CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
The Impact of Traumatic Experiences Related to the Immigration Journey for
Latino Immigrant Parents of U.S. Born Children:
A Support and Psychoeducational Group
A graduate project in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Masters of Science in Counseling,
Marriage and Family Therapy
By
Georgina Garay-Lozano
December 2015
The graduate project of Georgina Garay-Lozano is approved:
Alison King, LCSW
Date
Jessica ChenFeng, Ph.D.
Date
Dana Stone, Ph.D., Chair
Date
California State University, Northridge
ii
Dedication
Dedicated to the Latino community who I have had the pleasure of working with. Their
passion, resilience, and continued ability to be vulnerable have given me strength to find
my voice.
Dedicated to my late grandmother Jovita Cabrera-Barajas. My most precious memories
include her care for me as a child and teenager on my summer visits to Zacatecas,
Mexico. Her richness in love and patience has guided my ability to relate to others.
iii
Acknowledgments
First, I would like to acknowledge my committee members. Dr. Stone, your
approach to your project/thesis students has been so warm and caring but has also kept us
on track through this process. Thank you for giving me the opportunity to work with you
and to challenge myself even though I did not have a class with you before this project.
Your encouragement has been so helpful. Dr. ChenFeng, thank you for your support in
this project. Your caring and open nature allowed me to feel comfortable enough to reach
out to you regarding my project and my career development exploration. Alison King,
your support has been imperative to the development of this project and my development
as a clinician. I appreciate the direct and challenging exchanges that we had during our
time working together, I cannot thank you enough.
Second, I would like to thank and acknowledge my dearest colleagues. I have
learned from our exchanges how to be patient, considerate of differences, and most
importantly-allowed myself to repair. In particular, I would like to thank Peter Mora and
Patricia Gutierrez. Our dynamic trio has been a pleasure to be a part of. Of course we had
our differences, but I do thank you in supporting me as only you knew what my real
struggles and triumphs were. I love you both!
Third, I would like to acknowledge my best friends. We may not see each other
often, but nothing seems to change between us. Bree, you are my rock, the person I can
go to talk to about pretty much anything. I can’t thank you enough for your continued
support in my development as a person. Ana, your wit and fun-loving nature allow me to
be myself. We are so different, and I think we have stopped asking ourselves how it is
that we became best friends. Regardless, I love you for who you are. Thank you for
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challenging me and always putting a smile on my face.
Fourth, I would like to thank my family. I have gone through such a big process
of change these past 2.5 years, and I hope you know that I am still the Georgina that cares
for each an every one of you just with a little more boundaries and limits for my health.
Ama, te quiero tanto y quiero que sepas que aunque en veces no nos ponemos de acuerdo
en muchas cosas, valoro tu punto de vista y te valoro a ti. El que tu seas chistosa,
paciente, y te puedas llevar bien con la gente me ayudo a relacionarme mejor con mis
clientes. Apa, lo quiero tanto y aprecio el cariño y amor que nos tiene. Su sabiduría
demostró que es posible cambiar el modelo con cual creció y ofrecernos una vida que
usted y mi Ama no tuvieron. Y quiero que sepa que nunca es tarde para hacer cambios
por una mejor vida y resolver dificultades del pasado, even if you are an old timer. Alma,
you are the best sister that I have ever had. Thank you for listening to me and allowing
me to vent during these past two and a half years, I love you.
Fifth, I would like to acknowledge my therapist Karina. Thank you for your
continued support in my process of differentiation. Most importantly, I would like to
thank you for allowing me to explore who I am as a person, to be cynical, to be silly, and
to be kind and patient with myself.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my partner. Jonathan, your patience and
support continue to amaze me. Thank you for encouraging me to follow my passion and
believing in me. Being in graduate school at the same time hasn’t been easy, but it has
taught me so much about the potential for growth and love in challenging situations. I
love you with all of my heart and am grateful for having you in my life. You okay, you
okay, you fine, you fine.
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Table of Contents
Signature Page .................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii Chapter I: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 Statement of Purpose ...................................................................................................... 4 Terminology .................................................................................................................... 4 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 6 Chapter II: Literature Review ............................................................................................. 7 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction to the Latino Population ............................................................................. 8 Statistics on Latino Immigration ................................................................................... 10 Reasons for Immigration............................................................................................... 11 Types of Immigration ................................................................................................... 17 The Latino Immigrant Parent and First Generation Children ....................................... 24 Acculturation and Assimilation .................................................................................... 29 Trauma Treatment with Multi-Family Groups ............................................................. 37 Prolonged Exposure (PE) Therapy ............................................................................... 41 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 43 Chapter III: Project Audience and Implementation .......................................................... 44 Chapter IV: Conclusion .................................................................................................... 51 vi
References ......................................................................................................................... 58 Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 66 vii
Abstract
The Impact of Traumatic Experiences Related to the Immigration Journey for
Latino Immigrant Parents of U.S. Born Children:
A Support and Psychoeducational Group
By
Georgina Garay-Lozano
Master of Science in Counseling,
Marriage and Family Therapy
This project will provide insight to the common difficulties involved in the journey of
immigration from Latin American countries to the United States. Immigration posits
opportunities for trauma, whether that is because the immigrant is fleeing from something
and is already vulnerable, they experience substantial trauma during the process, are
displaced once in the United States, and/or find themselves in impoverished and unsafe living
areas. The numerous approaches of Latino immigrants entering the country, whether legal or
not consist of facing obstacles. Nonetheless, Latino immigrants continue leaving their
countries of origin and driving population changes in the United States. Trauma that extends
to other generations after the person who experiences the primary trauma (parent or
grandparent) is a phenomenon that is labeled transgenerational or intergenerational trauma
(Phipps & Degges-White, 2014). When treating Latino immigrants, the proposed group
shines light on the oftentimes-overlooked topic of trauma during immigration and its effects
of first-generation U.S. born children.
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Chapter I: Introduction
Immigration is a common phenomenon experienced in different countries of the
world. Perez-Foster (2001), contend that around 90 million people have relocated around
the world because of war or scarcity of food or in search of work. Of these people some
may have relocated within their country of origin, gone to a neighboring country, or a
new country that is known to have opportunity. Immigration to the United States consists
of immigrants who come from countries from around the world and may be either
applying for entrance through a legal application process or may be entering without
documentation. According to the United States Department of Homeland Security Office
of Immigration, the United States has seen more than 14 million people obtaining legal
permanent resident status following the new millennium up until 2013. In 2010 over 19
million people fled from Latin American countries including Mexico, the Caribbean
(Cuba and Dominican Republic), Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras),
South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru), and the rest of Latin America. Of the people
fleeing from their country of origin, some made the United States their new home
whether they enter with proper documentation or not.
Due to the nature of immigration to the United States from Latin American
countries, there appears to be varying reasons for immigration for individuals or families
making the decision to immigrate in the first place. Reasons vary from country to country
but may include better opportunity (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001), war, torture,
and terrorism (Asner-Self & Marotta, 2005), natural disasters (Perez-Foster, 2001; Tienda
& Sánchez, 2013) and hunger and poverty (Falicov, 2014). Coupled with differing
modes of entry into the United States, the immigration experience may allot for trauma
1
experiences at differing points in the journey (Perez-Foster, 2001). Furthermore, there has
been some increased attention to the experiences of immigrants and how this may in turn
affect the children that they have and families that they form. Even future generations
have been studied and been found to be affected long after a family may be settled into a
new country (Ornelas & Perreira, 2011). Phipps and Degges-White (2014) identify this as
transgenerational or intergenerational trauma.
An exploration of immigration experience, acculturation, and the influence it has
on the child and family will help to alleviate possible symptoms relating to mental health
or physical disorders. Latino immigrants may not identify their migration experience as
having been a traumatic one (Perez-Foster, 2001) so they may not relay information in a
way that allows for an assessor to identify trauma. Giving voice to the experiences of this
community through working from a multi-family group therapy approach would help
reveal past prolonged exposure to traumatic experiences (Lopez, Shealy, & Rheingold,
2014) and allow for individual narratives to be formed (Oliver, Flamez, & McNichols,
2011), which would in turn, help repair damaged relationships, and assist in the
development of healthy relationships with their children.
Statement of Problem/Need
When taking a trauma informed perspective it is possible to acknowledge how the
aftermath related to immigration experienced by at least one parent may impact the
family system. According to Johnson and Cuellar (2013), in the state of California alone,
there are more than two million undocumented immigrants and Los Angeles County has
the highest number of undocumented residents (nearly 900,000). There may be differing
reasons for coming to a new country that go beyond simply ‘wanting a better life.’
2
Reasons for immigration often involve trauma that may have occurred during childhood,
adulthood, which is often compounded by the trauma of the immigration experience
itself. To further complicate things, those same immigrants may now come to the United
States to live in impoverished areas where there is a lack of resources and work is often
in unsafe locations. In general, Latino immigrants are in a completely new environment
where they do not speak the language, and are unaware of their legal rights or the foreign
systems that govern. This continues to be the dynamic of many Latino immigrant parents
with children, who learn English at faster rates than they do (Lawton & Gerdes, 2014). In
addition, there are also the children of immigrant parents who are born in the United
States (considered first generation) who face the challenges of adapting to the new
country while also dealing with the traditional culture and lifestyles within their homes
(Portes & Rumbaut, 2006)
Because of their socioeconomic standing and other factors, immigrants tend to
end up becoming involved with social services agencies such as Department of Children
and Family Services (DCFS) and other systems. In August of 2015, children involved in
DCFS cases of Los Angeles County included 60% of children considered to be Hispanic
(DCFS, 2015). Because of the high number of children considered to be Hispanic that are
involved in DCFS cases, it would be understandable to reason that these children’s
families are also receiving services-whether voluntary or mandated by the court system.
There are unique circumstances that the Latino community experiences, such as the
trauma of the immigration journey, and at times, the lack of proper legal documentation.
With the high volume of services offered to the Latino community, there appears to be a
lack of culturally sensitive clinicians available to provide effective services to the
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community. For example, common groups and programs offered to immigrants and their
families address domestic violence (either perpetrator or survivor), anger management,
couples counseling, individual therapy, and parenting classes. However, these groups are
usually translated from English into Spanish, and facilitators are asked to provide a
service in a set amount of time. An identified need of this community is trauma specific
treatment if warranted, or at the very least, trauma informed treatment which takes into
account the unique circumstances of many immigrants from Latin American countries.
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this project is to address the frequently overlooked relationship
dynamic between parent and child, specifically a parent who emigrated from a different
country and is trying to raise a first generation U.S. born child. The proposed group is an
educational and support group for Latino immigrant parents of first-generation children
in the United States. The focus is placed on the parent’s experiences and lives in their
country of origin as well as the cultures and values they carry, and expectations they may
have of their U.S. born children. Increasing parents’ understanding of their immigration
journey will help the parents understand the impact their potential trauma may be having
on their U.S. born children. This group approach will implement a trauma informed
framework for exploring the migration journey.
Terminology
Latino(s): According to Falicov (2014), Latinos are defined as an immigrant or
descendant of an immigrant to the United States that come from a Spanish-speaking
country.
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Hispanic: An additional term used to describe the population being discussed in this
project and in the literature. Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco (2001) explain that the
term “Hispanic” was developed in the 1980s by demographers working for the U.S.
Bureau of the Census as a way to categorize the people who are historically or culturally
connected to the Spanish language.
Familismo: Bermúdez and Bermúdez (2002, p. 341), define familismo as “a cultural
value and belief that the family is central in the life of the individual.”
Refugees and Asylees: Both refugees and asylees are characterized by the immigrants
who experienced political upheavals and/or natural disasters. Wasem (2009)
differentiates the two by the physical location from where they are requesting permission
to be in the United States.
Refugee: According to Wasem (2009), a refugee is characterized as having to apply from
abroad for the opportunity to resettle in a different country.
Asylee: According to Wasem (2009), asylees apply for legal status after arriving in the
United States.
Stepwise Immigration: Suarez-Orozco, Todorova, and Louie (2002) referred to stepwise
immigration as a pattern in which a family member immigrates without some family
members with the intention of later reunifying.
Intergenerational trauma: Phipps and Degges-White (2014) define intergenerational
trauma as effects of trauma that extends to other generations after the person who
experiences the primary trauma (parent or grandparent).
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Summary
The process of immigration may impact the Latino community in an array of
ways. For some, the combination of experiences including reason(s) for immigration,
possible points of impact during the immigration experience that may be traumatic, and
the after-math of being in a new country may affect the psyche of Latino immigrants. It is
this combination of experiences, identified as traumatic, that affects the well being of
Latino immigrant families. The focus of this proposed group is on the specific impact of
immigration for the parent-child relationships. To better understand the needs and role
that immigration plays in Latino immigrants’ lives, a review of the literature is presented
while focusing on the effects of immigration on an individual and ultimately how this
may affect the formation of a family.
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Chapter II: Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the processes that may be relevant for Latino immigrants
coming to the United States. A review of the literature is presented concerning the effects
of immigration from Latin American countries to the United States and ultimately its
effect on U.S. born children of Latino immigrants.
To begin, a brief introduction to generally accepted terms used in the mental
health field with respect for the Latino community and statistics are presented. This
additionally includes differentiating who is considered to be part of the Latino
community based on history of conquest by European influences and furthermore the
usage of the Spanish language. Next, the unique push and pull factors influencing an
individual or family’s decision to immigrate are presented and broken down by reasons
including better opportunity, war, torture, terrorism, natural disasters, hunger and
poverty. To address differences in reason for immigration from certain Latin American
countries more than others, specific countries are broken down and described in further
detail including Mexico, Caribbean, Central and South America. This pattern of breaking
down the Latin American countries is followed when appropriate throughout the
presentation of the literature.
This is followed by a discussion of the types of immigration possible including
legal permanent residents, refugees and asylees, undocumented immigrants, and stepwise
migration. Next is a discussion of the possibility for trauma before, during, or after the
immigration journey including the stages that Perez-Foster (2001) identifies having
potential for traumatic experiences including premigration, through journey, asylum or
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temporary resettlement, and settlement in host country. Next, the literature is reviewed
concerning the effects of being a Latino immigrant and having a first generation U.S.
born child. After that, it is appropriate to speak in more detail regarding the individual
and relational effects of acculturation and assimilation. Lastly, a comprehensive review
of the literature covers the importance of following an evidence base practice and
previous literature related to the group proposed for this project. Important and
significant issues to be discussed in this portion include the group approach to treatment,
trauma treatment with multi-family groups, a multidimensional ecosystemic comparative
approach (MECA), and lastly the evidence-based practices used with this population.
