UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING.
Project number.
THE EFFECT OF INTRODUCTION OF ERGONOMIC SCIENCE
TO SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY IN KENYA.
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor Of Science in Mechanical And Manufacturing Engineering.
Authors:
1. KARU PETER NDUNG’U.
2. YEGON KIPLANGAT NICHOLAS
F18/9231/2005.
F18/9234/2005.
Project supervisor:
ENGINEER GEORGE MAKARI NYORI.
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DECLARATION.
Unless where stated, acknowledged and referenced, we (KARU PETER NDUNG’U and
YEGON KIPLANGAT NICHOLAS) declare that the project report which includes research
work, developments, findings, discussions and conclusion is entirely our quintessential effort and
to the best of our knowledge is original, the project details entailed in the report ha snot been
presented before to the best of our knowledge.
1. KARU PETER NDUNG’U
F18/9231/2005.
Signature…………………………………………………………..
Date………………………………………………………………..
2. YEGON KIPLANGAT NICHOLAS
F18/9234/2005.
Signature……………………………………………………………
Date…………………………………………………………………
3. Project supervisor:
ENGINEER NYORI MAKARI GEORGE.
Signature……………………………………………………………
Date…………………………………………………………………
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
We would like to give special thanks to our supervisor Eng. Nyori for his unwavering support and
guidance that enabled us to realize the objectives of the project. Special thanks to the Department Of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering; this includes the Chairman of the department Prof. Mutuli
and all the lecturers in the department for equipping us with the necessary skills to conduct this project.
We would also like to give special thanks to IBERAFRICA NAIROBI SOUTH POWER PLANT for according us
the necessary support.
Special regard go to the management of KAREN ROSES NAIROBI, SUBWAY COSTRUCTION
COMPANY(NRB) and SIMWA ENTERPRISES JUA KALI for allowing us to conduct our project and granting
us access to the very useful information and resources to do this project.
Grateful to our families, classmates and University Of Nairobi for their support.
May God bless you all.
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ABSTRACT.
The objective of carrying out the project was to perform a study on THE INTRODUCTION
OF ERGONOMIC SCIENCE TO SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY IN KENYA.
The objectives were:



Study a multinational company and its application of ergonomics science which was up
to world standards.
Study “small scale” industry and the degree up to which they have applied ergonomic
science.
Make recommendations on how such industries can be made more ERGONOMICALLY
viable to improve their performance and enhance safety to their staff.
To do so, companies of interest to be studied were identified and request letters were sent to
them seeking permission to undertake the study there. The multinational companies which were
of interest were;




Nation Media Group(ltd)
The Standard Group.
KENGEN Power Company.
IBERAAFRICA NAIROBI SOUTH POWER PLANT.
Out of the above companies, IBERAAFRICA NAIROBI SOUTH POWER PLANT granted us
access to their company and resources to carry out the project research.
The other industries that were studied where recommendations as per the objective were required
to be made were KAREN ROSES Nairobi limited, SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY
and SIMWA ENTERPRISES (jua kali sector).
After identifying the companies, research on Ergonomics and Ergonomics science was carried
out to provide the knowledge to study the companies and be able to provide the necessary
recommendations to these companies to make them ergonomically friendly work environments.
From the research carried out it was discovered that Ergonomic science seeks to increase human
productivity and efficiency by creating an environment that was conducive for human operation
and create a balance between man and machine. To do so, this science seeks to identify and
eliminate musculorskeletal disorders(MSDs)
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints,
cartilage, or spinal discs. MSDs are not typically the result of any instantaneous or acute event
(such as a slip, trip, or fall) but reflect a more gradual development.
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To eliminate the above named MMSDs, two main approaches are to be taken , ENGINEERING
CONTROLS and ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS. These two approaches can then be
applied in any aspect of life, be it domestically in the home or in any industry(horticultural
,construction or jua kali as expected in the case of this project).
In fulfilling the objectives of this project data was required to be collected and this was done
through questionnaires, interviews and observation. Photographs would also have been an
important source or data but due to security reasons, the companies under study did not allow it.
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PROBLEM STATEMENT.
This project was a case study on THE INTRODUCTION OF ERGONOMIC SCIENCE TO
SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY IN KENYA.
The objectives were:



Study a multinational company and its application of ergonomics science which was up
to world standards.
Study “small scale” industry and the degree up to which they have applied ergonomic
science.
Make recommendations on how such industries can be made more ERGONOMICALLY
viable to improve their performance and enhance safety to their staff.
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LIST OF FIGURES.
1. Figure 4.1, ergonomically right computer desk set up and sitting position. (picture
courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics
program. Version 1, June 2000.)
2. Figure 4.2 WORK STATION/DESK SET UP. (Picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
3. Figure 4.3. WORKSTATION/DESK SET UP. (Picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
4. Figure 4.4 Ergonomic Tips for Standing Work. (Picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
5. Figure 4.5 STANDING WORKSTATION SET UP (picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
6. Figure 4.6, stool design (picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF MINESSOTA DULUTH.
Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
7. Figure 4.7 work aids.( STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY Department of
Environmental Health and Safety Occupational Safety and Training
Ergonomics/Manual Materials Handling Course number: EOS 011)
8. Figure 4.8 WARNING SIGNS(pictures courtesy of http//www,Wikipedia.com)
9. Figure 4.9 Example of hard hat (picture courtesy of http//www.cromwelltools.com).
10. figure 4.10, SAFETY HEARNESS (http//www,Wikipedia.com)
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Table 5.1. ERGONOMICS CHECKLIST DATA ANALYSIS TABLE.
2. Table 6.1, recommendations table for SIMWA ENTERPRISES.
3. Table 6.2, recommendations table for KAREN ROSES.
4. Table 6.3, recommendations table for SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION.
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CONTENT.
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
ABSTRACT.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
LIST OF FIGURES.
LIST OF TABLES
……………………………………………………………………2
……………………………………………………………………3
……………………………………………………………………4
.……………………………………………………………………6
……………………………………………………………………7
……………………………………………………………………8
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION.
……………………………………………………………………11
Filling in ERGONOMIC CHECKLISTS.
……………………………11
CHAPTER 2.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION.
…………………………………………12
IBERAFRICA NAIROBI SOUTH POWER PLANT
………………………………12
Operations department.
………………………………12
Maintenance.
………………………………12
SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY.
…………………………13
KAREN ROSES NAIROBI LIMITED.
. ………………………………13
SIMWA ENTERPRISES.
………………………………13
CHAPTER 3.
LITERATURE REVIEW.
………………………………14
DEFINITIONS OF ERGONOMICS.
………………………………14
PURPOSE.
………………………………14
DEFINITION OF MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (MSD).
…………………..15
RISK FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO MSDS.
………………………………15
Repetitive movements.
………………………………15
Forceful exertion.
………………………………15
Unnatural posture.
………………………………17
Secondary risk factors
………………………………17
Combination effect.
………………………………17
HOW CAN MSDS BE CONTROLLED?
………………………………18
Engineering Controls.
…………………… 18
Administrative Control.
………………… 18
CHAPTER 4.
ERGONOMICS IN THE OFFICE.
Desk arrangement.
WORKSPACE DESIGN.
LIGHTING.
VENTILATION.
GLARE AND REFLECTANCE.
VIBRATIONS.
NOISE.
SAFETY.
ERGONOMICS IN THE LAB/PLANT/WORKSHOP.
WORK ORGANIZATION.
Team work and cooperation.
………………………………19
………………………………19
………………………………20
………………………………21
………………………………21
………………………………21
………………………………21
………………………………21
………………………………22
………………………………22
………………………………22
………………………………22
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Hours of work and rest.
………………………………22
Shift system.
………………………………22
Overtime.
………………………………22
WORKSPACE DESIGN.
………………………………23
Working surfaces.
………………………………23
Seated operations.
………………………………23
Standing operations.
………………………………24
High physical work.
………………………………24
Light work.
………………………………24
Precision work.
………………………………24
Standing posture.
………………………………25
TOOL DESIGN.
………………………………27
LIFTING AND CARRYING AIDS.
………………………………29
STATIC WORK AIDS.
………………………………29
CONTROL DISPLAYS SHOULD BE EASILY RECOGNIZED.
………………………29
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE ITEMS.
………………………………30
Protection from Hearing Loss.
………………………………31
Protection from Hand Injuries
………………………………31
Protection from Body Injury
………………………………31
Protection from Eye and Face Injuries
………………………………31
Protection from Foot and Leg Injuries
………………………………31
EMERGENCY PROTOCOLS
………………………………32
COLOUR CODING
………………………………32
WORK ENVIRONMENT
………………………………32
WORKFORCE CHARACTERISTICS
………………………………32
ERGONOMICS SCIENCE IN THE FIELD (E.g. Construction companies)
. ……………33
Work organization
………………………………33
Shift systems
………………………………33
Working surfaces
………………………………33
Tools design
………………………………33
Personal protective equipment
………………………………33
Gangways
………………………………34
CHAPTER 5.
ERGONOMICS CHECKLIST DATA ANALYSIS TABLE ………………………………35
CHAPTER 6.
RECOMMENDATIONS TABLE
SIMWA ENTERPRISES: JUA KALI INDUSTRY
KAREN ROSES
SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
………………………………54
………………………………58
………………………………59
………………………………61
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CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION.
This project was a case study on THE INTRODUCTION OF ERGONOMIC SCIENCE TO
SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY IN KENYA.
The objectives were:



