
G
--B rown G r a de-- P t .
G ra de - P t .
B rown Ca r l s e n
Ave rages
Ave rages
Ca r l sen
Mean
75 . 5
2 . 49
73
2 . 48
Med i a n
78
2 . 43
78
2 . 39
Mode
76
78
----
83
2 . 04
Range
22 to
99
1 . 89
to
3 . 62
- 1 to
+ 99
l . 87
to
3 . 75
&
I t wo� l d seem, t h e n , t h a t the r e i s s ome s l i gh t s u ppo r t fo r
the b e l i e f t h a t n o rma l , d a i l y f a t i g u e d oes p l ay s o�e ro l e i n the
l eve l o f 1 i s ten i ng comp rehens i on .
Howeve r , wh a t i s o f t e n a s c r i bed
t o fat i g ue cou l d b e mo re a ccu r a te l y d es c r i bed as bo re dom or i n a t t e n t i vene s s .
'
b) ,
TAB L E l l
C O E F F I C I E NT S O F C O R R E LAT I O N FO R TH E HORN I N G AN D
AFT E RN O O N S U B G RO U P S F O R T H E B ROWN - CARL S E N TEST
S C O R E S AN D THE G RADE-P O I NT AV E RAG E S
-----
G RADE- PO I NT AV E RAG E
RE LAT E D TO :
F I ND I NGS
-MORN I N G AFTERNO�TOTA L TEST
G RO U P
POP . ( l 1 2 )
G RO U P
----
--
B rown - Ca r l sen P e r ce n t i l e
S co re ( E n t i re Tes t )
0 . 55
0 . 26
0 . 37
P a r t A S co re s
( I mmed i a te Reca l l )
0.15
0 . 35
0 . 24
P a r t B S co res
( Fo l l ow i n g D i rect i on s )
0 . 22
0. 13
0.21
P a r t C S co re s
( Re cogn i z i n g T ra n s i t i ons )
0 . 37
0 . 20
0 . 29
P a r t D S co re s
( Recogn i z i n g Wo r d
Mean i ng s )
0 . 39
0. 14
0 . 29
Part E
( Lect u re C omp rehens i on )
0 . 26
0.01
0 . 49
'
66.
Re l a t i on s h i p of the G rade- Po i n t Ave rages ,
the B ro\·m - C a r l s e n P e r cen t i l e Sco res ,
a n d the S cho l a s t i c A p t i t u d e Tes t
--------Verba l S e c t i on Scores
I n the o r i g i n a l des i g n of th i s s t udy i t was p l a n n e d tha t
co r re l a t i ve s t ud i e s o n the S cho l a s t i c Apt i t u d e Tes t s cores w i th
the pa r t i c i pa n t s • g r a de - po i n t ave rages a n d the B rown - C a r l s en
percen t i l e s co res wou l d be con d u c ted .
The S cho l a s t i c Ap t i t u d e
Tes t , Verba l S ec t i on ( SAT Ve rba l ) s co res were t o b e u s e d a s an
i n d i ca t i on o f the s t u d e n t 1 s l eve l of read i ng comp reh e n s i on . 1
U n fo r t u n a t e l y , i n fo rma t i on on the SAT Verba l s co re s was
not ava i l a b l e fo r a l l memb e r s o f the tes t popu l a t i on .
Howeve r , i t
was d e c i d e d to r u n the s t ud i es as p rev i ou s l y p l anned on the 59 o f
the 1 1 2 memb e rs fo r whom these d a t a we re ava i l ab l e .
T h e f i nd i n g s
f rom t h i s a n a l ys i s , wh i l e d o n e on a 1 00 p e r ce n t s amp l e of a l l those
ava i l a b l e can o n l y be v i ewed a s pos s i b i l i t i es or i mp l i c a t i on s ,
r a t h e r than con c l u s i on s .
Th u s , because o f the i n s u f f i c i en cy of
d a ta , one a re a o f t h e i nve s t i ga t i on , t h e re l a t i on s h i p o f l i s t en i n g
s k i l l s a n d re a d i n g s k i l l s a n d t h e i r compa ra t i ve effect on s cho l a s t i c
s u cces s , wa s s eve re l y l i m i ted i n s i g n i f i ca n ce .
Des p i te a l l t h e l i m i t a t i on s , two f i n d i n g s s eem t o b e
h i g h l y s i gn i f i ca n t .
F i r s t , the corre l a t i on f i g u re deve l oped for
] Ac cord i n g to the E d u ca t i on a l Tes t i n g S e rv i ce , the Verba l
S ec t i on of the SAT emph a s i ze s the a b i l i ty t o read w i th u n d e r ­
s ta n d i n g a n d t o reason w i th verba l ma t e r i a l .