Introduction to the Latino Population
“Latinos are extraordinarily diverse—some have ancestors who were established
on what is now U.S. territory long before the current borders were set through conquest
and land purchases” (Immigrant Families in Contemporary Society, 2007, p.314).
According to Falicov (2014), Latinos are defined as an immigrant or descendant of an
immigrant to the United States that come from a Spanish-speaking country. In this
definition, Brazilians are not included even though they are a part of South America due
to the fact that they are not Spanish-speakers. When referring to Latinos in the United
States, it is important to understand the diversity that is accompanied by these immigrants
coming from diverse countries when speaking of geography, landscape, history, politics,
and cultural heritage of both indigenous and European descent (Falicov, 2014).
Latinos may trace their national origins to 20 Spanish-speaking countries
including but not limited to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, Dominican
Republic, Guatemala, Colombia, Honduras, Ecuador, and Peru (Falicov, 2014). As
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mentioned previously, the reason for grouping together the people of these countries is
largely due to their shared Spanish language and cultural preferences that were left after
their European influence of the Spanish colonization (Falicov, 2014).
An additional term used to describe Latinos is Hispanic. Suárez-Orozco and
Suárez-Orozco (2001) explain that the term “Hispanic” was developed in the 1980s by
demographers working for the U.S. Bureau of the Census as a way to categorize the
people who are historically or culturally connected to the Spanish language. Even though
the term Hispanic has no precise meaning racially, it is commonly used in the literature.
That is, the term Hispanic may be used to identify a person who is white, black, or
indigenous and other possible combinations of the aforementioned. For this reason, the
terms Latino or any variation of the word (i.e., Latina, Latinos) and Hispanic may be used
interchangeably throughout this literature review. Feliciano (2009) further elaborates on
four possible types of ethnic identities of United States children of immigrants including
the nation of origin (i.e., Cuban, Colombian), hyphenated (i.e., Mexican-American,
Guatemalan-American), simply American, and racial or panethnic (i.e., black, Latino,
Hispanic) (Lopez & Espiritu 1990; see also Portes & Rumbaut 2001). Due to the names
assigned and accepted by this group of people, the children of these parents may become
confused as far as what they consider themselves to be, to be discussed in detail in future
sections. It is important to allow for the members of these different communities to assert
their own ethnic identities as some labels may stem from outsiders who homogenize
these groups (Feliciana, 2009).
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Statistics on Latino Immigration
Depending on the situation of the individual or family member, immigration may
occur for many reasons. Immigration usually consists of individuals fleeing from
countries with a level of economic and sociopolitical hardship to countries with more
stability (Ramirez-Garcia, 2012). According to Perez-Foster (2001), around 90 million
people have relocated around the world outside their native countries because of war or
scarcity of food or in search of work. Of these people, a large number of them are at
significant risk for poor living conditions, economic exploitation, and prejudicial
treatment from their host country. Tienda and Sánchez (2013) contend that in 2010, over
19 million people immigrated from Latin America which consists of México, Caribbean
(Cuba and Dominican Republic), Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras),
South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru), and the rest of Latin America. In 2010,
immigration from México and Cuba accounted for 61.3% and 5.8% respectively (Tienda
& Sánchez, 2013). Top sending countries of immigrants from Latin America to the
United States have been Mexico and Cuba for the majority of the twentieth and into the
twenty-first century, with the Philippines taking second rank since 1980 (Wasem, 2010).
The United States is home to over 50 million Latinos, making it the second largest
concentration of Latinos with Mexico being the first, consisting of 112 million (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2011). Yu, Lin, and Adirim (2013) assert that there is no doubt that
immigrant families are driving rapid population increases, and as a result, there are
growing racial and ethnic diversities in local communities across the country.
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Reasons for Immigration
People immigrate for many reasons that would be difficult to define in simple
terms. For some there is a need or desire to move from one country to the other due to the
need for money, work or better opportunities (schooling, medicine, etc.). Researchers
identify war, torture, terrorism, famine, political struggles, and natural disasters that may
prompt the decision of immigrants to come to a new country (Pumariega et al., 2005).
The mentioned forces cannot be predicted nor managed through policy measures as
shown in the failure to seal the U.S.-Mexico border (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013), adding to
the complexity of the reasons for a relocation of people. Immigrants leaving their native
country may or may not have legal status in their new home country. The discussion of
reasons for migrating will include better opportunity, political instabilities, natural
disasters, and hunger and poverty. Due to unique pulling and pushing forces that
contribute to the migration of people from Latin America, the following identified
locations will be discussed in detail Mexico, Caribbean, Central America, and South
America.
Better opportunity. Researchers report a small number of middle-class and
wealthy Latinos who come to the United States following the possibility of greater
political stability and safety from crime (Falicov, 2014). Immigrants who are upper-class
professionals in their native country may hold legal status and may find it easier to have
transnational lives (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Suárez-Orozco and Suárez
Orozco (2001) contend that there is an increasing “hourglass” shape for opportunity,
whereas some immigrants fall into the well-paid knowledge-intensive industries at
differing rates when compared to the past. For some people leaving their country of
11
origin their drive lies in an improvement of their living conditions. Specifically, major
migration flows are from countries with economic hardship to countries experiencing
improved economic conditions and/or sociopolitical stability (Ramirez García, 2012).
Some immigrate to thrive by taking advantage of economic and professional
opportunities (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Sociologists look at the
interpersonal forces and social networks as reasons for immigration, and contend that
some immigrants relocate to be close to family/friends who are already in the country
providing them with resources for jobs, places to live, and schools (Suárez-Orozco &
Suárez-Orozco, 2001).
War, torture, terrorism. The term refugee is used to refer to individuals who
have been forced to leave their home country because of war, conflict, or persecution
(Pila, 2014). In various countries of Latin America, years of political strife and armed
conflict have caused bloodshed, and political violence continues to be a public health
concern (Asner-Self & Marotta, 2005). While some individuals experience government
condoned violence, others experience politically motivated violence (Asner-Self &
Marotta, 2005). Still, there are numerous others who may be deeply affected by the loss
or disappearance of loved ones noted in numerous Latin American countries (Asner-Self
& Marotta, 2005). Any of the aforementioned may be contributing factors in immigrants
seeking refuge in a country such as the United States. Berry (2001) contends that due to
the nature of immigration rooted in sociopolitical issues, oftentimes studied in sociology
and psychiatry, the literature may focus on the negative aspects of their migration
experience. Because of this focus, a new orientation is currently taking place in which the
focus is on resiliencies and positive qualities of immigrants who immigrate for
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sociopolitical reasons (Berry, 2001). Due to the nature of their reason for immigration,
many refugees arrive into the United States with temporary or permanent visas while
others enter as undocumented immigrants.
Natural disasters. According to Lindell (2013), between 1900 and 2011 there
were 25 geophysical, hydrological, or meteorological disasters that produced more than
50,000 deaths. These disasters included earthquakes, tropical cyclones, and floods
(Lindell, 2013). Physical losses include structures, animals and crops (Lindell, 2013).
Due to the unforeseen circumstances faced during such disasters, people are forced to
relocate and start their lives over. Depending on the nature of the natural disaster the
psychological effects may be mild and transitory, while some people may experience
positive impacts such as strengthened family relationships, and others may experience
negative impacts such as strained family relationships (Lindell, 2013). Lindell (2013)
added that there were impacts in the long-term adaptive consequences, in some cases
there was a change of risk perception and increased hazard intrusiveness.
Hunger and poverty. Hunger and extreme poverty are large contributing factors
in the decision to relocate. According to Falicov (2014), poverty is the driving force for
those embarking on the dangerous journey. Specifically, the skyrocketing rates of poverty
and unemployment in Latin America during the 1980s and 1990s were responsible for an
increase in immigration (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013). As mentioned before, the physical
losses associated with a natural disaster such as losing animals and crops may add to this.
Researchers contend that the majority of immigrants arriving in the United States are
escaping poverty in their countries of origin, paired with low levels of education and job
skills (Pumariega et al., 2005). Additionally, Gindling (2005) states, “Economic crisis in
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the 1980s was accompanied by falling per capita incomes and increasing poverty rates
throughout Latin America. With a resurgence of economic growth in the first eight years
of the 1990s, per capita incomes rose and poverty rates fell” (p. 208).
Immigration from Mexico
Due to the large immigrant movement of Mexicans to the United States, this
section will identify specific driving forces for them. Falicov (2014) identifies sharp
economic declines and the consequent lack of employment to be the force driving
immigrants from places such as Mexico since the 1800s. Many Mexican immigrants are
economic immigrants who leave their country by choice in order to escape poverty,
where “their primary motivations are a better and stabler economic future and a better
education for their children” (Falicov, 2014, p. 54). Together, the combination of the
following allowed for an influx of Mexican immigrants in the 1980s and into the 1990slack of enforcement on the U.S.-Mexico border and employers’ ability to hire illegal
immigrants (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013). An increase of Mexican immigrants coming to the
United States was seen during the 1990s with the expansion of the housing and
construction industries, which are dominated by unskilled workers (Tienda & Sánchez,
2013). More recently, the immigration from Mexico has decreased from 2008-2012 due
to expanding economic and educational opportunities in Mexico and decreasing labor
opportunities and restricting laws in the United States (Falicov, 2014).
Immigration from the Caribbean
Countries included in the subsection of the Caribbean are Cuba, Dominican
Republic, and Puerto Rico. A large Cuban relocation into the United States can be traced
to tensions between the former Soviet Union and the United States (Suárez-Orozco &
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Suárez-Orozco, 2001). In the 1960s, Cubans dominated Latin American refugee flow to
the United States due to the deterioration of U.S.-Cuban relations (Moulton, 2013). To
begin, the revolution of 1959, led by Fidel Castro sparked the immigration to the United
States (Torres, 2004). This pattern was partly stopped due to the Cuban missile crisis of
1962 and reemerged when the Cuban government allowed those with families in the
United States to immigrate (Torres, 2004). A third wave of immigrants came in 1980
through the Mariel boatlift when Cuba sent Cubans who could be reunified with their
families and what the government considered to be undesirables (Torres, 2004). Torres
(2004) explains that immigrants from the Dominican Republic have entered the United
States largely due for economic reasons and after the death of their dictator Rafael
Trujillo who had control over exit visas until 1961. Another country that is considered to
be a part of the Caribbean is Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico is unique in that this country is
considered to be a commuter nation and Puerto Ricans may exercise their rights as U.S.
citizens meaning that they can travel freely to and from the U.S. mainland (Torres, 2004).
Driving forces that brought Puerto Ricans to the mainland were economic opportunities
as made apparent by a lack of immigration during a recession in the U.S. mainland
(Torres, 2004).
Immigration from Central America
Countries included in the subsection of Central America are El Salvador,
Guatemala, and Honduras. Civil war and terrorism have been contributing factors for
Central American stressors. According to Fortuna, Porche, and Alegria (2008), the
United States saw an increase in Central American immigration as a result of the civil
war from 1979 to 1992 in El Salvador along with other activities of political violence
15
such government repression through torture and murder, disappearances, and land
disputes which caused the people of Honduras and El Salvador to fight over borders.
Natural disasters such as floods in Guatemala and Mexico have caused the relocation of
several millions of people to either areas within their own country or outside of their
borders (Perez-Foster, 2001). In 1998, Hurricane Mitch affected Central Americans
economic and natural resources, leaving thousands homeless (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013).
Like other Latin American countries, economic opportunities are also contributing factors
in the decision to immigrate to the United States. Because of geographic location, the
immigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras may have to cross numerous
borders to get to the United States which poses greater risk for those deciding to embark
on the journey.
Immigration from South America
Countries included in this subsection include Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
According to Falicov (2014), Colombia’s migration was and continues to be based on the
economic downfall, internal security issues, and U.S. involvement in drug traffic. Tienda
and Sánchez (2013) additionally contend that prolonged political instability, armed
conflict, and drug violence have stimulated immigration from Colombia. Funded by the
United States government, Plan Colombia was designed originally to focus on drug
trafficking but refocused on fighting the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia,
causing migration within Latin America where Colombians migrated to neighboring
country of Ecuador (McPherson, 2013). Medina and Posso (2014) contend that
immigrants from countries like Colombia and Peru come to the United States for a
possibility of higher education. Economic downfalls such as the collapse of the banking
16
system in Ecuador in the late 1990s were contributing factors to Ecuadorian immigration
to the United States after the preferred destination was Spain (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013).
Additionally, hyperinflation combined with underemployment after the 1987 structural
adjustment measures accelerated the migration of Peruvians during the 1990s (Tienda &
Sánchez, 2013).
Types of Immigration
The need or desire to move from one country to another varies as previously
discussed. It not only varies for general reason, but from country to country. For some,
relocation stems from a desire for life improvement through economics, education, or
improved health. For others, the need lies in escaping persecution, war, or natural
disasters. Even though immigrants differ in reasoning, they will usually end up where
they believe work is available, and for an opportunity to live freely (with a reduced fear
of being deported if they are undocumented). Tienda and Sánchez (2013) contend that
immigrants may enter the United States identified as one of the following: Legal
Permanent Residents (LPR), refugees and asylees, or as an unauthorized immigrant.
Legal permanent residents. A legal permanent resident (LPR) may come to the
United States through applying for a visa which may consist of waiting for appointments
and is associated with professionals who have the resources to leave their native country,
or if they have a family member that is in the United States who can fund their legal and
travel expenses (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013). Immigrants who receive LPR status can arrive
to the United States undocumented and later become legal residents if they qualify for
U.S. legislation changes concerning their current or past situations (Tienda & Sánchez,
2013).
17
Refugees and asylees. As mentioned previously, refugees and asylees are
identified as those immigrants who enter the United States after political upheavals and
natural disasters. The basic rights of refugees are violated in numerous countries all over
the world where they are exposed to disasters, incidents of trauma, and ongoing physical,
sexual, and/or psychological oppression. According to Wasem (2009), the difference
between refugee and asylee is their physical location when requesting protection;
refugees apply from abroad and request to resettle in a different country, while asylees
apply after arriving to the United States. Because of this, asylum seekers live with the
ambiguity of having escaped their difficult situations of their home countries but have no
assurance of a safe future (Falicov, 2014).
Unauthorized immigrants. Unauthorized immigrants are those who enter the
country without proper documentation, thus the route into the United States will be
through illegal measures such as crossing borders without appropriate documentation.
There are unique characteristics of this type of immigration. Unlike the previously
mentioned types of immigration, unauthorized or undocumented immigrants come to the
United States with no guarantee that they will be able to legalize in the near future.