Study a multinational company and its application of ergonomics science which was up
to world standards.
Study “small scale” industry and the degree up to which they have applied ergonomic
science.
Make recommendations on how such industries can be made more ERGONOMICALLY
viable to improve their performance and enhance safety to their staff.
The methods that were employed in data collection are:
1.1. Filling in ERGONOMIC CHECKLISTS.
This was done through.
-
-
Interviewing the staff of the four industries under study.
Observation and recording of data with respect to the checklist.
Consulting the lecturers and the project supervisor.
Consulting the supervisors and maintenance and operations managers of IBERAAFRICA
NAIROBI SOUTH POWER PLANT, KAREN ROSES NAIROBI, SUBWAY
CONSTRUCTION COMPANY NAIROBI and the entrepreneur of SIMWA enterprises.
Research from books and the internet.
Results were analyzed and recommendations made.
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CHAPTER 2.
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION.
2.1. IBERAFRICA NAIROBI SOUTH POWER PLANT.
IBERAAFRICA Nairobi South Power Plant (IBERAFRICA NSPP) is a thermal power
generation power plant that employs diesel engines to generate electricity which it then
sells to the Kenya Power and Lighting Company to supply to the National grid.
These diesel engines operate within the plant, plant 1 also referred to as NSPP1 which
holds 10 engines, 8 Niigata engines, which are from Japan made and 2 Wartsilla engines
which are from Finland. NSPP2 holds 8 Wartsilla engines. All these engines produce a
combined power of approximately 120MW.
Despite being referred to as Diesel Engines, these engines only use diesel when they are
getting started and then they switch to a form of fuel called HFO (Heavy Fuel Oil). This
is because relative to the diesel fuel also known as LFO (Light Fuel Oil), HFO fuel is
much cheaper.
IBERAFRICA Nairobi South Power Plant has two main departments, operations
department and maintenance department.
2.1.1 Operations department.
Ensures that all the operational systems within the plant run at optimum. These
include the engines, compressor, exhaust systems, boilers, water systems,
purification system and firefighting equipment. All the above named systems are
90% automated and the human machine interface employed is known as SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).
2.1.2. Maintenance.
Does regular maintenance and/or repair on the above named systems.
The power plant through the Operations department liaises with Kenya Power and Lighting
Company to supply the electricity.
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2.2. SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION COMPANY.
It is mainly involved with the construction of roads, buildings and bridges. Earthmoving
equipments owned by this company include, truck shovel, graders, escalators and dumpers.
Subway construction is a grade C construction company located in Langata approximately 5km
from Nairobi Central Business District. It has a staff of about 40 people who include engineers,
crane operators, drivers, artisans, technicians and casual workers. The company is headed by two
Directors who are deputized by an Engineer who is in charge of all the workers on the ground.
The company layout is divided into three main sections namely;



Main Office-This area houses the director’s office and their secretary. All the
company’s documents and contracts are stored here. Inquiries about the company are
also made at this section.
Workshop-All the company’s tools e.g. hammers, tapes, spanners, nails e.tc are kept
here. Activities such as welding, soldering and grinding are also done here. The
workshop also doubles up as a store where supplies such as cement, iron sheets, pipe
fittings are stored.
Yard-This is an open field fenced all round used as a parking for the company’s huge
machines. These earthmovers include graders, escavators, low loaders, dumpers and
truck shovels. Small vehicles mainly pickups are also parked here.Servicing and
maintenance of all these machines are done at the yard.
The company mainly deals in the construction of buildings (offices, houses and shops),
roads, bridges and airstrips. All these are done in a small scale basis. Most of the work is
done under contracts of which the Government is the main client
2.3. KAREN ROSES NAIROBI LIMITED.
Karen Roses Nairobi Limited is a horticultural flower farm which specializes in
carnation, specifically roses. It is located in Karen, approximately 5kilometers from the
Karen shopping center and approximately 20kilometers from the Nairobi city center. The
farm is principally involved in production of rose flower for exportation, though it
however has a considerably large domestic market.
Flowers are grown under hydroponics (soil-less media=volcanic pumice) in its green
houses. These green houses have a computerized fertigation system. The produce (rose
flowers) are grown in the green house, harvested and packed in the pack house which is
located within the farm and stored in the cool room to ensure continued freshness while
awaiting transportation. The farm also propagates top grafts for planting. Examples of
flowers produced are:
-MARIYO.
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-TAIGA (favorite for mother’s day).
-RED CALYPSO (favorite for Valentine’s Day).
-BELLEROSE (an auction novelty).
-RED RIBBON (Valentine’s Day)
The farm promotes good farming practice and is ISO CERTIFIED.
2.4. SIMWA ENTERPRISES.
Simwa enterprises is a jua kali stall near the City Stadium roundabout(stall number 64)
approximately 4kilometers from the Nairobi city center along Jogoo road. It is run by an
entrepreneur/juakali artisan called F. Mavungo, who at any one time, has two or three
apprentices with him.
He produces and sells jua kali artifacts both on location at his stall or at other selected jua
kali markets. He also produces artifacts on order.
The artifact produced at this jua kali stall include;
-jikos
-grills (for roasting meat).
-gutters.
-metal security doors and door hinges.
-metal boxes.
-animal feeding troughs.
This entrepreneur specializes in metal and metal products.
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CHAPTER 3.
LITERATURE REVIEW.
3.1 DEFINITIONS OF ERGONOMICS.
Ergonomics derives from two Greek words: ergon, meaning work, and nomoi, meaning
natural laws. Combined they create a word that means the science of work and a person’s
relationship to that work.
Ergonomics is the science of fitting the work-place conditions and job demands to the
capabilities of the working population. The goal of ergonomics is to make the work place
more comfortable and to improve both health and productivity. To meet these goals, the
capabilities and limitations of workers and their tools, equipment and furniture are
considered in conjunction with how they relate to particular tasks.
3.2 PURPOSE.
The purpose of ergonomics program/science is to eliminate work-related Ergonomics
Risk Factors and prevent or reduce workplace-acquired MusculoSkeletal Disorders
(MSD) by providing management leadership and employee involvement in the
identification, correction and elimination of such risk factors, through information
dissemination, education and training on an on-going basis.
3.2.1 DEFINITION OF MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (MSD).
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries of the muscles, nerves, tendons,
ligaments, joints, cartilage, or spinal discs. MSDs are not typically the result of
any instantaneous or acute event (such as a slip, trip, or fall) but reflect a more
gradual development.
MSDs are such a big problem to any workforce because of a number of reasons
namely:




MSDs may cause a great deal of pain and suffering among afflicted
workers.
MSDs are among the most common lost-time injuries.
MSDs are among the most costly occupational problems. This is due to
the fact that the workers cannot work at optimum efficiency if they are
experiencing pain and or discomfort.
Job activities that may cause MSDs span diverse workplaces and
operations.
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MSDs may decrease productivity and the quality of products and services.
Workers experiencing aches and pains on the job may not be able to do quality
work.
Medical terms used to describe MSDs to various parts of the body include lower
back pain, tendinitis, bursitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, epicondylitis, trigger
finger, thoracic outlet syndrome, carpet layers' knee, and degenerative disc
disease.
MSD may also be referred to as;




Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSIs)
Cumulative Trauma Disorders
Overuse Injuries
Repetitive Motion Disorders.
3.2.2 RISK FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO MSDS.
The following are recognized as important risk factors, especially when they
occur at high levels and in combination.
3.2.2.1 Repetitive movements.
Movements performed over and over are described as repetitive
movements. But a repetitive movement can also be an awkward posture
held for long periods of time. These movements can be of risk to the
worker because of continual stress placed on one body part without
sufficient muscle recovery time. Screwing in bolts and nuts, sawing a
plunk of wood, picking and packing of flowers are examples of repetitive
tasks.
3.2.2.2 Forceful exertion.
Force is the amount of effort required to perform a task or job. The
amount of force one can exert depends on one's posture and the number of
exertions performed. The more the force that is exerted, the greater the
stress on the body. Lifting, pushing, pulling, and gripping a tool are
examples of activities that require exerting force or muscle effort.
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3.2.2.3 Unnatural posture.
Postures are the positions of body parts. Unnatural positions or awkward
postures are those in which joints are held or moved away from the body's
natural position. The closer the joint is to its end of range of motion (for
instance, bending the back forward as far as possible), the greater the
stress placed on the soft tissues of that joint, such as muscles, nerves, and
tendons.
3.2.2.4. Secondary risk factors




Vibration is a secondary risk factor which can cause damage to nerves and
blood tissues as well as other soft tissues.
Contact pressure is any external pressure that is applied to soft tissues and
puts stress on those tissues. Holding tools where handles press into parts
of the hand or arm is an example of contact pressure.
Gloves can be a risk factor for musculoskeletal disorders if they do not fit
properly or if they restrict movement of the fingers and hands.
Temperature can also affect muscles. Cold temperatures increase the stress
placed on soft tissues by reducing their range of motion and flexibility.
Heat affects the work rest cycles required due to the increase in fatigue
and the need for muscle recovery.
3.2.2.5 Combination effect.
Chance of injury increases when two or more MSD risk factors combine
in one job. One factor alone is unlikely to cause a high risk of injury. For
example, performing a forceful lift once places a worker at less risk than
performing a forceful lift several times an hour.
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3.2.3 HOW CAN MSDS BE CONTROLLED?
Two approaches are widely accepted for controlling workplace ergonomic
hazards.
3.2.3. 1. Engineering Controls
These are measures taken to modify the forcefulness, repetitiveness,
awkwardness, vibration levels, physical pressures, or environmental
extremes connected with a particular job. Engineering controls are the
preferred approach in preventing MSDs. Examples include modifications
of
1) The workstation layout or design.
2) Selection and use of tools,
3) Work materials, and
4) Work methods.
3.2.3.2. Administrative Controls - Administrative controls are
management-directed work practices and policies. Administrative control
strategies include
1) Changes in job rules and procedures such as scheduling more rest
break.
2) Rotating workers through jobs that are physically tiring, and
3) Training workers to recognize ergonomic risk factors and to learn
techniques for reducing stress and strain while performing their job.
Although engineering controls are preferred, administrative controls can be helpful as temporary
measures until engineering controls can be implemented or when engineering controls are not
technically feasible. Since administrative controls do not eliminate hazards, the necessary
precautions and safeguards must be followed.
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CHAPTER 4.
4.1. ERGONOMICS IN THE OFFICE.
4.1.1. Desk arrangement.
Presently, every office worldwide has employed the use of computers and thus the study
of ergonomics in the office is widely based on the proper and safe use of computers and
other hardware related to computer use. This then involves proper posture while using
computers in the office to prevent injuries to the operator such as the one mentioned
earlier.
Below is a diagram showing the ergonomically safe seating position while an operator
uses a desktop computer.
Figure 4.1, ergonomically right computer desk set up and sitting position.( picture courtesy of
UNIVERSITY OF MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June
2000.)
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A summary of the above diagram is as below:
• ensure your chair is the right height for you.
• It should have firm lumbar/lower back support
• The edge of the seat should be rounded so it doesn’t press on the backs of your
thighs.
• Armrests are optional – if you have them, they should be padded
• Your feet should be flat on the floor or on a footrest putting your thighs parallel
to the floor, knees at a 90 degree angle.
• There needs to be enough room under your desk for your legs.
• Items on your desk need to be at the proper distance for reaching comfort and
not crowded together.
Figure 4.2 WORK STATION/DESK SET UP. ( picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
4.1.2. WORKSPACE DESIGN.
The workspace is to be designed in such a way that it doesn’t come out as being cramped
and crowded. This means that all the workers within the set working space or office
should have sufficient space to move about without having to squeeze through or jump
over any office ware.
Also, the workers must have sufficient space to access all the exits as quickly as possible
in case of emergency. This involves the creation of sufficient gangways within the office
and these spaces should always be free of obstacles.
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The office layout should be in such a way that workers or operators do not appear
isolated. This means that desks and other office furniture should be arranged in such a
way that it does not at any time block the view of any worker from each other and also,
workers should be able to walk to their colleague’s desk with ease.
4.1.3. LIGHTING.
The workspace should always be sufficiently lit. this can be achieved by use of large
windows and/or the installation of sufficient lighting fixtures which include, desk lamps,
overhead/ceiling florescent lamps, corridor lighting and in the case of walk-in filing
cabinets, then they should also be well lit.
4.1.4. VENTILATION.
The office area should be well ventilated. Ventilation can be naturally achieved through
windows and louvers or it could be through air conditioning units being installed.
4.1.5. GLARE AND REFLECTANCE.
The office set up should not be layed out in a way that the workers experience glare and
reflectance. Glare can be from the computers and this can be controlled by the use of
glare screens. If the glare is coming from other sources say outside, then the office should
have shade on the window.
4.1.6. VIBRATIONS.
Vibrations should be prevented by the use of damping or in special cases, special
carpeting.
4.1.7. NOISE.
In case the office is situated in a noisy area, then measures to sound proof the office so
that noise levels are within limits are taken.
4.1.8. SAFETY.
Safety should be the first item in the design of any office. Safety can be classified into
general safety of staff and the personal safety of the staff.
Safety Factors include:
-
Electric cables being insulated and well fastened away from the pathways
No hanging cables or fixtures.
Anti burglar bars where necessary.
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-
Accessible firefighting equipment.
First aid kits.
4.2. ERGONOMICS IN THE LAB/PLANT/WORKSHOP.
4.2.1. WORK ORGANIZATION.
4.2.1.1. Team work and cooperation.
Emphasis on team work where workers, discuss and consult with each other
and/or their supervisors.
4.2.1.2. Hours of work and rest.
Depending on the operations being performed, rest periods should be allowed. For
example, when performing physically demanding tasks, (lifting, pushing) workers
should be allowed regular rest to their operations for example for physically
demanding work, workers should not be given extended work hours without rest
periods.
4.2.1.3. Shift system.
With respect to operations, shift should be allocated.
For example: have two shift system where the main shift comes in at 8.00 A.M. –
5.00 P.M. and this shift can continue to 8.00 P.M. whereas another shift comes in
from 2.00 P.M. – 10 P.M.
Suppose the company employs a 12 hour (6.00 A.M. – 6.00 P.M.) shift system
where open shift does 2 days of day shifts and 2 nights of shift, this shift should
be allowed at least 3 days of shift.
The most commonly applied system is 2 days of 12 hour shift, 2 nights of 12 hour
shifts and 4 days off for rest.
4.2.1.4. Overtime.
Again, this also depends on the operations the plant, lab or workshop performs.
Suppose it is thermal power generation plant, all generators need to be
operational at all times and when one generator encounters a breakdown or is
undergoing service, overtime is done to narrow down the generators downtime.
(Downtime is the time the generator is not operational or productive).
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Overtime in other plants might be put into compensate for absenteeism, this is
mainly in operations where a constant number of operators is required at all times
(Power generation plants).
4.2.2. WORKSPACE DESIGN.
4.2.2. Working surfaces.
Working surface design is done with respect to the operations or tasks being performed
by the operators or the workers. Such operations can be clustered into two main branches
namely;
4.2.2.1. Seated operations.
For operations that require one to be seated, the seats should be ergonomically
correct. This means:
(1) They should have backrests if one requires to type and look at a display or
screen.
(2) Rotating stools, when working in a lab where high benches are used.
(3) Should have wheels in places where a number of operation positions on same
surface are employed e.g. multiple displays like those found in engine
operation rooms, that require an operator to monitor all of them, thus the
wheels stop the operator from standing up and walking to the various screens
but can simply slide the seat to whichever screen they want to view.
(4) The seats should be height adjustable.
(5) The seats should have arm rests where necessary.
(6) The seats should have sufficient lumber support.
(7) The seats should recline if there is need.
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Figure 4.3. WORKSTATION/DESK SET UP. ( picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
4.2.2.2. Standing operations.
A person's body is affected by the arrangement of the work area and by the tasks
that he or she does while standing. The layout of the workstation, the tools, and
the placement of keys, controls and displays that the worker needs to operate or
observe will determine, and as rule, limit the body positions that the worker can
assume while standing. As a result, the worker has fewer body positions to choose
from, and the positions themselves are more rigid. This gives the worker less
freedom to move around and to rest working muscles. Thus the work surface is
designed to be more comfortable to the operator/worker. Below is a summary of
the work surface designs with respect to the work or operation being performed.
4.2.2.2.1. High physical work:The working surface should be slightly above the waist, while doing light
low precision jobs.
4.2.2.2.2. Light work:The working surface should be at waist level or slightly above the waist,
this is to avoid the worker/operator from arching their back or working in
a bent or unnatural posture.
4.2.2.2.3. Precision work
The working surface should be at about the elbow level, this is near the
eyes and to avoid operator bending over to look at the work.
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Figure 4.4 Ergonomic Tips for Standing Work. ( picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
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Standing posture.