\
U/ •
the SAT Ve rb a l s co res w i th the g r a de- po i n t ave rages i s , a t 0 . 3 3 ,
ve ry c l os e to the coe f f i c i e n t of co r re l a t i on f i g u re o f 0 . 3 7
deve l oped fo r the B r own - C a r l s en pe r ce n t i l e s co res w i th the
I mp l i ed h e re i s th e pos s i b i l i ty t h a t th e
g ra d e - p o i n t ave rages .
1 i s ten i n g ab i 1 i t i es a re as c l os e l y re l a te d to s cho l a s t i c s u ccess
a s a re the read i n g ab i l i t i es .
Se con d , t h e re appea r s t o b e no co r re l a t i on of s i gn i f i ca n ce
b e tween the s co re s ach i eved on the SAT Ve rba l s e c t i on a n d those
ach i eved on the B rown - C a r l s en tes t , ( p
0 . 04 ) .
Th i s i s fu rther
s u b s t a n t i a te d b y t h e co r re l a t i on f i g u res fo r the f i ve s e c t i on
s co re s of the B rown - C a r l s e n tes t vJ i t h t h e SAT V e r b a 1 s co re s
( Tab l e 1 2 ) .
Nega t i ve o r ve ry l ow co r re l a t i on f i g u re s we re fou n d
fo r a l l the s e c t i ons excep t P a r t C , Recog n i z i n g T r a n s i t i on s , a n d
D , Recog n i z i n g Word Mean i n g s .
The s t ro n g i mp l i ca t i on o f th i s
f i n d i ng i s t h a t exce p t i n the a rea o f vo�ab u l a ry , rea d i n g s k i l l s
s eem to be sepa ra te s k i l l s f rom those o f l i s ten i n g .
I t m i g h t be
s a i d , howeve r , t h a t the s t u d e n t can s u c ceed equ a l l y we l l
a ca dem i ca l l y by the i n tens i ve a p p l i ca t i on o f that g ro u p o f
ab i l i t i es , read i n g o r
1
i s ten i n g , i n wh i ch he i s mos t p rof i c i en t .
'
TABLE 1 2
C O E F F I C I E NT S O F C O RRELAT I O N F O R T H E F I V E S E CT I O N S
O F T H E B ROWN - CARLS E N T E ST W I T H T H E SAT V E R BAL
S E CT I O N S CO R E S FO R T H E P O P U LAT I ON O F 59
c--------------------.--� ·-------
p ·-k
SAT V E R BAL S C O RE S R E LAT E D TO :
----· ------
-------------;-- ---��
0 . 04
B rown - Ca r l s e n P e rce n t i l e S co re
( E n t i re Tes t )
P a r t A S co res
I mmed i a t e Reca l l
-0 . 3 3
P a r t B S co res
Fo l l ow i n g D i re c t i on s
0 . 04
P a r t C S co res
Recog n i z i ng T ra n s i t i on s
0. 1 8
P a r t D S co res
Recogn i z i n g Wo rd Mean i n g s
0. 17
0. 1 1
Pa r t E
Lec t u re Comp rehens i on
ft p
...
=
coe f f i c i en t of co r re l a t i on
'
CHAPT E R
V
C O N C LUS I O N S A N D RE COMMEN DAT I O N S
B a s i c t o t h i s s t u dy have been two con ce p t s d eve l oped i n the
rev i ew of t h e l i te ra t u re i n the f i e l d of 1 i s ten i n g comp rehen s i on .
F i r s t , t h a t 1 i s te n i n g i s a comp l ex phys i o l og i ca l , psycho l og i ca l ,
a n d i n t e l l ec t ua l p roce s s wh i ch ca n b e a f f e c t e d by a m u l t i t u d e of
va r i a b l es w i t h i n the me s s age , t h e env i ronmen t , t h e s peake r , and the
l f s tene r .
S e con d , t h a t l i s t en i n g i s a s i mp o r t a n t t o the s u cce s s of
a u ra l commu n i ca t i on a s i s mes s a g e p repa ra t i on and s peake r e f fect i ve­
nes s .
The r e i s , i n fa c t , the e l emen t of l i s tene r • • res pons i b i l i ty• •
wh i ch i s o pe r a t i ve i n the a u ra l commu n i ca t i on s i t ua t i on .
A t t h i s po i n t , c e r t a i n ob s e rva t i on s , wh i ch bea r on the con ­
c l us i on s , a re pe r t i ne n t .
Wh i l e the des i gne rs of tes t s a t temp t t o d u p l i ca te r ea l - l i fe
s i tu a t i on s , i n a c t ua l i ty th ey can d o no mo r e than a p p rox i mate i t .