Instead, unauthorized immigrants know that the path to the United States will contain
risks from the beginning as apparent by crossing at least one international border. The
position that some families find themselves in when considering seeing their family
members in the United States leaves them debating between two seemingly impossible
options: to embark on the lengthy process of applying for a visa or never seeing their
family members again (Falicov, 2014). Given the options, some opt for the
undocumented route (Falicov, 2014). An additional difficulty that unauthorized
18
immigrants face is the ambiguity of arriving in the United States without legal
documentation permitting them to work legally, ultimately causing fear of detention and
deportation (Falicov, 2014). The ingression of unauthorized immigrants into the United
States is partly due to the selective enforcement of U.S. immigration laws (Tienda &
Sánchez, 2013).
Stepwise migration. Ravenstein (1885) introduces and defines stepwise
migration as the process of migration that is done in stages where the migrant moves
from town to town until he reaches the intended destination. Additionally, Conway
(1980) identifies stepwise migration as a behavior in which an individual or family will
begin the process of migration that will take them through numerous steps from a rural
environment to a modern-urban environment. Lastly and more recently, Suarez-Orozco,
Todorova, and Louie (2002) referred to stepwise immigration as a pattern in which a
family member immigrates, leaving behind some or all members of their family in their
native country, with the intention of later reunifying.
Stepwise immigration is most commonly associated with family members that
immigrate to the United States with the intention of later reunifying when there is more
financial stability by the family member who is in the United States. Falicov (2014)
explains that in the past, extended family and friends were left behind and that more men
would leave their families until they were able to bring their wife and children. More
recently, many children are being left behind as both mother and father, or single mothers
are immigrating to seek work in the United States (Falicov, 2014). According to SuarezOrozco et al. (2002), the stepwise pattern is more common among Dominican and
Central American groups. Falicov (2014), identifies some children who embark on the
19
journey north by themselves and without documents for various reasons including
searching for their absentee parents, hoping to work and send money for their poor
mothers, or dreaming of a better future or being adopted into a rich family.
Mexico. A contributing factor to undocumented immigration to the United States
from Mexico may have been the abrupt termination of the Bracero Program in 1964 and
the disproportionate use of temporary work visas, where U.S. growers became dependent
on the work of Mexican labor (Tienda and Sánchez, 2013). Because of the abrupt
changes in immigration laws, unauthorized entry provided an alternative pathway to the
United States as the workers had strong social networks that were fortified over decades
of relatively unrestricted migration (Tienda and Sánchez, 2013). Mexicans additionally
make up the largest share of legal immigrants from Latin America, usually sponsored by
U.S. relatives.
Caribbean. Because of the attitude of the U.S. government toward Cuban
immigrants, Cubans may enter as political exiles as opposed to economic immigrants,
granting them privileges not common to other Latin American immigrants (Torres,
2004). Due to the ties that Puerto Rico has with the United States and their ability to
exercise their rights as U.S. citizens, they are able to travel to the U.S. in pursuit of
economic stability (Torres, 2004).
Central America. Because of civil wars and political instability, the United
States has seen an influx of Salvadoran immigrants who receive LPR status under
Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act of 1997 (2013). Additional
U.S. legislation changes impact immigrants from Latin America. Civil war and terrorism
have been contributing factors for Central American refugees seeking asylum in the
20
United States (Pumariega et al., 2005). Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco (2001)
contend that this warfare in Central America during the 1980s generated population
displacements, and as a result, there are now over a million Central Americans in the
United States who have sought asylum after 1980. As mentioned previously, Hurricane
Mitch in the 1990s left many seeking refugee status in the United States (Tienda &
Sánchez, 2013).
Trauma and Immigration
It is important to understand the traumatic experiences that immigration may
cause for some. If defined as traumatic or not, some of these people, whether identified as
refugees or immigrants, have been displaced and have to live a completely new life. How
compromised may these people be who have been forced or have decided to leave
everything they know behind? In the United States, there are numerous nationalities of
Latinos compromising a wide variety of racial groups, differing socioeconomic levels,
and differing motives for immigration, although they share Spanish as the common
language (Pumariega, Rothe, & Pumariega, 2005).
Rasmussen, Rosenfeld, Reeves, and Keller (2007) contend that trauma research is
commonly conducted with native-born samples of immigrant groups limited to those that
are established and legally documented. Because of this, “rates of Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD) among undocumented immigrants are virtually nonexistent, despite the
acknowledged hardships that many face in their own countries and along migration
routes” (2007, p. 137). Immigration oftentimes involves trauma.
According to Perez-Foster (2001), many Latino immigrants do not identify their
immigration journey as a being a traumatic experience as trauma is not a commonly
21
understood concept that is used within this population. Latino immigrants may be likely
to relate the feelings of stress and shame to mental ‘weaknesses’, causing them to not
relate these feelings to the concept of trauma, and thus most do not define their mental
state as being due to trauma. Phipps and Degges-White (2012) contend that the different
stages of immigration create numerous levels of vulnerability where immigrants are
susceptible to the traumatic events listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). The stages of
immigrant trauma are important to define to understand that trauma is a part of the past
and present journey experienced by some Latino immigrants. There are four migration
states that can be identified in which there is significant potential for trauma, including 1)
premigration trauma, 2) trauma experienced through the journey, 3) asylum/temporary
settlement, and 4) settlement in the host country (Perez-Foster, 2001). The following
distinctions should serve to alert clinicians to those potential traumatogenic experiences
experienced by immigrants that are easily missed by some (Perez-Foster, 2001).
Premigration trauma is identified as the push factors that motivate immigrants to
leave their country and seek safe haven in a new country. Trauma might occur in the
country of origin with a corrupt government, unjust working conditions, and lack of
resources, etc. (Perez-Foster, 2001). Additionally, Phipps and Degges-White (2012)
explain that immigrants may experience a premigration traumatic event that includes
political violence, domestic violence, substantial impoverishment, and the death of loved
ones.
Trauma experienced though the journey is connected to the idea that immigration
is often not an easy journey. For some immigrants, it means crossing numerous borders to
22
get to the United States, like for Central Americans. Immigrants oftentimes come with
family members or conocidos (acquaintances typically from the same town) and they
usually pay someone who knows the way to avoid being caught by border patrol. Some
immigrants may experience the trauma of being separated from a loved one during the
journey (one person gets detained, one person dies, etc). Other immigrants are forced to
have sex with the person bringing them as a form of extra payment, or they are held
captive until the family is willing to pay for their release (Perez-Foster, 2001). Lifethreatening conditions during the immigration journey may include cramped confinement
in tractor-trailers or in secret compartments of vehicles, sexual assault of women and
children, and the numerous days spent wandering in desert-like conditions (Ugarte,
Zarate, & Farley, 2003). Phipps and Degges-White (2012) explain that prolonged
exposure to the elements experienced during the process of immigration such as antiimmigration patrols, animals, and vigilante groups all meet criteria for a traumatic event
in the DSM-5 (APA, 2013).
The third type of immigration trauma is asylum/temporary settlement where
immigrants may continue to have traumatogenic experiences in the process of
resettlement (Perez-Foster, 2001).
The final stage occurs during settlement in the host country where immigrants
may be subjected to substandard living conditions. This is often experienced by
immigrants who came to the United States in the hopes of finding work and a new life
but find themselves in isolation, experiencing exploitative living conditions which may
leave these families at great risk (Perez-Foster, 2001). Flores, Tschann, Dimas, Pasch,
23
and de Groat (2010) conclude that racial/ethnic discrimination paired with the feeling of a
lack of control to stop the discrimination may constitute a traumatic experience.
According to Perez-Foster (2001), immigrants experience loss of family,
community, and physical environment. This loss of support tends to be harder on women
and families, as they find themselves in an environment they do not understand, and with
no one whom to whom they can turn. What was once a hope for a bright future quickly
changes as families begin to experience the downturn in socioeconomic status due to lack
of legal status and inability to find well-paying work. In addition to living in this new
environment, immigrants need to make enough money to support their families, which
tends to result in a need for great adaptation. One way of adapting is women working
outside the home in low-paying jobs when their previous primary responsibility was
caring for children (Perez-Foster, 2001). Straussner (2000) concludes that this creates
new configurations to the traditional roles, and thus, roles in the family begin to shift,
often leading to domestic violence and substance use. The impacts of these stressors on
mental health are complex. Numerous psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depression
and substance use have been associated with immigrant populations.
The Latino Immigrant Parent and First Generation Children
Impact of trauma. As mentioned previously, the different stages of immigration
allow for a multitude of exposure to events which may be traumatic. Ornelas and Perreira
(2011) contend that these effects could last long after the family is settled into their new
life in a new country. The effects of trauma extending to other generations is a
phenomenon that is labeled transgenerational or intergenerational trauma (Phipps &
Degges-White, 2014). Phipps and Degges-White (2014) speculate that transgenerational
24
trauma may be more likely to occur in cultures in which the family system is close or
where familismo is present.
Because of this exposure to possible traumatic events, attention to the unique
subset of mental health concerns for Latino immigrants and their children living in the
United States is important. Additionally, it is important to note that despite mental health
disorders being highly prevalent in adolescents, there is an unmet need for mental health
services especially for Latino families (Kataoka,Zhang, & Wells, 2002). Interest and
research related to transgenerational trauma began with survivors of the holocaust and is
additionally being studied in families affected by child sexual abuse and natural disasters
(Phipps & Degges-White, 2014). Lurie-Beck (2007) contends that in the case of
holocaust survivor families, symptoms of transgenerational trauma are noted when
“parents’ unresolved grief, depression, generalized anxiety or hypervigilance impede
their ability to achieve healthy attachment to their children and to meet their children’s
emotional needs. This inconsistency in the relationship was identified as a factor that
could lead children to feel unsure of the extent to which they could trust their parents to
meet their need” (as cited by Phipps & Degges-White, 2014, p.176).
In Latino Families, the U.S. born children of immigrants are also susceptible to
suffering PTSD like symptoms due to their family’s traumatic experience. Contrary to
youth who experience the first-hand immigration-related trauma as children, U.S. born
children go undiagnosed by clinicians who assess for primary trauma (Phipps & DeggesWhite, 2014). A difference noted by Bridge et al. (2010) is that foreign-born Latinos
experience more internalized distress such as anxiety and depression while U.S. born
Latinos experience more externalized distress such as engaging in delinquent behaviors.
25
Yehuda et al. (2005), “found that a reduced cortisol level in adults with PTSD was a
significant factor influencing transmission of trauma effects.” (as cited in Phipps &
Degges-White, 2014, p. 182). Yehuda et al. (2005) contend that this may be a partial
explanation from a biological standpoint as the children of these individuals may be left
vulnerable to anxiety and stress. Focusing on the identified maternal trauma exposure,
Schwerdtfeger and Goff (2007) advocated for extensive trauma history assessments for
expectant mothers in order to attempt to prevent the transmission of trauma symptoms
between mother and child.
Parent-child relationships. Immigration may impact individuals in an array of
ways as they lose support from family and resources in the community they are leaving
(Perez-Foster, 2001). Because of this, immigrants who come to a new country are often
faced with new opportunities but all too often are faced with an array of challenges.
When speaking about immigrant parents and their first generation children, it is important
to point out key differences in these parent-child relationships. Because some Latino
immigrants do not fully understand the legal system, they oftentimes fear that practicing
their traditional parenting roles such as corporal punishment will get them in trouble and
possibly result in deportation (Downs-Karkos, 2004). This lack of understanding the legal
system may lead to feeling like they have no means of disciplining their children
(Downs-Karkos, 2004). In addition, there are different expectations regarding parent’s
roles in the social activities of children. For example, immigrant parents may not be
aware of the responsibility that the U.S. culture places on parent’s ability to monitor their
children’s behavior and school performance, as opposed to the community sharing
26
responsibility of monitoring, supervising, and managing adolescent activities in many
Latino communities (Coatsworth, Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2002).
Language barriers. Commonly, children tend to learn English at a faster rate
than their immigrant parents (that is if the immigrant parents learn and practice English)
(Lawton & Gerdes, 2014). This usually leaves the parents relying on the children for
language interpretation and an understanding of the community systems (Coatsworth,
Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2002). This change in power dynamics can be detrimental for
parent-child relationships as the parents are heavily relying on their children but often
times not willing to accept the need for their children’s input due to traditional roles.
Sometimes, the reliance and dependency (especially for young women) of the parents on
their children may become oppressive and lead to symptoms of distress (Falicov, 2014).
Collectivism vs. individualism. According to Portes and Rumbaut (2006), many
first generation children grow up in traditional households where their native culture is
highly emphasized through food, customs, and artifacts. These children also are
connected to their family of origin through vacations, stories, and communication with
relatives. This process may create confusion for some first-generation children if they are
school aged and seeking to acculturate to the mainstream culture. Attachments to a
cultural group and individualistic values appear to promote psychological and eudemonic
(overall a contended state of being happy) well-being (Schwartz et al., 2013). Zhou
(1997) asserts that children with immigrant parents who may be poorly educated and
unskilled, tend to find themselves growing up in underprivileged neighborhoods where
they may be subject to poverty, poor schools, violence, and drugs. First generation
children have been found to be at higher risk for behavioral conditions, which may be a
27
result of them facing chronic stress created by substandard living conditions unlike their
parents who have a secure identity and traditional values (Pumariega et al., 2005).
Pumarierga et al. (2005) posit that children are oftentimes vulnerable to additional
stressors because their parents and guardians are often overwhelmed and unable to attend
to their own emotional needs. Additional stressors experienced by immigrant families
include living in neighborhoods that are unsafe, lack of resources in community, and the
cycle of poverty in which many families tend to be stuck. Immigrant parents who have
first generation children tend to focus on academics and the success of their children as
their rationalization for the “sacrifices” they are making in order to ensure the success of
the next generation. Because of the nature of the collectivistic culture, there may
occasionally also be a parentified young adult who may have complied with the earlier
demands of their parents and siblings but is no longer able to do so due to their own
transitions. In addition, children often times have to encounter the mainstream culture in
school and social activities which creates confusion when having their parents continue to
emphasize the importance of maintaining traditional roles/beliefs (Pumariega et al.,
2005). Researchers found that there may be greater risks for first generation children
who may face chronic stressors (Pumariega et al., 2005).
Understanding immigrant patterns and possibilities for trauma can be complex, as
these immigrant patterns may be impacting the formation and future wellbeing of
families. The future of American society is related to the adaptation of immigrants and
their children (Pumariega et al., 2005). The proposed group will provide psychoeducation
and support for Latino immigrant parents of first-generation U.S-born children.