The user's legs, torso, neck, and head are
approximately in line and vertical.

Always face the object of work.

Keep body close to the work.

Adjust the workplace to get enough space to
change working position.

Use a foot rail or portable footrest to shift body
weight from one to the other leg.

Use a seat whenever possible while working, or
at least when the work process allows for rest.

Use a floor pad for hard and/or cold surfaces.
Figure 4.5 STANDING WORKSTATION SET UP ( picture
courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation
ergonomics program. Version 1, June 2000.)
.
However there are those tasks that require one to stand and sit routinely and these have special
sitting/standing work stations. Whenever possible, a worker should be able to work sitting or
standing at will.




Ensure that the seat has a minimum width of 40 cm (about 16 in.).
Choose back rests that are contoured vertically and horizontally.
Use a seat covering of non-slip, breathable fabric.
Select seat padding that is about 2-3 cm (1 in.) thick.
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Figure 4.6, stool design (picture courtesy of UNIVERSITY OF
MINESSOTA DULUTH. Occupation ergonomics program.
Version 1, June 2000.)
4.2.3. TOOL DESIGN.
All tools should be correctly designed for various operations. Also, each tool should be
used to perform tasks for which it was designed to perform. For example, one should not
use a flat screw driver to chisel out bits from a work piece.
One should also use the tool in the right way to increase both the tools efficiently and tool
life.
Special care should be taken while using electric and pneumatic tools, to avoid injury to
the operator, destruction of the tool or destruction of the work piece.
4.2.4. LIFTING AND CARRYING AIDS.
When dealing with heavy or bulky work pieces, raw materials and products, operators
should employ the use of lifting aids to avoid back injuries. Such lifting aids include:
i.
Pulleys
ii.
Cranes
iii.
Monorails
iv.
Hoists
v.
Forklifts
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Figure 4.7 work aids.( STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY Department of Environmental
Health and Safety Occupational Safety and Training Ergonomics/Manual Materials
Handling Course number: EOS 011)
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4.2.5. STATIC WORK AIDS.
Static work/jobs are those that do not require a lot of movement. Operators, where
necessary, should use static work aids to prevent both injury and fatigue. Such aids
include:
- Clumps
- Vices
Figure 4.7 STATIC WORK AIDS. ( STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY
Department of Environmental Health and Safety Occupational Safety and
Training Ergonomics/Manual Materials Handling Course number: EOS
011)
4.2.6. CONTROL DISPLAYS SHOULD BE EASILY RECOGNIZED.
These are operational aids that make it easier for operator to work by not memorizing all
the operations to be done. This can be through:
1) Displays being user friendly.
2) Warning signs where necessary example High Voltage signs.
3) Instruction signs should be placed on machines, tools, surfaces to keep operator
aware. This is done for safety and machine life enhancement.
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Example lathe machines, should have instructions stuck on them.
4) Manuals should be easily available to the operator preferably for all the
equipment in the lab or plant. These are also important during trouble shooting.
Figure 4.8 WARNING SIGNS(pictures courtesy of
http//www,Wikipedia.com)
4.2.7. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE ITEMS: MAINLY DEPENDS ON THE
OPERATIONS
4.2.7.1. Protection from Head Injuries
Hard hats can protect workers from head impact, penetration injuries, and
electrical injuries such as those caused by falling or flying objects, fixed objects,
or contact with electrical conductors. Ensure that workers cover and protect long
hair to prevent it from getting caught in machine parts such as belts and chains.
Head protection includes helmets, hard hats, caps depending on operations being
done.
Figure 4.9 Example of hard hat (picture courtesy of
http//www.cromwelltools.com).
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4.2.7.2. Protection from Hearing Loss
Wearing earplugs or earmuffs can help prevent damage to hearing. Exposure to
high noise levels can cause irreversible hearing loss or impairment as well as
physical and psychological stress. Earplugs made from foam, waxed cotton, or
fiberglass wool are self-forming and usually fit well. A professional should fit
your workers individually for molded or preformed earplugs. Clean earplugs
regularly, and replace those you cannot clean.
4.2.7.3. Protection from Hand Injuries
Workers exposed to harmful substances through skin absorption, severe cuts or
lacerations, severe abrasions, chemical burns, thermal burns, and harmful
temperature extremes will benefit from hand protection.
4.2.7.4. Protection from Body Injury
In some cases workers must shield most or all of their bodies against hazards in
the workplace, such as exposure to heat and radiation as well as hot metals,
scalding liquids, body fluids, hazardous materials or waste, and other hazards. In
addition to fire-retardant wool and fire retardant cotton, materials used in wholebody personal protective equipment include rubber, leather, synthetics, and
plastic.
Body protection; Includes overalls, aprons, lab coats, sterile suits
4.2.7. 5. Protection from Eye and Face Injuries
Besides spectacles and goggles, personal protective equipment such as special
helmets or shields, spectacles with side shields, and face shields can protect
workers from the hazards of flying fragments, large chips, hot sparks, optical
radiation, splashes from molten metals,
as well as objects, particles, sand, dirt, mists,
dusts, and glare
4.2.7.6. Protection from Foot and Leg Injuries
In addition to foot guards and safety shoes, leggings (e.g., leather, aluminized
rayon, or other appropriate material) can help prevent injuries by protecting
workers from hazards such as falling or rolling objects, sharp objects, wet and
slippery surfaces, molten metals, hot surfaces, and electrical hazards.
Examples of feet protection includes Steel toed boots, Gumboots, Knee pads
where operator is expected to kneel often.
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4.2.8. EMERGENCY PROTOCOLS
All working spaces should be safe for the workers and this can be insured through:
- Well allocated and clearly labeled exit points
- Well located assembly points for head counts in the case of emergency.
- Proper emergency procedures and actions. This can be practiced regularly through
stimulated drills.
- Proper signs for EXITS, FIRE, ALARMS, ASSEMBLY POINTS
4.2.9. COLOUR CODING
In plants and workshops, colour coding of pipes, holding vessels and other equipment
should be done.
For example: in the case of plants, pipe colour coding that is internationally recognized is
as follows:
Water pipes – Blue pipes.
Fuel pipes
– red, brown pipes.
Hydrants
– red pipes.
Fire Extinguishers Form – Light blue tanks.
Fire Extinguishers Water – red containers with black handles.
Yellow
– Lubrication oil pipes.
Compressed air
– White pipes.
4.2.10. WORK ENVIRONMENT
Following parameters should be kept within permitted levels for human survival thus
measures should be taken to control them. Those are temperature humidity, noise levels,
vibrations, brightness and glove, reflectance and reverberation time.
4.2.11. WORKFORCE CHARACTERISTICS
Ensure the workers ANTHROPOMETRY is known and thus assign work to the workers
with respect to their anthropometry.
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4.3. ERGONOMICS SCIENCE IN THE FIELD (E.g. Construction companies).
Most of the measures taken in the lab/plant/workshop are also applied in the field with major
differences occurring only in a few areas.
4.3.1. Work organization
Just like in the plant, team work is encouraged and workers are advised to consult each
other.
4.3.2. Shift systems
Shift systems are also employed with efficient rest periods set aside.
4.3.3. Working surfaces
In construction sites, work surfaces are either at ground level, on walls or on
overhead/ceilings and here special tools are employed.
4.3.4. Tools design
Ensure correct tool for correct jobs and that tools are of proper design.
4.3.5. Personal protective equipment
Same as those in the lab with a few additions example Hermesses – For workers, working at
elevated heights, hermesses are required to ensure that these workers do not fall. Occupations that
may involve the use of safety harnesses include:




