UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
DESIGN OF THE TRANSPORT NETWORK FOR THE
NAIROBI COUNTY
PROJECT NO: GN 03/2012
This project report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering.
By
MWAI DANSON WAWERU
F18/1882/2007
Supervised by: ENG. G. M. NYORI
MAY 2012
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
DECLARATION Except where indicated and acknowledged, I certify that this work is my original work and has
not been present before for academic purposes to the best of my knowledge
MWAI DANSON WAWERU
F18/1882/2007
Signature:………………………..
Project Supervisor: Eng G. M. NYORI
Signature:………………………..
Date of submission:……………………………..
i
DEDICATION This project is dedicated to my mum, siblings, friends and relatives who have been so supportive
in every way during my academic years. Also to the future generations and inhabitants of
Nairobi to whom we owe a better habitation by the kind of decisions we make today regarding
our environment.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To The Lord Almighty, who enabled me all through. Glory to Him.
I also express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Eng. George M. Nyori whose
encouragement, advise, direction and motivation can only be termed priceless. You’ve been
more of a father to me.
Am also grateful to every person who assisted in making this work a reality. Special gratitude to
Eng. Mwangi of Kenya Railways and Eng. Gitau of the Ministry of Transport who assisted with
information and guidance on how to approach the project. Your contribution was timely.
Also to my friends and classmates who gave me moral support during the project. Special
mention of Jane Mueni and Eunice Jimmy. Your support was invaluable.
God bless you all.
iii
ABBREVIATION BRT
- Bus Rapid Transit
CBD
- Central Business District
CBS
- Central Bureau of Statistics
CCN
- City Council of Nairobi
HOV
- High Occupancy Vehicles
ITS
- Intelligent Transport System
JICA
- Japan International Cooperation Agency
KENHA
- Kenya National Highways Authority
KIPPRA
- Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis
KNBS
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
KURA
- Kenya Urban Roads Authority
NEMA
- National Environment Management Authority
NMT
- Non – Motorized Transport
PSV
- Public Service Vehicles
iv
List of figures Figure 2.1 : Fluid flow analogy ........................................................................................... 5
Figure 30.1: Population of individual constituencies within Nairobi county (source of
data: KNBS) ...................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 0.2: Traffic Volumes per day on main roads (Source JICA, 2006) ...................... 28
Figure 0.3: Average number of accidents reported annually (city council of Nairobi) .... 30
Figure 0.1: the State of Congestion in Nairobi Transport Network .................................. 35
Figure 0.2: Level of Satisfaction with the implementation of projects ............................. 39
Figure 0.4: funtional concept of ITS measures ................................................................. 62
List of tables Table 0.1: Sampling Schedule ........................................................................................... 18
Table 0.2: Administrative Division of Nairobi City (Source: Parliamentary
Constituencies, 6th Edition 2002) ..................................................................................... 22
Table 0.3: Nairobi Population and distribution. (Source: CBS 2009)............................... 23
Table 0.4: poverty line (Source: CBS 2003c) ................................................................... 25
Table 0.5: modal split (Source: JICA, 2006)..................................................................... 31
Table 0.6: Daily trip generation by purpose (JICA 2006) ................................................. 32
Table 0.1: Factors of Congestion....................................................................................... 36
v
List of maps Map 3.1: Map of Nairobi County showing the three districts and 8 constituencies
(adopted from KNBS) ....................................................................................................... 22 Map 3.2: Map showing the major roads linking Nairobi County to the neighbouring areas
........................................................................................................................................... 26 Map 3.3: showing the major roads in Nairobi County ...................................................... 27 Map 3.4: proposed Eastern, Southern and Northern bypasses under construction (Source:
Ministry of Roads) ............................................................................................................. 29 Map 3.5: Nairobi city commuter train network map showing the already existing and
proposed new railway lines. .............................................................................................. 31 Map 3.6: Proposed railway link between JKIA, Syokimau and Embakasi stations for the
commuter train ................................................................................................................... 32 List of photos photo 3.1: Encroachment of the railway reserve land by human settlements and activities
in slum areas ...................................................................................................................... 25 photo 4.1: ITS application in Munich................................................................................ 63 photo 5.1: a bumpy section of road near Ngara, Nairobi .................................................. 65 photo 5.2: heavy trucks causing congestion to be allowed on some roads only during offpeak times .......................................................................................................................... 65 photo 5.3: flooded bus terminal in railways bus stage ...................................................... 66 photo 5.4: railway station environment a bee hive of activities ....... Error! Bookmark not
defined. vi
ABSTRACT The aim of this project was to find solutions to the congestion experienced in the transport
network in Nairobi and thereby increase the mobility in the network.