28
Acculturation and Assimilation
According to Lawton and Gerdes (2014) there have been numerous instances in
which acculturation and assimilation have been used interchangeably in the literature. In
their review of the literature, Lawton and Gerdes (2014) found that acculturation theories
had the potential to be seen in both the individual and group level, allowing for there to
be changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups interacting.
Additionally, researchers add that the process of acculturation may have outcomes that
are highly variable and may include the process of assimilation, separation, or
marginalization (Immigrant Families in Contemporary Society, 2007). Assimilation is
seen as a way in which immigrants may cast off the culture of origin and embrace the
culture of the host country (immigrant Families in Contemporary Society, 2004). For the
immigrant, this would mean taking into consideration and account the culture of those
here in the United States which is often criticized as forgetting the culture of the country
of origin. There are conflicting views regarding research suggesting the impact of
acculturation on mental health and overall wellbeing (Leong, 2008). On one hand, there
are researchers who state that clients who have not gone through the process of
acculturation experience poorer mental health due to the lack of social networks and
stress from being exposed to unfamiliar cultural dynamics. On the other hand, there are
researchers who suggest that those who have become acculturated experience a higher
stress and degree of psychopathology due to being rejected from the dominant culture.
Regardless, the process of cultural transition is being recognized as a psychological
process with implications for the mental health of immigrants. Even though numerous
theories have been proposed and refined over the past 80 years, there has been a change
29
in how immigrants adapt to the physical, social, and cultural changes they undergo
(Falicov, 2014). “Acculturation conflicts are experienced when messages from the culture
of origin and host cultures became difficult to reconcile.” (Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao,
2008 p. 295).
The most distinctive and dramatic characteristics of the migration journey are the
uprooting of the individual’s entire system of meanings including: physical, social, and
cultural (Falicov, 2014). To begin, Falicov (2014) explains that the first uprooting is
obvious as it is the physical disruption or a disruption of the home place. This disruption
may be experienced differently depending on the individual as the landscape may change.
For many immigrants, leaving their country of origin may mean being in a U.S.
metropolis instead of a rural village. The social uprooting experienced by immigrants
refers to the loss of connection to relationships including both family and friends who
stayed behind in the country of origin. Falicov (2014) explains that this loss of
relationships and the feelings surrounding such loss may be a contributing factor in both
individual and interpersonal stress such as marital breakup or domestic violence after
migration. Lastly the cultural uprooting experienced by immigrants refers to an exposure
of a new language, customs, lifestyles and values. When the exposure to the stated
experiences causes psychological distress, culture shock may be experienced. Culture
shock may also be referred to as acculturative stress. Latino immigrants who come to the
United States may experience an uprooting in their physical, social, and culture worlds;
this can help explain both acculturation and assimilation with more ease.
Acculturation for the immigrant parent. There are differing concepts of how
cultural learning among immigrants has been conceptualized including a three level
30
process (Marín, 1992) and a five dimensions process (Padilla, 1980). Both theories
identify and emphasize a change in behavior and cognitions which include values and
identity (Lawton & Gerdes, 2014). An important but often overlooked aspect of
acculturation is the context in which it occurs including migration and reception in the
host country. Berry (2006) identifies the differences that may occur among different
immigrant groups including voluntariness, the amount of mobility, and intended length of
residency in the United States. Specifically, Schwartz and Zamboanaga (2008) used a
latent class analysis to extract acculturation categories that were widely cited and
suggested by Berry (1980, 1997, 2006). Assimilation, separation, and integration
strategies emerged during this analysis while the only one of Berry’s categories that did
not was marginalization. These findings suggest that multidimensional models may be
appropriate when working with this population. That is, an integration of these domains
may provide a clearer picture of the complexity of cultural adaptations (Lawton &
Gerdes, 2014).
Through the process of acculturation, there have been developments of theoretical
frameworks. Two frameworks identified are assimilation theory and alternation theory
(Smokowski et al., 2008). Assimilation is more associated with higher levels of host
culture involvement (Smokowski et al., 2008). Assimilation theorists contend that as
individuals assimilate, they lose their cultural identity as they identify with the dominant
cultural group, whereas alternation theorists contend that individuals retain their cultural
identity while creating a relationship with the dominant culture (Gonzalez, Knight,
Morgan-Lopez, Saenz, & Sirolli, 2002).
31
Recently, there has been an approach to viewing acculturation models in a
different way. Theories regarding acculturation and assimilation have come into question
due to their linear approach to the way that immigrants experience new things in their
lives including things such as language and values. According to Falicov (2014), these
new models consider dimensions of the immigrants experience such as their ethnic,
socioeconomic, and cultural backgrounds. By following a non-linear pathway of viewing
the immigrant’s experiences, inclusion of mainstream contexts while maintaining country
of origin contexts are possible. With this newer acculturation framework came the study
and understanding of biculturalism. In order to better understand biculturalism (which is
important in work with first-generation children), alternation and hybridization processes
will be described. The alternation model purports that it is possible for an individual to
know and understand two cultures, and that the individual can alternate between
perspectives such as individuals who change behaviors based on which context they are
in (Falicov, 2014). Additionally, immigrants and their first generation children will
sometimes blend cultural meanings. For immigrants, the difference between the old and
the new can be understood. Children of immigrants live in a world that blurs the old and
the new which may create confusion. This is evident in the combination or hybridization
of cultures and languages, evident in children speaking Spanglish (Falicov, 2014).
Differing rates between parent and child. Assimilation theorists would suggest
that damaging relationships between adolescents involved in U.S. culture and family
conflict are a sign that adolescents are turning away from the culture of origin as their
parents are resisting the change (Smokowski et al., 2008). The increased autonomy of
many Latino adolescents, consistent with country of origin traditions, often clashes with
32
the Latino parent’s collectivistic view of family cohesion, familism, and parental control
(Lau, McCabe, & Yeh, 2005). Additionally, Latino parents experience confusion
regarding their adolescent’s acculturation as they see the advantages of educational
opportunities with the new culture while also worrying about the opportunities for risk
(Bacallao & Smokowski, 2007).
In one study, research was conducted with 402 adolescent-parent pairs from
Latino families in North Carolina and Arizona, where country of origin varied including
Mexico, U.S. born, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. Researchers found
that culture-of-origin involvement and biculturalism (the integration of customs from
both native and host countries) were positively related to family cohesion, adaptability,
and familism (family over the individual interests of its members) (Smokowski et al.,
2008). These findings support the alternation theorists’ belief that culture-of-origin is
important and should be maintained with an emphasis on both dimensions of cultural
involvement (Gonzales et al., 2002). The following were only partially supported in the
study: 1) assimilation and family dynamics; and, 2) acculturation conflicts and gaps
(Smokowski et al., 2008). Other researchers contend that it may be possible that Latino
adolescents differ from their parents in at least one aspect of acculturation that would
create an acculturation gap within the family (Lawton & Gerdes, 2014). Participation in
U.S. culture is not harmful on its own, as assimilation theory would suggest, but
researchers suggest that there may be other negative processes occurring (Smokowski et
al., 2008).
An additional study aimed at understanding the acculturation gap-distress
hypothesis among high-risk Mexican American families found null effects related to
33
differing acculturation paces of immigrants and their first generation children (Lau et al.,
2005). Lee et al. (2000) defined the acculturation gap-distress hypothesis to be the clash
of values and preferences that arises from differing intergenerational acculturation
patterns which lead to family conflict and result in youth maladjustment (as cited in Lau
et al., 2005). The acculturation gap-distress hypothesis was tested with 260 high-risk
Mexican American families. Lau et al. (2005) found that parent-youth discrepancies in
acculturation were not related to conduct problems or conflict for youth. Instead, families
that were marginalized experienced greater youth problems which are consistent with
previous reports of feelings of alienation, depression, and reduction in health status for
the youth (Lau et al., 2005). These findings support previous reports of how minority
youth are able to balance the cultural obligation that they have to their family of origin
with the demands of being an adolescent in the Unites States with little negative effects
on psychological, emotional, and academic functioning (Lau et al., 2005). Even though a
null effects were noted in this study relating specifically to the acculturation gap-distress
hypothesis, Lau et al. (2005) contend that more research is needed as differing levels and
styles of acculturation are seen to influence conflict and distress in minority families.
Furthermore, findings suggest an importance in working with families in order to
decrease parent-adolescent acculturation conflict while encouraging the increase of
positive influence of culture-of-origin involvement and biculturalism (Smokowski et al.,
2008). According to researchers, the longer that Latino families reside in the United
States, assimilation appears to benefit higher education, income, and involvement in the
host culture but appears to negatively affect the healthy family dynamics (Smokowski et
al., 2008).
34
Group Treatment
A large amount of Latinos live in California, which is very close to the Mexican
border (Kanel, 2002). Other states with large numbers of Latinos are also close to the
Mexicna border or have large urban centers such as New York, Florida, Illinois, Arizona,
and New Mexico (Kanel, 2002). Due to the amount of immigrants coming from Spanish
speaking countries there is an increased need for attention on this population. According
to Johnson and Cuellar (2013), Los Angeles County in California is known to have
roughly 900,000 immigrants. Of these immigrants, the researchers contend that many are
referred to receive some sort of mental health services and are mandated to complete
services. Furthermore, Phipps and Degges-White (2014) contend that it is important to
understand how trauma is transmitted from generation to generation both psychologically
and biologically; by understanding this, assessment and treatment of transgenerational
trauma will be more effective.
Therapeutic Factors in Group Therapy
Yalom and Leszcz (2005) identify fundamental factors that work
interdependently in group therapy. Factors to be discussed in detail include: instillation of
hope, universality, development of socializing techniques, interpersonal learning, and
catharsis. Different factors may represent different parts of the process of change such as
factors acting on the level of cognition, behavioral, emotion, and some may actually be
preconditions to change (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005).
The installation of hope is a therapeutic factor that is crucial to any
psychotherapeutic relationship but is of particular interest in the group setting. The
installation of hope may happen before the group even starts in the pregroup orientation
35
where the lead therapist may reinforce positive expectation, correct negative
preconceptions, and present why the group is helpful for the stated population (Yalom
&Leszcz, 2005). In the case of immigrants from Latin America, there may be fear of
deportation, distrust of social services agencies, and fear of law enforcement officials
(Lewis, West, Bautista, Greenberg, & Done-Perez, 2005). Because of these fears, the
installation of hope may be particularly beneficial in engagement of group members.
Universality refers to the ability of a group to aid it’s members in feeling like
there are other’s experiencing similar difficulties, disconfirming the client’s initial sense
of uniqueness and loneliness in relationship to the difficulty (Yalom & Leszcz, 2005). It
is important for the therapeutic factor of universality to be intact so that members feel
seen and additionally may feel alleviated by the fact that there are others like them.
Discussed in more detail in the following section concerning treatment with multi-family
groups, there were Latino families experiencing a loss in the events of September 11th in
the United States. The factor of universality appeared to be present where families
experiencing grief and pain connected to losing their loved ones were able to see others
like them and not feel so alone.
An important factor in group therapy is that of developing socializing techniques
and Yalom and Leszcz, (2005) identify this as often an instrumental factor in the initial
stages of therapeutic change. Specific to the Latino community, this factor may be seen in
the group’s ability to facilitate new ways to talk about feelings, observations, and
concerns. In this way, Latino immigrants may experience a way to speak about
something that has never been discussed in the past (reason for leaving their country of
origin, immigration journey, etc.)
36
Interpersonal learning as described by Yalom and Leszcz (2005) is the process of
learning and reflecting from one another and from the therapist. This process may be
understood by looking at the importance of interpersonal relationships, the emotional
experience, and the social microcosm. Groups are unique in that they require an
interaction from differing levels and because of that interpersonal learning is different in
a group setting as opposed to an individual setting. In a community where autonomy
differs from that of the Western norm; Latino immigrant families appear to be more
collectivistic (Torres, 2010). Because of this, integration of the interpersonal learning
factor may be easily seen in the group between and amongst both members and group
facilitators.
Catharsis can be identified as the emotional release experienced by clients who
are able to discuss certain topics. Additionally, Yalom and Leszcz (2005) identify that
catharsis paired with cognitive learning and restructuring is necessary for group change.
When parents possess the skills to be able to manage conflict the effects on child
development may be negated (Coatsworth, Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2002). Because of this,
catharsis and eventually the emotional regulation of Latino immigrants may aid in the
positive outcome of future parent-child relationships.
Trauma Treatment with Multi-Family Groups
Trauma treatment and disaster response may be approached by following a
medical model where the focus may be on identifying and treating people with Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or by implementing psychosocial interventions that
aim at helping people make connections (van Ommeren et al., 2005). Groups are part of
the latter types of interventions, where the group itself and the bonds between members
37
are the source of healing and also the focus of treatment (Ludwig, Imberti, Rodriguez, &
Torrens, 2006).
After the events of September 11, 2001 in the United States, practitioners
collaborated with a union to provide a community-based, multi-family group that
addressed the traumatic loss experienced by family members of union workers (Ludwig,
Imberti, Rodriguez, & Torrens, 2006). Community building was the major source of
healing for Spanish-speaking Latino immigrants from North America, South America,
and the Caribbean who experienced this event. The format utilized by these practitioners
was one that brought together multiple families where benefits included providing stages
for multiple descriptions of similar issues, empowerment of members who can use their
strengths to help others, and a higher level of accountability for practitioners (Ludwig et
al., 2006).
Ludwig et al. (2006) contend that the following three facets of work with multifamily groups that address trauma include: an evolving group structure and style that
changes depending on the developmental stage of the group, attainment of cultural
competence, and the workers’ (practitioners) own group process. Due to the nature of the
work, the beginning stages of the group conducted with family members who had lost a
loved one were structured in attempts to provide a safe and comfortable environment
where individuals were not expected to have high group interaction. Once the members
of the group knew each other more, the leaders began to interact less and even allowed
for fewer workers to be present. During this transition the group facilitator began
interacting less frequently and members of the group could be seen comparing notes as
they pictured themselves travelling freely between New York and their countries of
38
origin—bonding and rebuilding a community. Additionally, and introduction of conflict
is observed within group members; signifying a trust that has been built which aids the
containment of conflict (Ludwig et al., 2006). Towards the end of the group, individuals
may be able to more freely work with each other as a bond and multi-family community
has been built where families may go to for social and emotional support.