Roofer.
Construction worker.
Crane operator.
Bridge painter.
figure 4.10, SAFETY HEARNESS (http//www,Wikipedia.com)
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Reflective rests- These are worn by all workers at the sign to that crane operators and
other heavy machine operators (example Bulldozers, Earthmovers truck drivers e.t.c) can
easily see their fellow workers and avoid accidents.
Gangways
There should be gangways set aside for the heavy machines and the other workers should
avoid walking on them because at construction sites due to the noise a worker might not
hear an oncoming truck, bulldozer e.t.c.
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CHAPTER 5.
Data was collected by filling in the questionnaire/ergonomics checklist. Each company under
study had its own ergonomics checklist table. On filling the ergonomic checklists the data was
tabulated into table for easier analysis and comparison. The data was entered into the following
ergonomics checklist data analysis table
ERGONOMICS CHECKLIST DATA ANALYSIS TABLE.
Table 5.1. ERGONOMICS CHECKLIST DATA ANALYSIS TABLE.
CHECKLIST
QUESTION
1.
1.1
JOB ANALYSIS.
What are the main
assignments and
segments of the
job?
IBERAFRICA
NAIROBI
SOUTH POWER
PLANT.
SUBWAY
CONSTRUCTIO
N COMPANY.
KAREN ROSES.
SIMWA
ENTERPRISES.
-to generate
electricity and
to maintain the
engines.
-operation
departmentrunning of
machines and
auxiliaries.
Construction
of roads and
houses
Artisan; makes
and fabricates
jikos, oven,
gutters,
brackets,
grills, block
moulds,
wheelbarrow,
gates, doors
and other
metal objects.
-Yes; especially
when
transporting
stones and
other big
metals from
one place to
another.
-Yes- Most of
the work is
procedural.
-The
horticulture
farm involves
the growing of
flower (roses),
the harvesting,
packing and
distribution of
the Roses.
-Packhouse- this
is where the
grading and
packing
happens. Production sidethis is where the
crop is planted.
-No flowers are
not heavy.
1.2
Is there high data
workload?
-yes; there is
high physical
workload, e.g.
tightening of a
rocker arm;
which requires a
force of 300KN.
1.3
Is there high
mental workload?
- Yes. There is a
lot of mental
workload. Most
of the work is
procedural. One
must know all
-Moderate
metal workload
-Yes, the work
is physical, it
involves
cutting of the
sheet metal,
hammering,
bending of the
pipes e.t.c.
-In the design
and
fabrication.
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1.4
1.5
2.
2.1
the procedures.
Work mainly
involves
Does the operator -Very high level
have high level of of
responsibility?
responsibility.
The operator
has to know
everything
about the
machines. The
operator must
ensure that all
the machines
are running
efficiently.
What are the
-Electrical skills.
skills/knowledge
-mechanical
requirements of
skills.
the job?
instrumentation
skills. programming
skills. all the
above have to
work hand in
hand. Fitters
e.g. specialize in
welding,
soldering e.t.c.
WORK
ORGANIZATION.
Does the operator Team work is
work alone or with emphasized.
others?
Spirit of
teamwork is
emphasized.
2.2
Is the work
machine or self
paced?
2.3
What is the system
of supervision and
accountability?
-Both. Machine
based e.g.
grinding of a
work piece. Self
paced.
-There is
supervision. The
workforce is
-Yes. When
operating the
big machines
e.g. shovel.
-Yes. For
example the
pump house
operator has got
to be computer
literate.
Yes, in the
getting of
orders, design,
fabrication
and sales.
Construction
skills and
machine
operating skills
Basic computer.
Data recording.
Flower sorting
and packaging.
Welding.
Founding
techniques.
Ironsmith
blacksmith
The operator
works with
others.
-Works With
others.
-The work is
mainly
machine
oriented.
-Self paced work
-With others,
specialized in
various
responsibility
-Welder
-Ironsmith
-Fabricator
-Machine,
guillotine,
welding
machine
-The workers
are headed by
two
-Pack house
manager.
Section load.
-Self
supervision
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2.4
What shift system
is in operation, if
any?
2.5
What are the
hours of work and
rest periods?
2.6
Is overtime
worked?
divided into
teams and each
team is headed
by supervisor.
The supervisor
initiates any
work to be done
and also
delegates duties
to the team
leader who
works along
with the
technician.
Two-shift
system. At the
moment but it
is normally
dynamic. The
biggest shift
comes in 8 –
pm. Very
productive.
Another group
comes in at 2 10 pm.
Operators shift
is normal.(12
hour shifts- 2
day shifts,2
night shifts
followed by four
days off)
8 hours each
day, tea break –
30 minutes.
Lunch break – 1
hr. very
mandatory for
energy
replenishing.
There is
overtime. It is
mainly worked
to narrow down
on the engine’s
downtime.
Operations
supervisors.
Supervisors.
General
workers.
There is no
shift system
-No shift system
in operation.
No shift
system
operation.
Work begins at
8.00 a.m. and
ends at 5.00
p.m. Rest
periods is
between 12.00
p.m and 1.00
p.m.
Yes. On some
occasions
especially
when there is
work being
done under a
deadline.
Eight hours of
work
-Tea break 15
minutes
-Lunch break 1
hr
Working hours
7.00 am to
6.00 pm with
a one hour
lunch break
from 12.00 –
1.00 p.m.
pay related
No overtime
worked
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2.7
What are the
arrangements for
meal breaks and
refreshments?
2.8
Is there time
pressure due to
deadlines or
meeting
production
targets?
2.9
Is the work carried
out on a work
piece rate?
Does the work
organization
automatically
ensure that
periods of work
and rest occur
naturally, as part
of the work itself?
Is the work
adapted to the
needs of older
workers in terms
of physical and
2.10
2.11
department do
overtime to fill
the positions of
those not in.
Tea break 10 –
10.30 A.M.
maintenance.
Lunch break
1.00 – 2.00 p.m.
enables
technicians to
regain their
energy
There is
deadline mainly
due to
availability. At
any given time
the company
must meet e.g.
90% of
production and
if not, they are
given a penalty
by KPLC. To
avoid this they
must meet all
the deadlines
and produce the
90% of
electricity.
No. Work is
mainly done to
completion.
As part of the
work itself.
When there is
no crisis then
they do it
naturally.
No. emphasizes
is on the work
to be done no
matter the age.
The power plant
Workers go for
lunch break
between 12.00
P.M – 1.00
P.M.
-General
workforce
makes own
arrangement for
meals and
refreshment.
Workers buy
their own
meals and
refreshmen.t
Yes. There’s
pressure to
meet some
deadlines.
Time pressure in
meeting
production
targets
Time pressure
due to
deadlines to
complete
certain orders.
No. Work is
mainly done to
completion.
Yes
Yes. Carried out
on a piece rate
basis.
Yes.
Organization
ensures that.
Yes. Work is
on a piece rate
basis
Yes.
Organization is
automatic.
No adaption,
all workers
work at a same
rate.
No adaption, all
workers work at
a same rate.
Work is highly
physical thus
for older
workers, it
might be
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mental demands?
3.
3.1
WORKSPACE
DESIGN.
Is there sufficient
hours of work and
rest periods?
3.2
Can the worker sit
while working at
all?
3.3
Does the position
of the body
demand static
muscular work?
3.4
Does the
workspace permit
a stable, neutral
posture?
3.5
Is the work surface
appropriate for
the visual and
manual
requirements?
needs a lot of
energy hence
older workers
cannot do the
work.
highly
physically
demanding.
The operator
must sit hence
there is
sufficient space
for them to
work.
The operator
must sit while
working.
Yes
Yes, sufficient
space is
provided e.g
pack house is
spacious enough
for workers.
Yes. The
workers can
work while
seated in the
various. Pump
house operator.
No. the position
does not
demand static
movement.
Sufficient
space for the
operator
work, thought
storage space
is united.
Yes. Most of
artisans work
while seated
For the
technicians,
they require
dynamic
muscular work.
The operators
position
requires static
muscular work.
Yes. For the
control
operators. For
the
maintenance
people
depending on
the type of
work then the
workspace does
not permit a
stable and
neutral posture.
Yes. It is
appropriate.
No. the work
involves a
dynamic
muscular
work.
The workspace
is big enough
to ensure a
neutral
posture.
Permit a stable
neutral position.
Yes it does, a
stable seated
position.
Yes
Yes. It is
appropriate.
Most work is
done on
ground since
the
hammering
cannot be
Yes. This
happens on
some
occasion’s e.g.
when welding.
Yes. Most of
the seated
and standing
work requires
static
muscular
work.
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3.6
Are foot controls
necessary? Do
they permit a
suitable posture?
Are hand controls
correctly placed
and designed to
allow a good
upper limb
posture?
Is the seat height
adjustable?
No.
3.9
Does the chair
have backrest?
Yes
3.10
Can seated
workers use
footrests,
armrests, lumbar
pads if needed?
Are hand tools
correctly
designed?
No footrests.
Armrests
available
Yes
Yes
3.12
Are any parts
exposed to
constant pressure?
3.13
3.14
3.7
3.8
3.11
3.15
Yes
Yes. Mainly
when
operating the
machines.
Yes.