A brief introduction to the project, including the problem statement and the objectives is given in
chapter one of this project.
Varying background information related to the same project has been explained in the second
chapter – literature review. Here, some definitions are given to some of the terms that form the
structure of a transport network.
In Chapter three, the methodology used in the approach of this project is given explaining the
method used for data collection and the challenges faced in the same. The survey taken in the
analysis of the transport network in this project is also explained in this chapter, describing the
approach to the survey and the sample targeted.
The results obtained for this project are given and analyzed in the fourth chapter. Various
responses from the survey have also been given here. The solutions were analyzed on the basis
of their applicability to Nairobi, considering the demographic, spatial and economic factors for
the city and the potential these solutions have to achieving the objective and hence improving the
state of the network.
Recommendations were also made on some of the areas that need to further be explored either in
a further study or otherwise, leading to its implementation. Illustrations were used where
necessary.
vii
Table of Contents DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. i
DEDICATION................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... iii
ABBREVIATION .......................................................................................................... iv
List of figures............................................................................................................... v
List of tables ................................................................................................................ v
List of maps ................................................................................................................ vi
List of photos .............................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. vii
1.0
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 SCOPE OF STUDY .................................................................................................. 2
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ....................................................................................... 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 2
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Mobility .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1.2 Urban transportation ........................................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Congestion Defined ............................................................................................ 4
2.2 Lighthill & Whitham and Richard’s Fluid Analogy ................................................. 4
2.3 Transport Planning Process ....................................................................................... 6
2.4 Sustainability and Transportation .............................................................................. 7
2.5 Relationship between Land Use and Transport Planning ......................................... 8
2.6 Systems Approach to transport planning................................................................... 8
2.6.1 Stages in Transport Planning ............................................................................ 10
viii
2.7 Performance Measures for Transport System ......................................................... 16
3.0
METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH ................................................................. 17
3.1 Sampling procedure: ................................................................................................ 18
3.1.1 Primary Data:.................................................................................................... 19
3.1.2 Secondary Data:................................................................................................ 19
3.2 Data Analysis and Presentation: .............................................................................. 19
3.3 Limitations and Challenges: .................................................................................... 20
3.4 Case Study: Nairobi ................................................................................................. 21
3.4.1 Introduction to the Study Area ......................................................................... 21
3.5 National Legislation Policies ................................................................................... 33
4.0
FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................... 35
4.1 Survey Findings ....................................................................................................... 35
4.1.1 Perceived Level of Congestion in Nairobi ....................................................... 35
4.1.2 Factors of Congestion ....................................................................................... 36
4.1.3 On – going projects .......................................................................................... 38
4.1.4 Improvements Recommended by the Respondents towards a congestion free
network: ..................................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Causes of Congestion .............................................................................................. 42
4.3 Analysis of various solutions................................................................................... 46
4.3.1 Ensuring a safe environment for sharing of the road. ...................................... 46
4.3.2 Utilizing the benefits of available capacity: ..................................................... 49
4.3.3 Promoting Public Transport ............................................................................. 53
4.3.4 Conversion of some routes to accommodate Bus Rapid Transit: .................... 54
4.3.5 Application of Information Technology in Transportation .............................. 62
ix
5.0
RECCOMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 64
6.0
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 68
x
1.0 INTRODUCTION Urban transportation has influenced the formation of many cities in the world. There is an
increase of travel demands and the vehicles are now forced to travel for longer distances, most of
the times with a destination in urban towns. A bigger population is also opting to live in
urbanized towns. All these lead to a situation where the transport network is not able to handle
the growing transport demands of the cities.
Worse still is the congested state of the cities due to low mobility on the roads which are
supposed to aid the movement of goods and people. Improved economic status and the rapid
urbanization have led to unbearable conditions in many cities all across the world. The challenge
is reflected in the efficient provision of social amenities such as education, health care, water and
transportation in congested cities. Nairobi is one city experiencing such challenges related to
congestion.
There is a high rate of growth of the city as more people prefer to live in urban areas again due to
the ease of access to social amenities and the high economic levels. The economic system is also
in such a way that almost every office is situated in the city. Industries, big markets, shops, etc
also compete for the same space. This ends up attracting so many people into the city. The
offices themselves have a definite time of opening and closing forming what is referred to as the
working hours with a big population being forced to travel to school, work places, hospitals
offices, markets and other trip generation zones in the morning and back home in the evening,
with little activity on the roads during the off-peak times of the day and during the nights. There
is therefore heavy traffic during these times, more than the roads’ capacity, and these results in
great traffic congestion. Also, vehicles are driven carelessly resulting in numerous accidents and
incidents which add to the congestion problem.