The second facet of work with this multi-family group was cultural competence in
which the goal of the leaders was not on “cultural matching” but instead on cultural
curiosity. Ludwig et al. (2006) explain that this cultural curiosity allowed the workers to
explore similarities and differences that families offered without taking the route of
assuming predetermined ideas would be true of the group. The three main concepts that
emerged amongst the families through the position of curiosity were: “the Spanish
language, collective values and belief systems, and culturally based rituals” (Ludwig et
al., 2006, p. 53). Lastly, Ludwig et al. (2006) suggest that an integral part of the
effectiveness of workers is the parallel process of healing which included an effective
collaboration and the worker’s personal connection to one another.
The use of multifamily groups with Latino immigrants appeared to be effective
following the events of September 11th. As mentioned, it appears to be that conducting a
multifamily group during such a difficult period allowed for the families in the group to
be heard in relation to their grief, be understood in their own language, and even be
expressive in the ambiguous loss experienced by such a tragic event. Of particular
interest was the opportunity for there to be less facilitator interaction as the group
progressed due to the nature of relationships building amongst the families themselves.
This separation could only be accomplished by having structure in the beginning and
39
additionally knowing when it was appropriate to allow group members to experience the
group in their way. Furthermore, the review of the literature thus far helps in
understanding the need and importance in providing treatment to the Latino immigrant
community.
A Multidimensional Ecosystemic Comparative Approach (MECA)
MECA offers a “definition of culture, a method for making meaningful
comparisons, and room for multiple and evolving cultural narratives” (Falicov, 2014).
This framework maintains that the clinical encounter be possible and desirable to
integrate cultural awareness at numerous steps in the learning process (i.e., observations,
conceptualization, and working therapeutically), regardless of theoretical orientation
(Falicov, 2014). Falicov (2014) contends that the MECA approach comes from a
strengths-based collaborative approach where the two major constructs for explaining
difference between clinician, clinical supervisor, and family would include a focus on
cultural diversity and social justice. Additionally, the key generic domains described by
Falicov (2014) that offer a comparative way at looking at similarities and differences are
those of migration-acculturation, ecological context, family organization, and family life
cycle. Lastly, practice and training tools relevant to this approach may include a culturecentered genogram (immigration date, language usage, etc), an ecomap (the social and
institutional world in which the client lives in), and a critical genogram (promotes critical
consciousness by focusing on possible forms of oppression) (Falicov, 2014).
The use of the MECA approach in working with Latino immigrant individuals in
relation to their first generation U.S. born children will be beneficial because it will
provide the opportunity for the clinician to work from differing therapeutic approaches
40
(Falicov, 2014). Furthermore, there are unique characteristics to the Latino immigrant
community that should be addressed by use of this approach. Some characteristics
common to this community may include trauma in the parent’s country of origin,
decision to immigrate, relationship to extended family members and how this then impact
the first generation U.S. born child. The multidimensional ecosystemic framework
highlights the use of tools such as genograms and ecomaps to enable individuals,
families, and practitioners to look further than just the person in the room to include
patterns and how society may impact the individual or family.
Prolonged Exposure (PE) Therapy
Prolonged exposure therapy is an empirically validated approach that is effective
across cultures for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents and
adults. The manualized treatment of the culturally modified PE (modified to work with an
adult Latino male) allows for clinicians to complete trauma-focused therapy with more
frequency when working with patients who reside in rural areas without access to mental
health care (Lopez, Shealy, & Rheingold, 2014). In relation to the experience of Latino
immigrants and the possibility for post-traumatic stress disorder, the treatment included
psychoeducation regarding the effects of exposure to a traumatic event, retraining
breathing, repeated in vivo experiences, and repeated imaginal exposure (Lopez et al.,
2014). Given the positive outcome in the case study that was presented, Lopez et al.
(2014) found the opportunity to provide services to the underserved Latino community
who may live in a rural area. The efficacy of prolonged exposure therapy may be
beneficial in work with Latino immigrants as it targets the posttraumatic stress disorder
many Latino immigrant clients may meet criteria for. Additionally, the approach taken by
41
prolonged exposure therapy may be beneficial in incorporating with the Latino immigrant
population as it will address items of the immigration journey that may not have been
previously addressed. Of importance is prolonged exposure therapy’s ability to provide
psychoeducation relating to the trauma experienced. A combination of group-based
exposure therapy with prolonged exposure was used to treat U.S. Vietnam veterans and
showed a significant reduction for participants on all measures of PTSD including
members who no longer met criteria, reductions in depression, and moderate reductions
in PTSD-related cognitions (Ready, Vega, Worley, & Bradley, 2012).
Narrative Therapy
Postmodern approaches have been popular but vary depending on specific theory;
generally they give opportunity to differing points of view and multiple explanations for
human behavior (Oliver, Flamez, & McNichols, 2011). Specifically, the approach in
narrative therapy is that the clients are the experts in their own lives, the client’s story is
significant and true, and the therapist holds unconditional positive regard that is also nonjudgmental. Of particular importance is Oliver et al.’s (2011) explanation of narrative
therapy with Latinos where respect and empathy are highly regarded, the client is allowed
to be the expert of the story and assign meaning to that story, and that each individual
story interacts with other stories (local and dominant discourses). Specific intervention
stemming from narrative therapy may include externalizing the problem, tracking larger
themes, and attending to the creation of many possible stories (Oliver et al., 2011).
When working from the narrative therapy approach, the therapist’s posture is
decentered and influential, and priority must remain with the stories, knowledge, and
skills of clients (Oliver et al., 2011). Specific to the Latino community, the narrative
42
approach may include conversations that contribute to an identity impacted by multivoice sense rather than a single-voice sense of identity. The positive result to practicing
narrative therapy in this way is that it allows for a remembering of conversations and
events that have happened in the Latino client’s life. Consequently, giving authority to
the person narrating to allow for some voices to come through while revoking others in
regards to personal identity (Oliver et al., 2011).
Summary
The review of the literature presented helps to identify the struggles related to
immigration from countries of Latin America to the United States. There appear to be
differing reasons and methods of entering the country, many of which may include
traumatic experiences. Nonetheless, Latino immigrants continue leaving their countries
of origin, and drive population changes in the United States. While in the United States
Latino immigrants enter living areas that are impoverished and unsafe where there may
be a lack of access to resources and employment. The trangenerational effects of trauma
experienced by Latino immigrant parents appear to be impacting their first-generation
U.S. born children. A trauma informed perspective when working with Latino immigrant
parents would be appropriate in processing unresolved trauma(s) and the future formation
of positive relationships with children who may be exploring their sense of identity in a
differing country than their own. There are a significant amount of mandated and
voluntary services offered to the Latino community, making it important to offer
appropriate clinical work and intervention.
43
Chapter III: Project Audience and Implementation
Introduction
The literature review presented previously has been derived from an array of
sources such as books, book chapters, and articles. The current chapter will introduce the
development of a group (workshop) that aims to provide support and education regarding
the effects of traumatogenic experiences often accompanied before, during, and after the
immigration journey that may affect undocumented immigrant parents who have children
born in the United States. Even though programs offered to this group are conducted by
Spanish-speaking mental health professionals, a focus on the immigration experience is
normally not the focus. This proposed group intends to open up discussion and dialogues
regarding the parents’ experiences coming to the United States as undocumented
immigrants and how those experiences impact their child-rearing practices including
ways of discipline, communicating with, and understanding their children’s development.
Development of Project
As a first-generation child of immigrants, I experienced an array of different
emotions and difficulties while growing up. I was part of a large family with four
siblings, both parents, and two older cousins who had also immigrated to the United
States as undocumented immigrants who lived with us and took on the role of parentalfigures when my parents had to work. Because of the nature of our family, it was my
responsibility as a child to take on roles such as the translator, communicator, and
advocate for my family. Later on, when I was 13 years old, my immediate family and I
moved to a highly Caucasian-populated community. There, I began to explore who I was
as a young Latina amongst a different community, where I realized that I was part of a
44
minority group. I was curious in exploring my family’s history including their
immigration story. I would mentally note my father’s experience with domestic violence
in his family of origin, both of my parent’s experiences with extreme poverty and hunger,
and their numerous journeys to the United States (travelling to Mexico to visit family and
later entering as undocumented immigrants). This experience has led to my continued
interest and advocacy of the Latino community.
As a Marriage and Family Therapist Trainee I have had the opportunity of
completing practicum hours at both a non-profit and a county-based site. I have had the
opportunity to work with Latino documented and undocumented immigrants, with the
majority of my work with undocumented immigrant families with open Department of
Child and Family Services (DCFS) cases. When working with these families, disparities
were noted when it came to providing culturally effective services. Families or
individuals within the family system were all too often referred to complete programs
such domestic violence, substance use/abuse, and parenting. However, the fact that these
groups of people have immigration experiences did not appear to be noted or addressed
by programs being offered to them. Specifically, a focus on possible traumatic
experiences involved in their immigration journey may help to provide support and
inform clinicians who treat the Latino community. That is, placing importance on
people’s experiences and history before entering the United States may help in providing
culturally sensitive services to such a large and complex group. The reason for this
project is to propose a group for a population that is highly in need, in hopes of
educating, providing support, and a voice to the undocumented immigrant’s experience
so that Latino families thrive.
45
Intended Audience
This program is for parents who entered the United States from any Spanishspeaking part of Mexico, Central or South America who have children born in the United
States. Parents may be biological, adoptive, or foster and may be both parents or just one.
Current documentation status will not be a determining factor of group participation as
long as participants entered the United States as immigrants with one of the following
circumstances: (1) as an undocumented immigrant, (2) as a refugee or asylee, (3) having
experienced one or more traumatic experience before/during/after the journey to the
United States. Screening processes will take place by mental-health professionals to
assure that group members will benefit from being with other individuals that share
immigration stories and possibly trauma narratives.
Qualifications of Providers
The development of this group was envisioned to be implemented by pre-licensed
or licensed mental-health professionals who have sufficient knowledge and background
in working with complex family systems, are culturally sensitive, competent in working
with the Latino community, and have skills in working with trauma in the immigrant
population. This group will provide mental-health practitioners the opportunity to
collaborate with the participants in a way that is not currently being done in group
services provided to this population. Participation in the group will engage and join both
the clinician and client in an effort to provide adequate and relevant mental health
services. Providers need not identify as having a Latino background, but must be
proficient in speaking and writing Spanish. Additionally, the practitioner must be willing
to partner with resources in the community in which they are providing services.
46
Environment and Equipment
The location of the proposed group must be at an accessible location such as a
mental health agency, school, community center, or church. It is extremely important to
make sure that the setting is accessible so as to encourage moderate to high participation
on a weekly basis. Since it is expected that participation in the group will be encouraged
or mandated by outside referrals that may not be local, the mental health practitioners
will work to provide adequate transportation or information regarding transportation. The
location and providers must ensure client confidentiality and provide services in a space
that is free from distractions and illegal activity (such as gang or drug related activities in
the immediate surrounding areas). In order to assure client understanding and
acknowledgement, practitioners will provide Spanish language consent forms along with
a verbal explanation of expectations and responsibilities of being in stated group.
Additionally, visual aids will be posted in the room that will include immigration journey
maps, types of trauma during different stages of immigration, and developmental
milestones of children.
Project Outline
Session #1: Introductions
•
Facilitators introduce themselves to group by giving either family history related
to immigration or personal experience in working with the immigrant community.
•
Explain purpose/goal of group.
•
Check-in with participants regarding questions/concerns related to consent and
intake sheet.
•
Explain limits of confidentiality and how it relates to being a part of a group.
47
•
Have parent(s) introduce themselves to the group by sharing country of origin,
year of initial immigration, and the amount of children they have.
Session #2: Introductions/Psychoeducation
•
Allow time for the continuation of introductions.
•
Allow interactive time amongst group members where they are able to ask
questions and relate to one another.
•
Begin psychoeducation regarding Latino Immigration Statistics.
Session #3: Possible Reasons for Immigration
•
Provide psychoeducation regarding the following reasons stemming from Latin
American countries:
o Better Opportunity
o War, Torture, Terrorism
o Natural Disasters
o Hunger & Poverty
•
Introduce push and pull factors
Session #4: Before the immigration experience
•
Discussion of possible traumatic experiences that may happen with family of
origin.
•
What are some things that impact us as children and adolescents?
•
Explain the importance of recognizing family history and how that experience (if
traumatic) may put us at risk for more traumatic experiences.
48
Session #5: Trauma During Immigration
•
Introduce numerous possible points of trauma entry in the immigration
experience:
o Before, during, and after
•
Provide what those experiences may look like by providing psychoeducation that
include:
o Sexual assault as more payment
o Kidnapping in order to coerce family members in the United Stated to
provide extra payment
o Being exposed to harsh natural conditions with little food and/or water for
extended periods of time
o Becoming hypervigilant due to fear of being exposed and deported if
entering as undocumented.
Session #6: After Immigration: Reality of living as an undocumented immigrant
•
Reality of living as an undocumented immigrant
•
Living conditions
•
Lack of access to resources
•
Xenophobia
•
Being reunited with family that was in the United States
Session #7: Acculturation and Assimilation
•
Psychoeducation on what acculturation and assimilation are
49
•
Introduction of biculturalism
•
Resiliencies associated with Latino community
Session #8: Latino Immigrant and First Generation Child:
•
Allow for open discussion of how what they have learned may impact their
approach to raising their U.S. born children
•
Integrate what parents have discussed with psychoeducation of topic
Session #9: Latino Immigrant and First Generation Child
•
Intergenerational trauma
Session #10: Forming Connections and Conclusions
•
Summary of time spent together from the participants perspective
50
Chapter IV: Conclusion
Summary of the Project
The purpose of this project was to create a psychoeducational support group for
participants that are Latino immigrants and have first generation U.S. born children. The
nature of help proposed is meant to aid the self-awareness of Latino immigrant parents in
understanding how immigration trauma may impact relationships with their children.
Through this interpersonal understanding of a topic that is rarely discussed within the
immigrant community as being traumatic and some structured group therapy lead by
skilled facilitators, it is hoped that Latino immigrant parents will be able to establish
positive relationships with their first generation U.S. born children. This self-exploration
and at times confrontation with past trauma, will facilitate how a parent is impacted by
past experiences of trauma (common to Latino immigrants) and furthermore how a parent
then affects the child.
The project is divided into five sections, including fours chapters and an appendix
for the material to be used in group. The first chapter covers a brief introduction to the
population to be worked with in the proposed group setting. Latino immigrant parents
face an inability (through their own lack of understanding or health practitioners not
giving voice to immigration experiences) to address traumatic experiences related to the
immigration journey, creating a disconnect in the possibility for their U.S. born children
to understand the family’s experience. Given the Latino community receives an array of
services such as domestic violence groups, substance use counseling, and parenting
classes, it is appears to be imperative to address an underlying issue common to this
community which may be a driver for the very need for the aforementioned services.