No foot
controls.
done on
cemented
ground.
No. no foot
control is not
necessary.
Yes. Hand
controls are
correctly placed
to allow good
upper limb
posture.
Yes. Seats are
height
adjustable.
Yes, while
working with
the guillotine
and welding
machines.
Chairs available
in the offices all
have backrests.
Yes. Workers in
pump house.
No.chairs are
available.
Yes
Yes
Yes. The arms
and the back
Yes. Mainly
the back and
the shoulders
No
Is adequate
personal
protective clothing
provided where
needed?
Yes
Yes. E.g gloves
and overalls.
Yes. Gloves,
masks, goggles,
gumboots
Is there any
vibration?
Are any surfaces
Yes
No
Yes, hand
tools are
correctly
designed
Yes. In
hammering,
the arms and
back are
exposed to
constant
pressure.
Yes. Personal
protective
clothing such
as gloves and
welding
goggles are
worn.
No vibration.
Cold store is
Yes. Artisans
Yes
Yes
Yes. Most of
the sets of the
machines are
height
adjustable.
Yes
Yes
No
N/A
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4
4.1
4.2
hot enough to
cause burns or
cold enough to
freeze skin?
PHYSICAL
DEMANDS.
Is manual handling
required?
Do large forces
have to be
applied?
cold enough to
freeze
have kilns for
heating metals
and this would
cause burns.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No. products are
light (flowers)
Yes, large
forces are
exerted
Yes. Work
involves
twisting,
bending,
stooping and
reaching.
Both, work is
both static
and dynamic.
4.3
Does the work
involve lifting or
twisting, bending,
stooping, of
reaching?
Yes.
Yes.
No.
4.4
Is muscular work
mainly static or
dynamic?
Are movements
centered around
the mid-point of
the joint range?
Mainly dynamic
Muscular work
is mainly
dynamic
-Yes.
Dynamic
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
Can static work be
eliminated by
providing clamps
or vices?
Can loads be lifted
and carried safely?
Is the workload
greater than 40%
of maximum
aerobic capacity?
Are large or small
muscle groups
involved?
Can the worker
vary the work rate
or take rest
Yes determining
the kind of work
being done. This
depends on the
torque to be
applied e.g
tightening of a
Rocker arm.
Yes
Yes
No
All muscle
groups are
involved in the
manual tasks.
No. work is a
continuous
process so at
Yes
No
Mainly large
muscle groups
No. there are
specific rest
periods.
Yes. Can be
eliminated by
clamps and
vices.
Yes. Loads are
lifted and
carried safely.
Yes
Small muscle
groups
Yes. Operator
controls own
work rate and
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periods at will?
every given
time work must
go on.
Mechanical
maintenance
take rest times
during the rest
periods e.g. the
10:00 o’clock
tea and 1:00
p.m. lunch
break. One
must be
productive for
the 8 hours
holding
everything
constant.
Yes.
4.11
Are lifting aids or
powered tools
available?
4.12
Are cycle times
less than 30 s?
Are job aids
provided to reduce
physical demands?
No.
Are the patterns of
movement
efficient,
inefficient or are
any movements
unnecessary?
Does the task
demand highly
accurate
movements?
N/A
4.13
4.14
4.15
5
5.1
MENTAL
DEMANDS.
Is the mental
workload too high,
Yes, there are
hoists and
mono rails
rest periods.
Yes. E.g.
drilling tools
and grinders.
Yes e.g. cranes
and folk lifts
which help in
lifting heavy
objects.
Mainly
efficient.
No.
Less than 30
seconds.
Yes. Trolleys.
No lifting aids.
Powered tools
involved.
Welding
machine.
Grinders
Electric drills
N/A
Are Efficient
Job aids are
provided e.g
trolleys
,pulleys and
wheelbarrows
Yes.
Depends on the
task being
undertaken,
example
welding
No
No
No
All are
applicable;
About right.
About right.
About right.
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or about right?
5.2
Is the task carried
out at a
predominantly
skill-based, rulebased, or
knowledge-based
level?
5.3
Does the task
place demands on
the perceptual or
attention systems
or on short or long
term memory?
hence people
are allocated
work
differently.
There are some
jobs e.g. when
working on the
governor, and
crank pin a lot
of mental work
is required
because the
torque is
predetermined.
Some jobs do
not require a lot
mental
workload which
are mainly done
by the support
group e.g.
cleaning of the
spare parts.
Attachees also
do work which
require high
mental
workload.
Skill based.
After working
for sometime
one gains the
skills.
Knowledge is
also applied e.g
knowledge on
thermodynamic
s.
Work is mainly
procedural. A
set of
procedures and
work manuals
are used.
Skill based e.g.
operating of
the
earthmovers.
Knowledge
based e.g.
knowledge of
civil
engineering is
required when
surveying the
land to be
constructed.
Work is
procedural,
working with
the
earthmovers,
bulldozers.
Skill based.
Often working
for sometime
gains skill e.g.
sorting, packing.
Skill based
during the
cutting,
welding,
sawing,
riveting.
Short term
memory. Mental
demands
depend on the
level of
responsibility.
Also depends on
No.
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5.4
How must
information be
processed before a
response can be
made?
5.5
Can mental
workload be
reduced using
external memory
aids; predictor
displays decision
support systems,
navigation aids,
etc?
5.6
Does the operator
have to carry out
more than one
task at a time and
are the task
modalities
compatible?
Work is done on
a breakdown.
The technician
will report to a
team leader
who reports to
the supervisor.
The work orders
has a procedure
on how the
work should be
done. This
needs a work
permit. The
supervisor is the
one who
generates the
work orders and
reports to the
manager.
The plant is 90%
automated
hence the use
of external
memory aids
and SCADA
operating
systems that is
they link the
operator and
the machinery.
No decision
support
systems. The
decision maker
is the operator.
Yes depending
on the nature of
the task e.g.
when working
in a centrifuge
which requires a
cleaning
procedure while
another person
is using it
simultaneously.
Information is
passed
through a
chain of
command.
Director –
supervisor –
foreman.
experience.
-order is
received and
goes through
the pack house
manager,
section head,
supervisors and
finally to the
general workers
N/A
There’s use of
external hard
disks which
stores all the
important
information of
the company.
Yes. Navigation
aids are
employed.
N/A
No. the
operators
specialize on
different tasks.
Rarely does one
do one task at a
time. Many
tasks
undertaken.
Yes operator
can carry out
more than one
task at a time.
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5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
Are the sequences
of mental
operations
compatible with
the physical
layout?
Is the
representation of
the system
compatible with
the operator’s
representation?
Does information
from different
channel/modalitie
s have to be
integrated?
Are great demands
made on visual
search, can cueing
be used to reduce
these?
In the control
room one can
also
communicate
while
performing
another task.
Internal report
and
communicating
with KPLC.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
N/A
Yes
N/A
Yes
No.
Yes
N/A
N/A
N/A
Great demands
on visual search,
inspecting the
rose stalks.
E.g. pack house
is arranged to
satisfy the
operator’s/work
ers needs.
Yes, in the pump
house.
Yes, demands
are made on
visual
searches. E.g.
quality checks
are mainly
visual.
No.
5.11
Is proper feedback
provided in
accordance with
task demands?
Yes.
Yes.
5.12
Can controls,
displays, and task
demand be
recognized easily
and is proper
support provided?
Does the task
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes. But some
5.13
No.
Decision support Yes, require
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5.14
6
6.1
require a high level
of individual
judgment, can
decision support
be provided?
Are memory aids
hard-wired into
the design of the
hardware,
software, and
work
organization?
HUMAN MACHINE
INTERACTION.
Does information
presented satisfy
the operator’s
requirement?
6.2
Is the rate of
information flow
too high or too
low?
6.3
How many sources
of information
does the operator
use to work?
6.4
Are data readily
available, in the
right form and
unambiguous?
tasks require
decisions to be
made as a
group.
can be provided
by use of
software.
high level of
individual
judgment.
Yes.
Yes e.g. flash
disks drives
which are used
to store the
company’s
documents.
Yes. The
computer aided
pump has
memory cards.
No.
Yes. Warning
signs and
instructions on
all equipment.
Also user
manuals
provided.
Sufficient.
Yes. Warning
signs and
instructions on
all equipment.
Also user
manuals
provided.
The rate of
information
flow is
moderate.
Yes. Warning
signs and
instructions on
all equipment.
Also user
manuals
provided.
Average.
No. most of
the machines
do not have
instruction or
warning signs
on them.
Incumbents –
people who
know the work.
Service
manuals.
SCADA
operating
system.
In the right form
and readily
available
Material gotten
is real and
The building
manuals and
plans are the
main sources
of information.
Information
from
equipment,
reports from
fieldworks,
instructions
from the
manager
Yes.
Yes, Data is
available in the
right form,
technical