I n t h e rea l - 1 i fe academ i c s i t ua t i on a t the co l l ege l eve l today , the
means o f t ra n s m i s s i on o f i n fo r ma t i on mos t f req uen t l y u s e d i n the
c l a s s r oom i s the l ec t u re , a n d i t s c l os e s u b s t i t u tes - - ta p e reco r d i n g s ,
record s , a n d f i l m s t r i ps .
The l ec t u r e fo rma t , hav i n g been fo u n d t o
b e a h i g h l y e f f i c i en t method of expos i ng l a rge n umbe r s o f s t u d e n t s
t o i n fo rma t i on , i s b e i n g emp l oyed w i th i n c re a s i ng u rgen cy a s the
s t u den t - t o- facu l ty r a t i o con t i nues to r i s e .
T h e re fo r e , t h e ab i l i ty
t o comp rehend i n the l ec t u re fo rma t cou l d b e , fo r the co l l ege l eve l
'
JU .
s t u d en t , t h e e s sence of h i s s ch o l a s t i c s u cces s .
O ne s e c t i on o f th e
B rown - C a r l s e n tes t , P a r t E , Lec t u re Comp rehens i on , u s e d i n t h i s
i nves t i g a t i on re c rea ted the l ec t u re s i tua t i on ; the o th e r s requ i red
know l edge and a b i l i ty i n s pec i f i c s k i l l s s u ch as recog n i t i on of
wo rd mea n i n g s a n d t ra n s i t i on s , wh i ch a re no t neces s a r i l y exc l u s i ve l y
l i s ten i n g s k i l l s .
I t was P a r t E wh i ch cor re l a te d the mos t s t rong l y
w i t h the g rade - po i n t ave rages o f the pa rt i c i pa n t s .
I t i s pos s i b l e t h a t a redes i g ned l i s ten i ng comp reh e n s i on
te s t , on e wh i ch rec reates on l y the l e c t u re s i t u a t i on , cou l d p rod u ce
a h i g h co r re l a t i on b e tween t h e tes t s co res a n d the g ra d e - po i n t
ave rages .
Th i s cou l d mea n t h a t i t cou l d b e cons i d e re d a h i gh l y
a ccu r a t e p red i c t i ve i n s t rumen t .
Howeve r , i t mus t be n o t e d tha t
even t h i s p os s i b l e h i g h co r re l a t i on wou l d n o t nece s s a r i l y b e
rea l i s t i c o r a c c u r a t e , s i n ce g rades a re b a sed on ma ny f a c t o r s :
c l a s s pa r t i c i pa t i on , repo r t s , p rojects , a n d the reten t i on of
w r i t te n m a t e r i a l , a s we l l a s t h e reten t i on of a u ra l ma te r i a l .
In
o r d e r t o d e t e rm i ne accu r a t e l y t h e deg ree o f re l a t i on s h i p wh i ch
ex i s t s be tween l i s te n i n g a b i l i t i es and s cho l a s t i c s u cces s , tha t
p o r t i on o f the g ra de wh i ch a c t ua l l y ref l e c t s the l i s ten i n g comp reh e n s i on l eve l mus t b e d e t e rm i ne d .
W i th these po i n t s i n m i n d , the o r i g i n a l hypothes i s s h ou l d
b e re- exam i ned :
T h e re i s a pos i t i ve a n d s i gn i f i ca n t re l a t i on s h i p be­
tween the l eve l of l i s ten i ng comp rehe n s i on of the
s en i o r s t u den t s maj o r i n g i n b u s i nes s at San Fe r n a n d o
V a l l ey S ta t e C o l l eg e a n d th e i r demon s t ra t e d s cho l a s t i c
s u cces s .
'
I I
A pos i t i ve re l a t i on s h i p h a s b een p roved .
H?vJeve r , the
deg ree o f s i g n i f i ca n ce of t h a t re l a t i on s h i p does not a p pea r to be
h i gh .
T h e r e fo re , the o r i g i n a l hypo thes i s mus t be rej ected .
The
conc l u s i on of th i s s t udy mu s t b e th a t :
The re i s a pos i t i ve b u t n o t nece s s a r i l y s i g n i f i ca n t
re l a t i on s h i p b e tween t h e l eve l of l i s ten i n g . comp r�
h e n s i on of the s e n i o r s t u d e n t s maj o r i n g i n b u s i n e s s
a t San Fe r n a n do Va l l ey S t a te C o l l ege a n d th e i r demon ­
s t r a ted s ch o l a s t i c s u c ces s .
I t i s a n i mp l i ca t i on of t h e f i nd i n g s of t h i s s t u dy t h a t the
s l i g h t l y h i ghe r co r re l a t i on found between t he s co re s on P a r t E ,
Lec t u re Comp rehens i on , o f the B rovm - C a r l sen L i s ten i n g C omp rehens i on
Te s t a n d t h e g r a d e - po i n t ave ra ges i s tha t the l ec t u re comp rehe n s i on
fo rma t i s a mo r e re l i a b l e tes t of the l i s ten i n g ab i l i t i es of the
s t u d e n t maj o r i n g i n
b u s i ne s s at San Fe r na n do Va l l ey S t a te Co l l eg e
t h a n i s a tes t of s pec i f i c l i s ten i ng s k i l l s .