51
The second chapter provided an extensive review of the literature of the
connection between immigrants and mental health. For clarity and structure, the literature
review chapter was divided into 7 sections. The first section discussed the overall
statistics of Latino immigration, emphasizing the vast amount of Latino immigrants in the
United States.
The second section was a review of the reasons why Latino immigrants embark
(better opportunity, war, torture, terrorism, natural disasters, and hunger and poverty) on
the journey north coming from Spanish speaking Latin American countries like Mexico,
Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. Due to the vast diversity amongst
Latinos, the specific reasons for immigration are explained by geographical area while
focusing on historical information to help shed light on such diversity.
The third section focused on the types of immigration from Latin American
countries. A general overview was given on possible modes of entry into the United
States including filing for legal permanent resident status, to entering as a refugee or
asylee, or as an unauthorized immigrant. A common trend described in this section was
that of stepwise immigration when families are separated due to the difficulty of
migrating together; a lot of times the children are left in the country of origin with the
hope of later reuniting. The vast diversity amongst Latinos, was emphasized with specific
types of immigration explained by geographical area.
The fourth section described the amount of trauma involved in the immigration
experience including the periods during premigration, through the journey,
asylum/temporary resettlement, and settlement in the new country. The fifth section was
a review of the interactions between Latino immigrant parents and their first-generation
52
U.S. born children. This section covered the commonly seen relationship dynamics that
happen in Latino families living in the United States along with concepts of how
immigration impacts those relationships including the topic of transgenerational or
intergenerational trauma.
The sixth section was a review of the topics of acculturation and assimilation with
a general perspective then narrowed down how Latino immigrants currently interact with
a new culture while maintaining pieces of their culture of origin (biculturalism). It also
thoroughly described differences in relating to a new culture for Latino immigrant parents
and first generation U.S. born children.
The last section of the literature review concerns the therapeutic approaches for
working with Latinos immigrant experiences and how this will impact their U.S. born
children. This section included a discussion on the appropriateness of group treatment
and well-established therapeutic factors, a previous multi-family group treatment shown
to be conducive to community formation after a traumatic event, a multidimensional
ecosystemic comparative approach (MECA), and specific therapeutic orientations
focused on helping adults work through their own trauma in order to form positive
relationships with their children.
Chapter three provided a description of how the project was developed including
the intended audience, qualifications of providers, environment and equipment needed,
and an outline of the project itself. Chapter four provides a summary of the project along
with recommendations for implementation and future research. The last piece in this
project includes the materials necessary for implementation of this group. This material is
presented in a structured and organized in order to have the facilitators be clear on the
53
immigration topics to be discussed and to facilitate future work made with immigrant
Latino parents and their U.S. born children.
Recommendations for Implementation
The project was created with Latino immigrant families in mind and was
thoroughly overseen by my chair, Dana Stone. Her continued support and input in
numerous submissions allowed me to adjust and change sections of this project based on
her recommendations. In addition to my chair, I have consulted with my current clinical
supervisor Clovis Emblen in how my work with open Department of Children and
Family Services cases has impacted my views of the need for this type of service.
It is recommended that development of this project be used as a general guideline
for work with Latino immigrant parents of first generation U.S. born children. Because
immigrant families are similar yet different, it is important to know that as a facilitator
the group implementation will vary. Latino immigrants are commonly thought of as
being from one place, or mistakenly labeled as all being from Mexico. It is important that
the facilitators be open to learning from participants and the similarities that they have as
long as the differences. Because of this, it should not be expected that in its
implementation the sessions will look the same. Not common to other groups, this group
is meant to have less facilitator involvement the closer it gets to termination of sessionsthis is normal and to be expected as the project has been formatted to build trust and a
sense of community amongst group members. In addition, this group is meant to be
facilitated in an accessible location in the community such as a mental health agency,
school, or community center. By bringing the group to the community, easy access will
encourage participation from the targeted population.
54
Recommendations for Future Research
There appears to be further research necessary on the effects of trauma
experienced during immigration for Latino immigrants and the impact of trauma on the
future formation of families. This lack of specific research further supports the need to
better understand the Latino immigrant community living in the United States. It appears
that the research available demonstrates some negative patterns following immigration
experiences, however resiliencies in the Latino community should also be further
explored.
Furthermore, this project was originally created because my exposure to Latino
immigrant families receiving services through the Department of Children and Family
Services (DCFS). The services offered through court-mandated and volunteer referrals
often include groups on topics such as domestic violence, substance abuse, and parenting.
It would be interesting to learn if participants in these services had traumatic experiences
due to their immigration process prior to their involvement with DCFS. The literature
would support this hypothesis, and if found to be accurate with this population, it may be
beneficial to take preventative measures in such communities of interest to reduce the
possibility of future involvement with DCFS.
Lastly, though much research and various trainings exist on the topic of cultural
sensitivity and competency, it would be beneficial to have in-depth trainings for
clinicians and facilitators on the possibilities of providing trauma-informed services.
Most clinicians think they are culturally competent, however, it would be useful for
clinicians to examine their own power and privilege and the effects on the therapeutic
relationship in order to provide the opportunity to give voice to the voiceless. A real
55
understanding of how a group of resilient yet oppressed people (within the context of
what the client sees) will help aid the therapeutic work with the Latino immigrant
community.
Conclusion
Some Latino immigrants face differing factors when making the decision to leave
their country of origin. Due to the nature of extensive and expensive application
procedures many immigrants from Latin America decide for the undocumented route.
Despite the perilous journey to the United States, Latino immigrants continue to make
their way North. Their reasons for leaving their country of origin may help explain some
difficulties in a person’s psyche that may continue to be jeopardized in the immigration
journey and furthermore in the foundation and development of familial systems. When
taking a non-linear perspective, facilitators may be able to understand a community that
is impacted by the many invisible forces of immigration; this may aid the opportunity to
integrate appropriate clinical measures when treating this community. This
implementation of course is meant to be flexible with the inclusion and appreciation for
the rich culture and variety noted in Latin American immigrants who now live in the
United States.
I became interested in the topic of Latino immigrants because of my exposure in
clinical training working with documented and undocumented Spanish-speaking families.
My work was done through two agencies: a DCFS contracted and a county behavioral
health. My passion grew from my own curiosity from an early age about the one thing
that ties all Latino immigrants aside from the Spanish language: their immigration story.
Growing up there appeared to be a normalcy about the experience that it was never talked
56
about unless there was currently someone in the family embarking on the journey.
Consequently, if trauma was linked to the immigration journey, it was not talked about
because of the inability to label something as ‘traumatic’ as this term is not generally
used in the community.
I tried to relate to my family by giving voice to their story in order to have a voice
myself. Although it may appear to be inappropriate to speak about traumatic experiences
with their children, Latino immigrants may be able to share stories with their U.S. born
children about how they have been able to find a voice in the midst of chaos. Ultimately,
this understanding and work done by parents will help the future familial formations of
their children as they will understand where they come from and who they are (forming a
bicultural sense of self).
This project is meant to have parent participants in group in order to create an
environment in which Latino immigrants are able to speak about the unspoken and
ultimately be able to acknowledge the resiliencies and struggles associated with leaving
one’s country of origin for a new country. The ultimate goal is to equip parents with basic
knowledge, self-awareness, and sense of belonging in order to have healthy relationships
with their children who may be very different from them, yet the same. By talking about
this topic in a group with facilitators who provide a safe and welcoming environment, the
parent participants will be able to build relationships with one another and form an
understanding of how their immigration experiences have impacted their views on
everyday functions (pathological or non-pathological) and how those experiences
influence the next generation.
57
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65
Appendix
The Impact of Traumatic Experiences Related
to the Immigration Journey for Latino
Immigrant parents of U.S. Born Children: A
Support and Psychoeducational Group
By: Georgina Garay-Lozano
66
A Note from the Author:
The information created and presented is meant to be implemented in a group setting with
Latino immigrant parent(s) of first-generation U.S. born children. The structure of
sessions has been explained in order to aid the process of bonding amongst the parents
who are a part of the group with the purpose being for the group members to gain
universality and the installation of hope in the process. In this process, you as the
facilitator may find the need to be less engaged towards the end of sessions (last 3-4
sessions possibly) due to the connection experienced by the group members. This is a
normal part of the process and is actually beneficial for the group members to find
comfort in each other and build relationships due to having similar immigration stories.
This sense of community is part of the resilience that will be helpful and beneficial in
regards to support and understanding amongst group members.
67
Introduction
“Latinos are extraordinarily diverse—some have ancestors who were established
on what is now U.S. territory long before the current borders were set through conquest
and land purchases” (Immigrant Families in Contemporary Society, 2007, p.314).
According to Falicov (2014), Latinos are defined as an immigrant or descendant of an
immigrant to the United States that come from a Spanish-speaking country. When
referring to Latinos in the United States, it is important to understand the diversity that is
accompanied by these immigrants coming from diverse countries when speaking of
geography, landscape, history, politics, and cultural heritage of both indigenous and
European descent (Falicov, 2014).
Latinos may trace their national origins to 20 Spanish-speaking countries
including but not limited to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, Dominican
Republic, Guatemala, Colombia, Honduras, Ecuador, and Peru (Falicov, 2014). As
mentioned previously, the reason for grouping together the people of these countries is
largely due to their shared Spanish language and cultural preferences that were left after
their European influence of the Spanish colonization (Falicov, 2014).
Reasons for Latinos immigrating to the United States include better opportunity,
political instabilities, natural disasters, and hunger and poverty. History from differing
countries in Latin America can help to inform the reasons for people native of that land to
decide to embark on the journey north. For example, due to geographical proximity and
U.S./Mexico relations relating to accessibility in hiring undocumented immigrants, the
United States has seen an influx of Mexican immigrants in the past decades. In addition,
68
numerous countries in Central America (including El Salvador, Guatemala, and
Honduras) have continued stressors with civil war and terrorism.
Modes of entry into the United States vary from country to country. For some, the
desire to relocate is done for a bettering in life through economic, schooling, or medical
reasons. For others, the need lies in escaping persecution, war, or natural disasters. Even
though immigrants differ in reasoning, they will usually end up where they believe that
there is work and an opportunity for them to live freely (without too much fear of being
deported if they are undocumented immigrants). Tienda and Sánchez (2013) contend that
immigrants may enter the United States identified as one of the following: Legal
Permanent Residents (LPR), refugees and asylees, or as an unauthorized immigrant.
According to Perez-Foster (2001), many Latino immigrants do not identify their
immigration journey as a being a traumatic experience as trauma is not a commonly
understood concept that is used within this population. However there are four migration
states that can be identified in which there is significant potential for trauma, including 1)
premigration trauma, 2) trauma experienced through the journey, 3) asylum/temporary
settlement, and 4) settlement in the host country (Perez-Foster, 2001). Ornelas and
Perreira (2011) contend that these effects could last long after the family is settled into
their new life in a new country. Effects of trauma that extends to other generations after
the person who experiences the primary trauma (parent or grandparent) is a phenomenon
that is labeled transgenerational or intergenerational trauma (Phipps & Degges-White,
2014).
The U.S. born children of Latino immigrant parents have numerous experiences
when attempting to relate to their parents. Commonly, children tend to learn English at a
69
faster rate than their immigrant parents (that is if the immigrant parents learn and practice
English) (Lawton & Gerdes, 2014). This usually leaves the parents relying on the
children for language interpretation and an understanding of the community systems
(Coatsworth, Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2002). This change in power dynamics can be
detrimental for parent-child relationships as the parents are heavily relying on their
children but often times not willing to accept the need for their children’s input due to
traditional roles.
Additional stressors experienced by immigrant families include living in
neighborhoods that are unsafe, lack of resources in community, and the cycle of poverty
in which many families tend to be stuck. Immigrant parents who have first generation
children tend to focus on academics and the success of their children as their
rationalization for the “sacrifices” they are making in order to ensure the success of the
next generation. Because of the nature of the collectivistic culture, there may occasionally
also be a parentified young adult who may have complied with the earlier demands of
their parents and siblings but is no longer able to do so due to their own transitions.
A trauma informed perspective when working with Latino immigrant parents
would be appropriate in processing unresolved trauma(s) and the future formation of
positive relationships with children who may be exploring their sense of identity in a
differing country than their own.
70
How to Use this Manual:
There are a total of 10 sessions for this group, this manual is meant to help you (the
facilitator) in preparing for each session before hand. Each session may consist of a
couple of pages, so be on the look out for: handouts, activities, and examples. Handouts
are provided in order for you as a facilitator to be able to make copies and provide to
clients; English and Spanish versions have been provided. In addition, please be sure to
review videos/activities before beginning session in order to know what material is being
presented. When psychoeducational information is presented, this is to inform you as to
the material that should be covered in the appropriate session, adding information is
welcome and encouraged.
Things to look out for:
Blue text boxes!
Meant to give you some direction as to what should be said during certain sessions.
Please feel free to adapt this script to the way in which you most feel comfortable
communicating with clients. Scripts will be in English and Spanish.
•
•
•
Suggested time (i.e., 20 minutes). Use the suggested times to create agendas for
the client’s and additionally to give you direction as far as how long certain
activities should be taking.
Supplementary Materials will follow after each session, find them by looking at
the upper left hand corner and finding the type of extra material written out in
caps (i.e., HANDOUT)
Psychoeducational Material: Meant to be information provided to you as the
facilitator, no direct translation is provided for psychoeducational material.
Instead, this information is meant to orient the facilitator as to what types of
material is important and the methods of sharing this information is left up to the
facilitator.
Orange text boxes!
Meant to give you some sample processing questions relating to the material
presented.
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Session #1: Introductions
By having the group facilitators more engaged in the beginning, this approach is meant to
have interaction amongst a group member who may or may not know each other.
1. Welcome!
We are here together to be able to get to know each other. In order to begin, we would
like for you to be able to share a little about who you are. We will provide you with a
handout where you will fill out who you are. This exercise is just meant for us to get to
know each other better as we will be sharing some of this information with other group
members. (10 minutes)
Bienvenidos!
Estamos juntos para poder conocernos. Para poder comenzar quisiéramos que usted
comparta un poco de quien es usted. Nosotros les vamos a proveer el folleto en donde van
ha llenar quienes son ustedes. Este ejercicio es nada mas para que nos conozcamos mejor
ya que vamos ha estar compartiendo alguna información con otros miembros del grupo.