drawing.
The
information
flow rate is
just about
right.
Although
when large
orders are
made, it might
tend towards
high and vice
versa in items
of low orders.
Multiple
sources e.g
depends on
customers
specifications.
Also there are
the standard
specifications.
Data is
available in
the right form,
technical
drawing.
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6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
Are data
embedded in
noise?
Are there many
distractions due to
noise speech or
other
disturbances?
Is the layout of
control and
displays
compatible with
prevailing
stereotypes?
Are controls close
to their
corresponding
displays?
Are controls /
display ratio and
control dynamics
compatible with
system order?
Is there “grain
size” of feedback
appropriate for
the control actions
and the decisions
that have to be
made?
Does the operator
have to monitor
several channels
simultaneously?
based on facts
happening on
the ground.
No.
N/A
No.
Yes, work area
is noisy.
No.
Yes,
distractions
due to noise
from other
artisans
working.
Yes.
Yes. Most of
the machines
e.g the roller,
and the
compressor
vibrate and
produce a lot
of noise.
No.
Yes. There is
manual
operations and
literate.
N/A
Yes.
No.
Yes.
N/A
Yes.
No.
Yes.
N/A
It is adequate. If
you cannot
depend on that
information
there is no
other place to
get it.
The operator
can multitask.
This is because
events happen
in a flash e.g.
when the
engine trips
(starts to fail or
cease) there are
many alarms
that go off
yes.
yes.
Yes.
No.
Yes. Sometimes
No
No.
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hence one must
know which one
went off first.
Yes.
No.
Yes.
6.12
Are warnings,
instructions and
other displays
suitably designed
and accessible?
6.13
Does the system
provide timely
feedback or other
indications of
response
adequacy?
Are verbal
instructions/displa
ys in the correct
language and
easily
comprehensible?
Is humancomputer
dialogues user
friendly?
Yes.
N/A
Yes. Incase of
breakdown the
machine will
send an alarm
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes, artisans
understand
each other
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Is the human
interaction style
appropriate given
the expertise of
users?
Are colors used in
appropriate way?
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Artisans
(most) do not
employ
computers.
Those who do,
yes dialogue is
user friendly.
Where
applicable yes
Yes.
Yes.
No, water
pipes are not
painted (for
example)
Are coding
systems
compatible with
human memory
limitations?
Do the task
demands form a
predictable
Yes.
Yes e.g. the
five
extinguishers
are all colored
red.
N/A
Yes.
N/A
Critical path
analysis – Some
activities take 2
Yes, some
tasks must be
complete
Yes
Tasks are
repetitive and
follow the
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
6.18
6.19
No, warning
and
instructions
are not
suitably
designed and
accessible.
N/A
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pattern of stimuli
and response?
7.
7.1
WORK
ENVIRONMENT.
Are temperature,
noise, lighting, and
vibration within
recommended
limits?
days while
others even 7
days depending
on the task
being dealt with
some task
demands have a
predictive
pattern of
responses.
before others
can begin.
High
temperatures
due to exhaust
temperatures,
though
ventilation fans
are installed to
reduce such
temperatures.
High noise
levels from
engines, though
ear plugs and
ear muffs
provided
Lighting is Ok.
Vibrations due
to the engines,
G9-10 and NSSP
II installed on
springs.
No.
No.
Yes.
No. Kilns are
not
sufficiently
insulated, no
controls for
noise levels,
poor lighting
and vibrations
are not within
limits.
No.
No.
Yes e.g. when
starting the
machines.
Temperatures
vary
throughout
the day but
there are no
hot or cool
spots.
No.
Yes, excessive
brightness
From the
welding torch.
Yes, form the
hammering,
sawing e.t.c
Yes.
Temperatures
vary
throughout
the day.
7.2
Is there excessive
brightness or glare
in the workspace?
7.3
Are there sudden
loud noise?
Yes.
7.4
Does temperature
vary throughout
the day and are
there hot or cool
spots?
Yes.
same
procedure.
Temperatures
are average
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7.5
Are there
reflective surfaces
or hot or cold
surfaces?
7.6
Does the room
have appropriate
reverberation
time?
7.7
Are the colors and
reflectances of the
objects in the
environment
appropriate for
the work?
Are the relative
humidity and
ventilation
satisfactory
Are protective
clothing and
devices available
for workers in
extreme
environment?
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
Can exposure be
reduced by taking
rest periods in
suitable areas or
by rotating
workers?
Are there toxic or
radioactive
Hot surfaces like
the lining on
steam tubing,
exhaust
manifold.
The room have
appropriate
reverberation
times. Sound
absorbing
surfaces
installed,
engines
positioning.
Colours are
appropriate
There is also
colour coding of
pipes
Yes there are
reflective
surfaces.
Cold surfaces
like in the cold
room.
Yes. The raw
material,
which is iron
sheets are
hot.
-work space
are open
stalls, thus
reverberation
time within
limits.
N/A
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
No, some
parts are
reflective that
they cause
glare.
Yes.
N/A
Yes.
Most artisans
work in open
spaces.
Yes. Workers
must always be
in safety
equipment such
as safety boots,
hardhats/helme
ts,
earmuffs/plugs,
gloves, safety
harness,
goggles, safety
masks.
yes e.g.
helmets,
gloves,
overalls and
safety belts.
Yes.
helmets, gloves,
overalls and face
masks.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Not sufficient,
protective
clothing and
devices are
employed
where they
are absolutely
necessary e.g.
welding
goggles.
However
gloves, safety
belts, ear
plugs are not
employed.
Yes.
Toxic chemicals
such as those
No toxic or
radioactive
No radioactive
chemicals. Toxic
No radioactive
chemicals.
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chemicals or other
hazards in the
work
environment?
7.12
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
Are warning sign
or other notices
placed in
appropriate
places?
WORKFORCE
CHARACTERISTICS.
Is the
anthropometry of
the workforce
known?
Are workers
mainly male or
female?
What language(s)
are spoken
proficiently by the
workers?
8.4
What is the
average age of the
workers?
8.5
What is the
educational level
of workers?
8.6
Are all workers
literate?
What is the level
of health and
fitness in the
workforce?
8.7
for cleaning R.O
plant (Reverse
Osmosis plant),
dies.
No radioactive
chemicals
Other hazards,
exhaust fumes,
high pressure
explosions.
Yes.
chemicals.
Other hazards
however
include falling
debris, sharp
objects such as
iron sheets,
glass, metal
rods.
chemicals are
there in the
field.
However
there are toxic
paints and
sharp objects
lying around.
No.
Yes.
No.
Yes.
No.
No.
No.
Male.
Mainly male.
Mainly female.
Mainly male.
Swahili and
English.
Kiswahili and
mother
tongue.
Kiswahili and
their local
languages.
Ranges
between 24
years – 45
years.
Degrees, higher
diplomas,
diplomas,
certificates, high
school
certificates.
Yes.
30
25 – 40 yrs.
English,
Swahili and
artisans
mother
tongue.
19-40 years.
Thus average
of 25 years.
Degrees,
diplomas,
certificates,
high school
certificates.
Degrees, Junior
workers –
secondary
education and
primary
education.
Yes.
Certificate and
diploma levels
Healthy and fit
workforce.
Most of them
are healthy
and fit because
the work is
physically
demanding
Average fitness.
Workers
undergo medical
check-up before
employment.
Relatively
healthy as
work is labor
intensive
Yes.
No.
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8.8
Are the workers
suitably
nourished?
Yes.
8.9
Are the workers
mainly full-time,
part-time or
seasonal?
JOB STRESS.
Does the user have
sufficient resource
to do the work?
Are proper system
of appraisal and
feedback in place?
Majority are full
time
Seasonal
Contractual
9.
9.1
use e.g.
carrying of big
stones.
Yes. They take
tea back at 1010.30 and
lunch break
from 1 – 2
p.m.
Mainly
fulltime.
Yes.
Yes.
Full time
Full time
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes.
Yes. This is
done by the
directors
through the
supervisors.
No, workers
have no one
to complain to
or represent
them.
Is the employee’s
work role clear
and unambiguous?
Are performance
standards clear
and unambiguous?
Yes.
Yes.
Yes. There are
appraisal forms
filled by the
workers and
taken to the
managers for
approval.
The worker’s
role is clear.
Yes.
Yes.
They are clear
9.5
Are the standards
realistic or
constraints too
limiting?
Realistic
standards.
They are
realistic because
they are
normally met.
9.6
Is the system of
work likely to
cause conflict
(work-life
balance)?
Realistic
standards,
incase of
emergency
deadlines
required to be
met i.e varies
on situations.
Depends on
circumstances,
incase of
emergency,
workers are
expected to be
on call at all
times.
No. Workers
just judged on
their output
and its quality.
Standards are
realistic.
No.
No.
9.2
9.3
9.4
It is clear.
Yes. Long
days.
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9.7