Great losses are therefore experienced in terms of ‘economically productive’ hours on the roads
in traffic jams. Many people have reported having been late or even failing to reach the intended
destinations due to congestion.
In view of these congestion-related challenges, there is need to explore solutions which include,
in addition to the expansion and building of new infrastructure, effective and efficient
management of the existing infrastructure, controlled urban planning and growth, management
and promotion of public transportation modes [1].
1
1.1 SCOPE OF STUDY This project was to develop the transport network design for Nairobi County. The goals of the
project were to find alternatives to solve the congestion problems experienced in Nairobi County.
The solution should therefore have the potential to increase the mobility in the transport network,
if implemented.
The area of study was the Nairobi County. Due to the vast nature of the county and the complex
nature of the transport network in the county, the study was limited to the major arterials linking
Nairobi County to its environs.
The solution should also solve the congestion caused by the motorized transport in the city while
at the same time considering the health of the non – motorized modes of transport.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT The transport network in Nairobi is experiencing very low traffic mobility due to the current high
levels of congestion.
1.3 OBJECTIVES To find solutions that will reduce congestion and hence increase mobility in the transport
network in Nairobi County.
2
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Travel demand is a derived demand and the urban activities do cause and generate travel needs.
Globally, there is a great contribution of service sectors which are urban centric and thus
improvement of the urban sector takes precedence [2]. Transportation in almost all big cities in
the world is a critical and major concern. Due to the rapid and uncontrolled urban and vehicle
growth, there has been a notable impact to the economy of nations either positively or
negatively.
Various methods have therefore been developed to develop and manage the transportation
systems of various cities in the world. One of the major areas of concern is the mobility of the
network.
2.1.1 Mobility Mobility is considered to describe the efficient movement of goods and people. It is therefore not
limited to just the movement of vehicles. We are therefore able to define how many people are
transported by a given mode of travel rather than how many vehicles are flowing in a network.
To increase the mobility of a network, a public service bus may therefore be preferred to private
cars since the former is able to ferry many people at once, rather than the car which will only
carry the owner, and hence many will be needed to ferry the same number served by one bus.
Mobility is different from accessibility in that accessibility refers to the ability to reach
opportunities that are beneficial, and not the movement itself. Mobility therefore aids
accessibility in that it provides a means of accessing services, goods and contacts.
2.1.2 Urban transportation Urban transport may be organized in three broad categories: collective, individual and freight
transportation. In some cases, the three may be complementary to one another, but in most cases,
they compete for the available space and infrastructure.
• Collective transportation (public transit): the purpose of collective transportation is to
provide publicly accessible mobility over specific parts of a city. Its efficiency is in
transporting large numbers of people and achieving economies of scale. A high capacity
bus is hence seen in this sense as being more efficient than a personal car.
• Individual transportation: it includes any mode where mobility is the outcome of a
personal choice and means such as personal cars, walking, cycling, motorcycles etc. this
mode varies in usage from city to city due to the policies in place, the nature of the
transport system and the culture of the people.
3
• Freight transportation: since cities are the dominant centers of production and
consumption, urban activities are often accompanied by large movements of freight.
These movements often are characterized by heavy delivery trucks moving between
industries, distribution centers, warehouses and retail activities. These require enough
space for loading and offloading and could otherwise block the flow of other traffic.
2.1.3 Congestion Defined Congestion can be defined as a situation where the demand for road space exceeds the supply.
This definition tries to make use of the two central characteristics of congestion, namely: the
inadequacy of available road space for use, and the demand. It therefore goes further than just
describing the capacity of a roadway network, and give room for the individual choice of the trip
and the mode of transport to use, which may increase the demand on some roadways while
reducing the same in others. Traffic demand varies with the time of the day, day of the week,
season of the year while at the same time fluctuating due to recreational travel, special events
and emergencies. Dargay J. M. and Goodwin P. B. [3] gave another definition which goes more
into the details of the traffic demand at a certain capacity, stating that:
“Congestion is the impedance vehicles impose on each other, due to the speed – flow
relationship, in conditions where the use of a transport system approaches its capacity.”
Two attributes of congested roads are here defined, one of which is the effect of vehicles on the
network, especially the impact a new vehicle imposes on the already circulating ones, while the
other point is on the speed –flow relationship.
2.2 Lighthill & Whitham and Richard’s Fluid Analogy Several stochastic models have been developed to analyze traffic networks in different
configurations. Where the population is sufficiently large, these processes tend towards a
continuum approach and hence they can be solved using a continuously flowing fluid analogy.
This approach is most useful when considering long, densely populated roads. The limitation of
this approach is that it becomes invalid when the population becomes sparse.