2. Use Ice Breaker handout. Engage members of the group by having them share. (20
minutes)
3. Use self-disclosure in aims of engaging the members of the group (10 minutes).
Hello, my name is _________. I have had the pleasure of working with the Latino
community for _______(amount of months/years). I enjoy getting to know the diverse
experiences of individuals and families of the Latino community. I have noticed the
part I play in allowing Latinos to have a voice relating to their experiences with
immigration to the United States. My family of origin is from ______, and I have a
deep appreciation for the language and culture that I have grown up in. Additionally, I
would like to be able to get to know your experiences with immigration including the
difficulties and strengths that our community has.
Hola, mi nombre es ______. Yo he tenido el gusto de trabajar con la comunidad Latina por
______ (tiempo en meses/años). Disfruto poder conocer las experiensias diversas de las
personas individuales y familias de la comunidad Latina. He notado que yo tengo parte en
poder darle voz a los Latinos y a sus experiencias relacionadas con la inmigración hacia
los Estados unidos. Mi familia de origen es de _______, y tengo un aprecio por en
lenguaje y la cultura en la que yo he crecido. Adicionalmente, quisiera poder conocer sus
experiencias con inmigración incluyendo dificultades y fortalezas que tiene nuestra
comunidad.
4. Engage participants in an open discussion of their experience with immigration
(35 minutes)
72
HANDOUT (English) I am…
See how many lines you can fill with information about who you are, you will be asked to share only what you feel comfortable in sharing. To get started, we have given ideas on some things that you may be able to include such as personal characteristics (relating to physical appearance and personality) and relationship to others (sibling, friend). 73
FOLLETO (Spanish) Yo soy…
Vea cuantas líneas puede llenar con información sobre quien es usted, le vamos a pedir que comparta lo que se sienta cómodo compartir. Para empezar, le hemos dado ideas de lo que puede incluir como características personales (tratándose de la apariencia física o la personalidad) y de su relaciones con otros (hermano/hermana, amigo/amiga). 74
Session #2: Introductions/Psychoeducation
1. Welcome the participants back and thank them for returning. Possible modes
of engaging participants: following up with how the previous week went for the
participants, asking for any participants to share anything that they would have
liked to share in the previous week (15 minutes)
2. Play and discuss La Santa Cecilia-ICE EL Hielo (15 minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lNJviuYUEQ
Process Oriented Questions:
What did you notice about the video presented?
In what way if at all do you relate to the video presented?
What does it mean to be an immigrant?
Preguntas de proceso orientado:
De que se dio cuenta en el video presentado?
Si es que siente que se relaciono con el video presentado, de cual manera fue?
Que quiere decir el ser un inmigrante?
75
3. Engage participants in cross the line activity (30 minutes)
Process oriented questions:
What was it like to participate in this activity?
Can you share some of your observations?
Did you learn something new about someone today?
Preguntas de proceso orientado:
Como fue el participar en esta actividad?
Puede compartir algunas de sus observaciones?
Aprendió algo nuevo de alguien ahora?
4. Present Psychoeducation regarding immigration (30 minutes)
What/Where is Latin America?
For the purposes of this group, Latin America is divided into the following groups
as seen by the types of Latin American immigrants travelling to the Unites States.
•
Mexico
•
Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, & Honduras)
•
South America (Colombia, Ecuador, & Peru)
•
Caribbean (Cuba & Dominican Republic)
Statistics on Latin American Immigration
•
•
•
•
According to Perez-Foster (2001), around 90 million people have
relocated around the world outside their native countries because of war or
scarcity of food or in search of work.
In 2010, over 19 million people emigrated from Latin America which
consists of México, Caribbean, Central America, South America, and the
rest of Latin America (Tienda & Sánchez, 2013).
The top sending countries of immigrants from Latin America to the United
States have been Mexico and Cuba (61.3% and 5.8% respectively).
The United States is home to over 50 million Latinos, making it the
second largest concentration of Latinos with Mexico being the first
consisting of 112 million (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
76
ACTIVITY (ENGLISH & SPANISH)
Activity adopted from Adam Fletcher’s program on
http://freechild.org/Firestarter/CrossingTheLine.htm
Cross the Line
This is an activity to find out similarities and differences with each other. Esta es una
actividad en la cual vamos a aprender similitudes y diferencias de nosotros.
Directions/ Direcciones:
“Over the next half hour or so, we will share some of our experiences with one another.
In order to do this, we need to create a safe environment.
The first involves LISTENING. Let's have silence throughout the exercise—no talking.
Silence will allow all of us to participate. Silence will also enable us to experience selfawareness and our own thoughts.
The second guideline is RESPECT. It is important that we respect every person involved
in this activity. Everything that is shared should stay within this group. If you feel the
need to address something with someone, this may be done at the end of the activity
when we will have time to process.
I need a nod of the head to share your understanding and willingness to participate with
the rules that we have set in place."
“Can I have everyone line up along one side of the line placed on the floor? Make sure to
stay on one side of the line and when you hear a statement that you agree with, please
cross the line and turn to see who is on the other side of the line. Wait until I ask you to
turn back and return to the original position.”
“Sobre la próxima media hora mas o menos, vamos a compartir algunas de nuestras
experiencias con los demás. Para poder hacer esto, tenemos que crear un espacio que este
a salvo.
La primer regla es ESCUCHAR. Vamos a tener silencio durante el ejercicio- no se puede
hablar. El silencio nos va ha ayudar tener la experiencia conciencia de si mismo y
nuestros propios pensamientos.
La segunda regla es Respetar. Es importante que respetemos a cada persona involucrada
en esta actividad. Todo lo que sea compartido debería mantenerse dentro de este grupo.
Si siente la necesidad de platicar algo con alguien, esto puede pasar al final de la
actividad cuando vamos a tener tiempo de procesar.
Necesito que de una inclinación de cabeza para enseñar que esta de acuerdo con las
reglas que hemos puesto.”
“Si pueden formar una línea a un lado de la línea que esta puesta en el piso? Asegúrese de
quedarse a un lado de la línea y cuando escuche una declaración con la que este de
acuerdo, haga favor de cruzar la línea y voltee a ver quien este al otra lado de la línea.
Espera ha que yo le pida que se voltee y regrese a su posición original.”
Cross the line if/ Cruze la linea si
-You are female/ Usted es femenino
-You are male/ Usted es masculino
77
-You have brown eyes/ Usted tiene ojos de color café
-You are a parent/ Usted es padre
-You have siblings/ Usted tiene hermanos
-You have friends that look different than you/ Usted tiene amigos que se miran diferente
que uno.
-You know someone that speaks a different language/ Usted conoce ha alguien que
hablan otro idioma
-You have ever gotten in trouble in school/ Uste se ha metido en problemas en la escuela
-You can sing or play an instrument well/ Usted puede cantar o tocar un instrumento
-You have mistreated someone/ Usted ha maltratado a alguien
-You have been mistreated by someone else/ Usted ha sido maltratado por alguien
-You feel lonely/ Usted se siente solitario
-You have ever met and worked with a therapist or a counselor/Usted ha visto a un
terapista o un consejero
-You are from a country other than the United States/ Usted es de algún otro país que no
sean los Estados Unidos
-You have family that you have not seen for 5 years/Usted tiene familia que no ha visto
en 5 años
-You have family that you have not seen for 10 years or more/ Usted tiene familia que no
ha visto en 10 años o mas.
-You imagine what it would be like to live in a different place/ Usted se imagina lo que
seria poder vivir en un lugar diferente
-You have been stopped by the police/ Usted ha sido parado por la policía
-You know someone who has been deported/ Usted conoce de alguien que ha sido
deportado
-You worry about the security of work/ Usted se preocupa por la seguridad de su trabajo
-You wonder about your children being different than you are/ Usted se pregunta si sus
hijos van a ser diferentes que usted
-You wish others would understand you/ Usted quisiera que otros lo entendieran.
78
Session #3: Possible Reasons for Immigration
1. Present Psychoeducation (30 minutes)
What are some reasons for immigration to the United States from Latin
American countries?
• Better opportunity
• War, torture, terrorism
• Natural Disasters
• Hunger and Poverty
Specific trends in different countries including Mexico, the Caribbean,
Central America, and South America
•
•
•
•
Mexico: U.S./Mexico relations regarding the opportunity to Mexican
immigrants to work without proper documentation have been driving
forces in immigration from this country. Close geographical proximity.
Caribbean (Including Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico):
Immigration from Cuba and the Dominican Republic differs from that
of Puerto Rico due to the fact that Puerto Ricans can exercise their
right as U.S. citizens. Fleeing communist rule and tensions rising in
their country of origin, Cuban and Dominican immigrants may decide
to immigrate.
Central America (Including El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras):
Civil war and terrorism have been contributing factors in the
immigration of Latinos coming from the stated countries.
South America (Including Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru): Economic
betterment, internal security issues, and higher education are all
reasons for individuals from South America to come to the United
States.
What are some types of immigration to the United States from Latin American
countries? (presented by identifying specific trends in different countries
including Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America)
•
•
•
•
Legal Permanent Residents (LPRs)
Refugees and Asylees
Unauthorized or Undocumented Immigrant
Stepwise Migration
2. Supportive group environment: Engage participants in sharing about their
reasons for immigration and the mode of entry for them (60 minutes)
79
Session #4: Before the immigration experience
1. Present Psychoeducation (30 minutes)
Push and Pull Factors:
• When attempting to decide on whether or not to their country of
origin, many immigrants experience a conflict in trying to decide
whether or not to embark on the journey.
• The conflict resides in the push factors that may feel like reasons for
having to leave the country of origin such as lack of safety,
employment, food/resources, etc. where there are also pull factors that
attract the immigrant to a new life such as the perceived thought of
safety, improved living conditions, and a new experience in a new
country.
Exposure:
•
•
•
To extreme situations, such as hunger and poverty and seeing others
struggle. It is common for immigrants to send money back to their
country of origin for years or even their whole life after being in the
United States. Other extreme situations may include exposure to
violence either in the community or in the home.
Due to the large amount of Latino immigrants in the United States,
many people contemplating the decision to immigrate may be exposed
to family or acquaintances who appear to be living a better life when
they are in the United States.
This same exposure and normalcy of immigration for many Latinos
makes the decision to emigrate a difficult one as there are many
children left behind with the hopes that their parents will later reunify
once there is more economic stability. In addition, many immigrants
deciding to leave their country of origin experience unresolved grief
over leaving their families behind without knowing if they will ever
see them again.
2. Engage participants in creating a simplified genogram (30 minutes).
Allow for group members to share their experiences in a simplified genogram
that begins to allow the members of the group to discuss family patterns and
influences (be sure to have group members include history of substance use,
exposure to violence, sexual abuse, extended separation from a loved one,
immigration, and domestic violence).
3. Play and discuss the following video:
Crossing Mexico’s Other Border
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzEUHF1KPY8 (play up until 4 min 56
seconds) This video summarizes the experiences of Central American
immigrants looking to cross Mexico’s southern borders (30 minutes)
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Process Oriented Questions
What did you notice about the video presented?
In what way do you relate if at all to the video presented?
What does it mean to be an immigrant?
Preguntas de proceso orientado:
De que se dio cuenta en el video presentado?
Si es que siente que se relaciono con el video presentado, de cual manera fue?
Que quiere decir el ser un inmigrante?
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Genogram
Adopted from Monica McGoldrick
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2
1
EXAMPLE
Facilitator: The following genogram has been created in order to depict some of the
symbols presented in the key.
Martinez Family Genogram
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75
Jose
Norma
5 years
50
47
45
42
39
Jose
Josue
Noe
Linda
Samuel
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Session #5: Trauma During Immigration
1.
Present Psychoeducation (30 minutes )
•
•
•
Possible ways that trauma is experienced during the immigration journey:
Separation from a loved one (one person gets detained, death of one person, etc.)
Extortion for extra payment (sexual acts, kidnapping, etc.)
Life-threatening conditions (hunger, thirst, exposure to wild animals and extreme
weather).
•
•
•
•
2.
Other things to take into consideration:
Latino immigrants may have attempted to cross the U.S./Mexico border numerous
times, making the risk for being detained larger (criminal/legal record)
The immigration journey may take days depending on enforcement on the border.
Because there are numerous ways of entry into the United States and enforcement
has increased in the last decade, there is a need for a coyote or someone who
knows the way that is paid to lead the way and cross individuals or groups.
If the person is detained on the U.S./Mexico border, they will be held until
fingerprints and pictures are taken (may vary) and be exposed to prison-like
conditions.
Journey to the United States Handout
Have members participate in writing down their journey to the United States with
help of handout provided. (30 minutes)
3. Play and discuss video Crossing Mexico’s Other Border
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzEUHF1KPY8 (start at 13 minutes and 48
seconds) This video summarizes the experiences of Central American immigrants
looking to cross Mexico’s southern borders. (30 minutes)
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Process Oriented Questions
What did you notice about the video presented?
In what way do you relate if at all to the video presented?
What does it mean to be an immigrant?
Preguntas de proceso orientado:
De que se dio cuenta en el video presentado?
Si es que siente que se relaciono con el video presentado, de cual manera fue?
Que quiere decir el ser un inmigrante?
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HANDOUT (English)
Your story, told your way!
Push factors Pull factors Making the decision: who, how, when? The Journey
How many states did you
cross? Can you List them?
How many border for
countries did you cross?
(Include the United States)
What was your experience
like when you crossed the
U.S./Mexico border?
What emotions did you
experience at differing
points in the process?
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FOLLETO (Español)
Su historia, a su manera!
Factores de empuje Factores de atracción Haciendo la decision: quien, como, cuando? El Camino
Cuantos estados cruzo?
Puede ponerlos en lista?
Cuantas fronteras cruzo?
(Incluya a la de los Estados
Unidos)
Como fue la experiencia
cuando cruzo la frontera de
Estados Unidos/Mexico?
Cuales emociones sintío
durante el proceso?
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Session #6: After Immigration
1. Check in:
Today we would like to see how every one is doing. Because we see that you are
all relating well to each other, we would like for you to be in charge of this part of
group. We will be present, but trust that you have all built a relationship to be able
to talk about how you are liking this group. Of course, feel free to express dislikes
and anything else that you would like.
Ahora quisiéramos ver como están todos. Por que vemos que se están relacionando
bien uno hacia el otro, quisiéramos que ustedes se hagan cargo de esta parte del
grupo. Vamos ha estar presente, pero confiamos en que ustedes han hecho una
relación en la cual pueden hablar de lo que les esta gustando del grupo. Y por su
puesto, siéntanse con confianza de expresar los disgustos y cualquier otra cosa que
quieran.
2. Provide psychoeducational information to group participants.
What are some things that may happen after immigration?