A l s o i mp l i ed f r om a n exam i n a t i on of the f i n d i n g s i s a n eed
for a r e - eva l u a t i on of the e f f i cacy of the l e ct u re forma t .
The
facu l ty wou l d do we l l t o exam i ne th i s fo rma t fo r the d i s s em i n a t i on
o f i n forma t i on i n l i g h t of i t s exte n s i ve us age , i t s p roj ec ted
i n c re a s e d u s age , a n d t he obv i ou s l i m i ta t i on s of the l t s te n i ng
a b i l i t i e s o f t h e s t uden t s i n the l ec t u re s i t ua t i on .
I t i s a fu r t h e r i mp l i ca t i on of t h i s s t udy ' s f i n d i n g s th a t
s i n ce the re wa s s u ch a l a r g e pe rcen tage of t i mes when t he s co re on
the l e c t u re comp rehen s i on s e c t i on was the l owes t o f the f i ve
sect i on a l s co res , a need fo r t ra i n i n g i n c r i t i ca l l i s t en i n g fo r
a u ra l comp rehen s i on ex i s t s a n d t h a t s u ch t ra i n i n g wou l d b e of va l ue
'
•
/Z .
t o these co l l ege l eve l s t uden t s i n a ch i ev i n g i n c reased s cho l a s t i c
s u c ces s .
I t i s , a f t e r a l l , t h e ro l e of t h o s e s egme n t s of facu l ty a n d
a dm i n i s t ra t i on of t h e C o l l ege wh i ch a re respons i b l e fo r po l i cy ­
mak i n g a n d cu r r i c u l um deve l opme n t t o b e eve r wa t ch f u l f o r me thods
o f i mp rov i n g the e f f ec t i veness of t h e educ a t i ve p roces s .
T h e r e fo re , o n e b a s i c re co111me n d a t i on can b e made .
That i s ,
t h a t con s i de ra t i on b e g i ve n by t h e S ch oo l of B u s i n e s s Adm i n i s t ra t i on
a n d E conom i cs a n d the C o l l ege t o a do p t i n g a p o l i cy o f con ce r n fo r
t he l i s t en i n g a b i l i t i e s of i t s s t uden t s .
Th i s con ce r n m i gh t we l l
b e ev i den ced by t h e i ns t i t u t i on o f a p o l i cy o f tes t i n g i n com i n g
s t uden t s fo r the i r l eve l of l i s te n i ng comp rehen s i on , a s we l l a s
read i n g comp rehe n s i on , a n d the es t ab l i s hmen t of a remed i a l p rog ram
fo r those who fa l l be l ow the m i n i ma l s t a n d a rd s e t by the Co l l ege .
The facu l ty , th rough a n adm i n i s t ra t i o n - s pon s o red educa t i ona l
p rog ram, cou l d b e made n o t on l y 1 1commun i ca t i on con s c i ou s , ' ' b u t a l s o
p rof i c i en t i n t h e t e ch n i ques of l e s s on p l a n a n a l y s i s fo r the
p romo t i on of more a c c u r a te a u ra l comp rehen s i on by s t u den ts .
Re comme n da t i on s fo r f u r t h e r s t udy mu s t a l s o b e p ro f fe red .
Con s i d e ra t i on shou l d b e g i ven , a s p rev i ou s l y men t i oned , t o t h e
deve l opmen t of a 1 i s te n i ng t e s t w h i ch r e c r e a tes t he l e c t u re s i t u � ­
t i o n exc l u s i ve l y .
The pos s i b i l i ty i s t h a t th i s type o f tes t w i l l
p rove t o b e a mo re a c cu r a t e veh i c l e fo r p o r t ray i n g t h e s t u d en t ' s
l i s ten i ng ab i l i t i es t h a n tes t s t h a t a re n ow be i n g used .
'
fj .
The rate of reten t i on of a u ra l l y p resen ted ma te r i a l
expe r i enced by s t u d e n t s i s wo r t hy o f more i n tens i ve exp l o r a t i on .
Mos t resea r ch u p to th i s po i n t h a s been concen t ra t ed on the i mmed i a te reca l l res pon s es .
I n t h e academ i c env i ronmen t hovveve r , i t i s
the reten t i on of i n forma t i on ove r exten d ed p e r i od s of t i me wh i ch
i s s o c r i t i ca l to t h e s t u d e n t i n t e rms of h i s s cho l a s t i c s u cces s .
'