10
.
10.1
10.2
10.3
Is support from
peers and
supervisors
available?
OCCUPATIONAL
BACKGROUND.
Is the work system
the result of
traditional or
custom and
practice?
Has the work been
planned from the
beginning with the
operator in mind?
Is training formal
or “on the job”? Is
it adequate?
Yes.
Yes.
Yes. There are
welfare teams
which cater for
the social wellbeing of the
workers.
Yes, support
from peers
and
supervisions is
available.
Standard work
also as tradition
and customary
practices.
It’s a result of
tradition
practice but
also employs
the use of
modern
machines and
equipment.
Yes
No.
Yes. Artisans
make
‘traditional’
objects say
jikos, grills,
boxes and
drums.
Yes
Both. Some
operators have
formal training
e.g. the
supervisors
while other
are trained “on
the job” e.g.
the foremen.
There is formal
and ‘on the job’
training. They
are both
adequate.
Formal training
agriculturally
trained for the
senior worker.
The average
workers are
trained on the
job.
No. concern is
mainly on
finishing the
work.
Both; most of
it is adequate.
Designed with
operators in
mind.
Training is both
formal and on
the job.
Yes the formal
and ‘on job’
training is
adequate. Also
depends on
individual’s
qualifications.
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CHAPTER 6.
RECOMMENDATIONS TABLE
USING THE ERGOMICS CHECKLIST ANALSIS TABLE, it was possible, from comparison
with the multinational company, to make recommendations for the other industries under study.
The recommendations were entered into the recommendations tables below.
6.1. SIMWA ENTERPRISES: JUA KALI INDUSTRY.
Table 6.1, recommendations table for SIMWA ENTERPRISES.
1. Work organization.
Recommendations.
Section 2.3
Recommend some form of supervision as opposed to the
existing system where artisan answers to no one. By having
supervision, the workers productivity, efficiency and
quality of work is up to standard.
Section 2.5
With respect to the hours of rest periods, workers/artisans
should have designated rest periods such as mid morning
breaks, lunch break.
These rest periods are important in that the workers get
rejuvenated and thus their productivity stays high.
2. Work space design.
Section 3.1
Recommend that artisan designates a space in the stall for
storage because presently, his work space also doubles as
his storage space.
Having a designated work space and a storage area will
reduce clutter in the work environment.
Section 3.5
Employing more sufficient work surface, such as flat
plunks of wood to do the hammering on. As opposed to the
present system where the artisans work on the ground.
Section 3.12
Recommend back support in the form of back braces while
hammering for long, lifting heavy weights and pushing or
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pulling heavy material or equipment.
3. Physical demands.
Section 4.3
Employ pulleys, hoists to assist in lifting and carrying the
materials. Due to financial constraints, these lifting aids
can be shared by a number of artisans.
4. Mental demands.
Section 5.11
Recommend that artisans put in a feedback system in place
to follow up o the product and know if consumers are
satisfied and what improvement can be done.
This form of feedback improves the quality of goods
produced.
5. Human machine interaction.
Section 6.1
Warnings and instructions signs should be attached to all
the machines and equipment under use, so as to enhance
safety and proper us of equipment increases life span.
Section 6.3
Artisans should organize a single source of information
such as a reference instruction manual where all artisans
can refer to when in need.
This prevents the artisans from guess work or using
untested improvision.
Section 6.17
Use of colour coding for example water pipes may be
painted blue, dangerous equipment labeled with red
warning signs.
This makes it easier for the workers to do work more
efficiently as opposed to having to test everything before
using it.
6. Work environment.
Section 7.1
Sufficient lagging on kiln to insulate from burns.
Improve lighting; plastic iron sheets
Use of dampers to reduce vibrations; improvise by using
old tyres as damper to reduce vibration.
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The above precautions are meant to reduce health hazards.
Section 7.11
Proper waste disposal of chemical paints and sharp metal
sheets.
These are health hazards to both the workers and the
prospective buyers
7. Job stress.
Section 9.2
A union should be put in place to represent the workers.
Unions are the representatives to the workers within the
working sector.
Summary
Personal protective equipment
Back support.
Gloves.
Safety boots.
Overalls.
Helmet and hardhats.
Ear plugs.
Face masks.
Workspace design and safety
Proper storage of materials and tools.
Waste disposal.
Fire extinguishers and or sand buckets.
Accessibility into stalls incase need to fight fires.
Proper lighting, through windows e.t.c.
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6.2. KAREN ROSES.
Table 6.2, recommendations table for KAREN ROSES.
Section 6.12
Recommendations.
Though warnings are suitably designed, the
warning on the Green house doors should be
bigger and color coded e.g. Red for “Do Not
Enter” and green for “Safe to Enter”.
The computers and computer desks should be
placed in an ergonomically correct position.
This is to increase efficiency and reduce
MSDs.
Recommend that the management to rotated
the work force. As observed, the workers at
Karen roses do repetitive jobs. By the work
force doing repetitive or routine jobs, they are
more likely to be exposed to the risk of MSDs.
Recommend a health and safety routine where
selected workers undergo training in first aid
and fire fighting technique. The first aid
training is in the case of chemical poisoning or
allergic reactions.
This training should be practiced in the form of
drills held randomly and frequently.
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6.3. SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION.
Table 6.3, recommendations table for SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION.
1. Work organization.
Section 2.4
Recommendations.
Recommend that they employ a shift system
that is to have two groups working in the
morning and one in the afternoon. This would
increase efficiency owing to the highly
physical nature of the work.
2. Health and safety.
Section 3.12
Recommend that to avoid back pains/injuries
the workers should be subjected to a medical
checkup of at least once a month.
should employ the use of back brace during
heavy lifting.
Should Train the workforce on health and
safety, (first aid and safety precaution)
3. Human machine interaction.
Section 6.12
Recommend proper design of warning display
signs and instructions e.g. in the case of
building a structure they should have clear
signs warning the public of falling objects. Or
in the case of road construction they should put
clear warning signs showing that the road is
closed instead of putting large stones which
could be dangerous to motorists at night.
4.
Work environment
Section 7.9
-For safety purposes the construction workers
should wear protective clothing e.g. overalls,
safety boots and helmets to avoid injuries.
-When working at night, the workers should
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wear reflective vests.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BOOKS.
1. UNIVERSITY OF MINESSOTA DULUTH.
Occupation ergonomics program.
Version 1, June 2000.
2. STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY
Department of Environmental Health and Safety
Occupational Safety and Training
Ergonomics/Manual Materials Handling
Course number: EOS 011
3. INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMIC
Third edition.
R.S. BRIDGER.
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis group.
4. EVALUATION OF HUMAN WORK.
A practical ergonomics methodology.
Edited by John R. Wilson and E. Nigel Corlett.
Taylor & francis group.
5. Delleman, N.J., Haslegrave, C.M., nad Chaffin, D.B. eds. 2004
WORKING POSTURES AND MOVEMENTS.
CRC press, LLC. Boca Raton, Florida.
6. Karwowski, W. (ed). 2001.
INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS.
Taylor & Francis, London.
7. Kirwan, B. and Ainssworth, L. 1992.
A GUIDE TO TASK ANALYSIS.
Taylor & Francis, London.
8. Mansfield, N.J. 2005.
HUMAN RESPONSE TO VIBRATION.
CRC press, LLC. Boca Raton, Florida.
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9. Oxenburgh, M., Marlow, P., and Oxenburgh, A. 2004.
INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH HEALTH AND SAFETY.
2nd Edition. CRC press, LLC. Boca Raton, Florida.
JOURNALS
Human factors
Ergonomics
International journal of industrial Ergonomics
Applied Ergonomics
Human Computer interaction
Work and stress
Ergonomics in design
SOCIETIES.
International Ergonomics Association
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
The Ergonomics Society.
WEB SITES/WEB PAGES.
http//www.Cromwell tools.com
http//Wikipedia.com
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