•
•
•
•
•
Family roles may change (women work in order to provide for family)
Substandard living conditions
Lack of English fluency to communicate needs
Lack of Resources
Being reunited/reconnected with family that was already in the United
States.
What is Xenophobia? Vidal-Ortiz (2011) defines a xenophobic narrative as a
discourse happening in the United States that places blame on particular groups
for the economic and political situations. Flores, Tschann, Dimas, Pasch, and de
Groat (2010) conclude that racial/ethnic discrimination paired with the feeling of
a lack of control to stop the discrimination may constitute a traumatic experience.
(30 minutes)
3. Create Family Portrait: Engage participants in creating a family portrait.
Provide participants with paper and utensils (crayons, markers, paint) to depict
family and have the focus be on the exchange between group members as
opposed to facilitator and participant. (60 minutes)
‘
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Family Portrait Instructions:
We have learned a lot about you and would like to know who you would include if we
were to ask you to draw your family. We would like for this to be an opportunity for you
all to be able to talk, play music, and eat if that is what you would like. There are very
little instructions to this activity for a reason, enjoy yourself and share with whoever you
would like in the group.
Instrucciones de una Foto Familiar
Hemos aprendido tanto de ustedes y quisiéramos saber a quine incluirías si les
preguntamos que dibujen a su familia. Queremos que esta sea una oportunidad de
poder platicar, tocar música, y comer si eso es lo que quieren. Hay muy pocas
instrucciones por una razón, queremos que disfruten su tiempo y que compartan con
las personas que quieran en este grupo.
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Session #7: Acculturation and Assimilation
1. Provide psychoeducational information to group participants
What is acculturation and assimilation?
•
•
“Acculturation can be described as cultural change associated with social
group movement, be it movement within or across nations, that results in
persons who have different cultures intersecting” (Sage Publication & Leong,
2008, p. 941).
Assimilation theorists contend that individuals lose their cultural identity as
they identify with the dominant cultural group, whereas alternation theorists
contend that individual retain their cultural identity while creating a
relationship with the dominant culture (Gonzalez, Knight, Morgan-Lopez,
Saenz, & Sirolli, 2002).
What is biculturalism?
•
•
A process to explain the ability for individuals to alternate perspectives such
as individuals who change behaviors based on which context they are in
(Falicov, 2014).
The integration of customs from both native and host countries (30 minutes).
2. Engage participants in open group discussion, allowing for the conversation to
be lead by participants based off of the material presented.
Instructions for conversation
We would like to allow for an open conversation about the material presented
today. There is not right or wrong way of doing this, we would simply like for
you to discuss amongst yourselves the experiences that you have had with being
in a new culture (30 minutes).
Instrucciones para la conversación
Queremos dejar tiempo para tener una conversación abierta de la materia que ha
sido presentada ahora. No hay manera correcta o incorrecta de hacer esto, sino que
simplemente queremos que discutan dentro de ustedes las experiencias que han
tenido al estar en una nueva cultura.
3. Writing a story about your life- Allow for group members to participate in
using provided handout with instructions to write, draw, or put together a collage.
Provide lined paper, blank paper, magazines, scissors, writing utensils, and glue.
Beginning of session #8 will be used to finish this activity(30minutes).
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HANDOUT (English) Writing a story about my life
Remember: people express themselves differently, if writing isn’t your preferred method of sharing your story then drawing or cutting out pictures from a magazine might be. How have your immigration experiences been incorporated into your sense of identity? What are some of the difficulties or challenges that you have faced during your life experience? Would you include immigration and the effects of it to play a part as a challenge or strength? How do you solve challenges? What are some challenges that continue to be difficult? Who or what do you find to be helpful in difficult times? 91
Folleto (Español) Escribiendo una historia de mi vida
Algunas cosas de que pensar: Escribiendo una historia de mi vida
Recuerda: la gente se expresa de diferentes maneras, si el escribir no es tu método
preferido de compartir una historia tal vez puede ser dibujando or cortando fotos
de un magazine.
Como es que sus experiencias con la inmigración han sido incorporadas en el sentido de
identidad?
Que son algunas dificultades o desafíos que usted ha tenido en su vida? Usted
consideraría la experiencia migratoria como una dificultad o una fortaleza?
A quien o que encontró que fuera beneficioso en tiempos difíciles?
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Session #8: Latino Immigrant and First Generation Child
1. Writing a story about your life: From previous session, continue providing
materials (lined paper, blank paper, magazines, scissors, writing utensils, and
glue). (20 minutes)
2. Present psychoeducational information to group participant:
•
•
•
•
•
Some characteristics found in U.S. born children of immigrant parents:
Children tend to learn English at a faster rate than their immigrant parents,
leaving their parents relying on their children for interpretation and an
understanding of their community systems (Coatsworth, Pantin, &
Szapocznik, 2002). This in turn, creates a change in power dynamics
which may be negative in parent-child relationships.
According to Portes and Rumbaut (2006), many first generation children
grow up in traditional households where their native culture is highly
emphasized through food, customs, and artifacts
Children also are connected to their family of origin through vacations,
stories, and communication with relatives.
Pumarierga et al. (2005) posit that children are often times vulnerable to
additional stressors because their parents and guardians are often
overwhelmed and unable to attend to their own emotional needs.
Immigrant parents who have first generation children tend to focus on
academics and the success of their children as their rationalization for the
“sacrifices” they are making in order to ensure the success of the next
generation. (20 minutes)
3. Engage participants in open group discussion. Begin by presenting story of
Luis and his family (50 minutes).
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ACTIVITY (English)
Luis’ Story
Luis is 35 years old and has been married for 16 years to his wife Teresa. Shortly
after being married, Luis and Teresa decided that they could not stay in their hometown
in Mexico. They decided to move to the United States to begin a family. Due to the
difficulties in gaining legal entry into the United States, Luis and Teresa crossed the
U.S./Mexico border without proper documentation. Once in the United States, they found
refuge with Luis’ family who lived in Los Angeles, CA. They have lived with this family
since their arrival to the United States.
Currently, the couple has two daughters, 14 and 11 years old, and a son who is 3
years old. Luis works fulltime as a gardener and finds that his children are ‘interesting’.
Teresa thinks the same as she sees the need for her 14-year-old daughter to help around
the house and with her siblings. The 14-year-old daughter’s name is Karen, and she has
some difficulties with following her parents’ directions. Karen thinks that even though
she enjoys helping her parents, sometimes it is difficult because she has a lot of
homework and extracurricular activities to do. Karen expresses conflict between wanting
to have freedom but feeling guilty for feeling this way. Luis and Teresa think that it is
Karen’s responsibility to help and be committed to the family. Luis struggles with
sadness due to not seeing his parents for the past 15 years. Luis drinks often and says that
he likes to have a good time and be stress-free. Luis sees his sacrifice to come to the
United States as one for a better future for his children.
Processing questions:
•
•
•
•
What happened in this story?
How is the family working with each other?
What difficulties is the family running into?
If you could say something to a member of the family, who would you speak to?
What would you say?
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ACTIVIDAD (Español)
La historia de Luis
Luis es un hombre de 35 años y ha estado casado por 16 años a su esposa Teresa.
Poco después de haberse casado, Luis y Teresa decidieron que ya no podían quedarse en
su ciudad natal en México. Ellos decidieron moverse a los Estados Unidos para empezar
una familia. Debido a las dificultades de entrar legalmente a los Estados Unidos, Luis y
Teresa cruzaron la frontera de EE.UU./México sin la documentación propia. Ya en las
Estados Unidos, ellos encontraron refugio con la familia de Luis que vivían en Los
Angeles, CA. Ellos han vivido con esta familia desde su llegada a los Estados Unidos.
Recientemente, la paraje tiene dos hijas, de 14 y 11 años, y un hijo que tiene 3
años de edad. Luis trabaja tiempo completo como jardinero y se da cuenta que sus hijos
son ‘interesantes’. Teresa piensa lo mismo y ve la necesidad de que su hija de 14 años le
ayude en el hogar y con sus hermanos. La hija de 14 años se llama Karen, y esta teniendo
dificultades siguiendo las direcciones de sus padres. Karen piensa que aunque le gusta
poder ayudar a sus padres, en veces es difícil por que tiene mucha tarea y actividades
extraescolares que hacer. Karen expresa que esta teniendo conflicto en sentirse que quiere
libertad pero a la vez sentirse culpable por querer libertad. Luis y Teresa piensan que es
la responsabilidad de Karen el ayudar y mantenerse comprometida con su familia. Luis
lucha con tristeza debido a que no ha visto a sus padres por 15 años. Frecuentemente Luis
toma bastante y dice que le gusta pasar un buen tiempo y estar sin estrés. Luis ve que su
sacrifico de venir a los estados unidos fue para darle un mejor futuro a sus hijos.
Preguntas de proceso orientado:
•
•
•
•
Que paso en esta historia?
Como esta la familia trabajando uno con el otro?
Cuales son algunas de las dificultades que la familia esta teniendo?
Si pudiera usted decirle algo ha algún miembro de la familia, a cual miembro
seria? Que le diría?
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Session #9: Latino Immigrant and First Generation Child
1. Present psychoeducational information to group participants:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
What is intergenerational or transgenerational trauma?
Effects of trauma that extends to other generations after the person who
experiences the primary trauma (parent or grandparent) is a phenomenon
that is labeled transgenerational or intergenerational trauma (Phipps &
Degges-White, 2014).
Lurie-Beck (2007) contends that in the case of holocaust survivor families,
symptoms of transgenerational trauma are noted when, “ parents’
unresolved grief, depression, generalized anxiety or hypervigilance
impede their ability to achieve healthy attachment to their children and to
meet their children’s emotional needs. This inconsistency in the
relationship was identified as a factor that could lead children to feel
unsure of the extent to which they could trust their parents to meet their
need” (as cited by Phipps & Degges-White, 2014, p.176).
In Latino Families, the U.S. born children of immigrants are also
susceptible to suffering PTSD like symptoms due to their family’s
traumatic experience.
How do U.S. born children differ from their immigrant parents?
Because some Latino immigrants do not fully understand the legal system,
they oftentimes fear that practicing their traditional parenting roles such as
corporal punishment will get them in trouble and possibly result in
deportation (Downs-Karkos, 2004).
Immigrant parents may not be aware of the responsibility that the U.S.
culture places on parent’s ability to monitor their children’s behavior and
school performance as opposed to the community sharing responsibility
for monitoring, supervising, and managing adolescent activities
(Coatsworth, Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2002).
Children born in the United States tend to learn English at faster rates than
their Immigrant parents, making a change in the family dynamics as
children become interpreters for their parents and at times changing the
power dynamic.
Additionally, children born in the United States interact with differing
cultures at higher rates even though they continue to have family of origin
cultural interaction through foods, customs, and artifacts. This may create
conflict between parent/child relations (30 minutes).
2. Activity: Engage participants in exploring how their children might see them (60
minutes) **For next session: Ask participants to bring picture of their children.
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HANDOUT (ENGLISH)
When learning about how you may impact your children, sometimes it may be difficult.
To help this situation, it is helpful to get to know how others might see us through their
eyes. Let’s begin by choosing one of your children (no matter how young). Begin by
imagining what your hand might feel like in theirs. Next, think about what it may be like
for them to look at you. What would they see? Where would they say that you are from?
What languages do you speak? Write as many words and pictures that you think depict
how your child sees you. Use the rest of this page to work on this activity.
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Folleto (Español)
Cuando estamos aprendiendo de cómo impacta usted a sus hijos, en veces
puede ser difícil. Para ayudar la situación, es servicial el ver como otros nos
ven por sus ojos. Vamos a empezar con que usted escoja ha uno de sus hijos
(no importa que tan pequeño). Empiece al imaginar como se sentirá su mano
dentro de la suya. Lo siguiente seria, pensar en como seria para que el o ella
lo mire a usted. Que mirarían? De donde dirían que es usted? Que lenguajes
habla? Escriba todas las palabras y dibujos que piensa usted que enseñen
como su hijo(a) lo ve a usted. Use el resto de esta pagina para trabajar en
esta actividad.
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Session #10: Forming Connections and Conclusions
1. Summarization of time spent together by participants sharing with each other.
Open discussion, have members relate to each other and express whatever they
please. Purpose of this session is to provide as little structure as possible in order
to allow for an open conversation amongst group members (30 minutes).
2. Bonding activity:
Let’s begin by having everyone share the picture that they have brought. Who is
in the picture and how are they feeling? Along with this, please share what your
hopes are for your children and for yourself. Once everyone has gone, please feel
free to share hopes that you have for other families that are here today, tell them
directly.
Vamos a comenzar por empezar a compartir la foto que trajeron. Quien esta
en la foto y como se están sintiendo? Con esto, por favor comparta que son
sus esperanzas para sus hijos y para usted. Cuando todos hayan pasado su
turno, por favor comparta algunas esperanzas que tenga con otra de las
familias que están aquí con nosotros ahora, dígales directamente.
99
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ecodevelopmental intervention to reduce risk for problem behavior among
Hispanic adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5(2), 113132.
Downs-Karkos, S. (2004). Addressing the mental health needs of immigrants and
refugees. Grantmakers In Health. Retrieved from
http://www.gih.org/Publications/ViewsDetail.cfm?ItemNumber=4173 on
12/10/14.
Falicov, C. (2014). Latino Families in Therapy, Second Edition: A Guide to Multicultural
Practice. New York: Guilford Publications.
Immigrant Families in Contemporary Society. (2007). New York: Guilford Press.
Lawton, K., & Gerdes, A. (2014). Acculturation and Latino adolescent mental health:
Integration of individual, environmental, and family influences. Clinical Child
and Family Psychology Review, 17(4), 385-398.
Lurie-Beck, J., Liossis, P., & Gow, K. (2008). Relationships between psychopathological
and demographic variables and posttraumatic growth among holocaust survivors.
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Ornelas, I., & Perreira, K. (2011). The role of migration in the development of depressive
symptoms among Latino immigrant parents in the USA. Social Science &
Medicine, 73(8), 1169-1177.
Perez Foster, R. (2001). When immigration is trauma: guidelines for the individual and
family clinician. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71(2), 153-170.
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Phipps, R., & Degges-White, S. (2014). A new look at transgenerational trauma
transmission: Second-generation Latino immigrant youth. Journal of
Multicultural Counseling and Development, 42(3), 174-187.
Portes, A., Rumbaut, R.G. (2006). Immigrant America: A portrait (3rd ed.). Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Pumariega, A., Rothe,E., & Pumariega,J. (2005) Mental health of immigrants and
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