The most elementary continuum traffic flow model was the first order model developed by
Lighthill & Whitham [4] and Richards [5] which is referred to as LWR model. It is based on the
assumption that the number of vehicles is conserved between any two points if there are no
entrances (sources) or exits (sinks). It is given as shown below:
(1)
4
Considering a small interval of road, between x = x1 and x = x2, and assuming that the number of
vehicles in this portion of road is conserved, at any one point in time, the change in the number
of cars within the interval is given by the number of cars entering at x1 and leaving at x2 as
shown in the fig below:
A segment of road between x = x1 and x = x2. The flow in at x1 is given by q(x1; t), and
the flow out at x2 is given by q(x2; t). The vehicle density in the region is given by ρ(x;
t). As the number of vehicles is conserved, the change in the total number of vehicles
within the region, given by the rate of change of the integral of vehicle density over the
road interval, is equal to the outwards vehicle flow at x2 subtracted from the inwards
vehicle flow at x1.
Figure 22.21 : Fluid flow analogy
If there are no cars present on the road, there will obviously be no flow. However, the model is
not valid at low traffic densities [6] and hence this condition is not strictly necessary.
We also assume that there is some density ρ = ρj such that traffic may no longer flow, referred to
as the jam density.
Further, the flow rate must be positive in 0 < ρ < ρj, and the flow must be continuous on the same
range, 0 < ρ < ρj
Another assumption is that the flow is concave, or q” (ρ) < 0.
Hence, from the above, it can be concluded that for some density ρ = ρm, the flow rate must be a
maximum. This is assumed to be the unimpeded flow rate on the road described by the
relationship between the density and the flow rate
5
q
qm
0
ρm
ρj
ρ
Figure 2.2 : A possible relationship between flow rate (q) and density (ρ)
This relationship is set to satisfy the no flow condition at ρ = 0 and ρ = ρj. Flow rate q is
maximum at ρ = ρm
Assuming that q = q (ρ), the LWR model may also be expressed as shown below:
(2)
And hence the behavior of the traffic transfer equation would be wavelike, with a wave speed
dependent on the relationship between the flow rate and the density.
2.3 Transport Planning Process Transportation helps shape an area’s economical health and quality of life. Transport systems not
only provides for the mobility of people and goods, it also influences the patterns of growth and
economic activities by providing access to land. The performance of such transport systems
affects public policy concerns such as air quality, environmental resource consumption, social
equity, land use, urban growth, economic development, safety and security.
To understand the nature of the challenges such as congestion, lacks of safety, degeneration of
the environment, etc. experienced in the transport networks and formulate proposals for the safe
and efficient movement of goods and people from one place to another, a process referred to as
transportation planning may be employed. It is a field involved with the evaluation, assessment,
design and siting of transportation facilities [7] (generally streets, highways, footpaths, bike lanes
and public transport lines). It seeks to study the problems that arise in providing transportation
facilities in an urban, regional or national setting and to prepare a systematic basis for planning
such facilities. The principles of urban transport planning can be applied to regional or national
transport planning as well with due changes wherever called for. Town and country planning is a
science that deals with the study of the urban or country "system" covering the interacting
6
activities using adapted spaces linked by communications through channels. Transport planning
is an important part of overall town and country planning, since it deals with the transport
network which is an important channel of communications.
Transportation planning historically has followed the rational planning model of defining goals
and objectives, identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, and
developing plans. It follows a multi-disciplinary approach, especially due to the rising
importance of environmentalism. A good illustration of this is the use of behavioral psychology
to persuade drivers to abandon their automobiles and use public transport instead. Integrated
transport policies also work well to promote sustainability.
2.4 Sustainability and Transportation The concept of sustainability is accommodating the needs of the present population without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [8]. As applied to the
transportation sector, planning for sustainability can incorporate the following
• A variety of strategies to conserve natural resources.
•
Using cleaner fuels and technologies.
•
Encouraging modes other than single-occupant vehicles.
•
Promoting travel reduction strategies.
•
Using travel modes that use energy more efficiently, such as walking, cycling and public
transport.
•
Improving transport choice by increasing the quality of public transport, cycling and
walking facilities, services and environments.
•
Improving the efficiency of car use by using more fuel efficient vehicles, driving more
efficiently, avoiding ‘cold starts’ and car pooling.
•
Using telecommunications to reduce or replace physical travel, such as tele-working or
tele - shopping.
•
Proper planning of the city to bring people and their needs closer together, and to make
the city more vibrant and walkable.
7
2.5 Relationship between Land Use and Transport Planning Transportation’s purpose is moving people and goods from one place to another, but
transportation systems also affect community character, the natural and human environment, and
economic development patterns. A transportation system can improve the economy, shape
development patterns, and influence quality of life and the natural environment.
Land use and transportation are symbiotic: development density and location influence regional
travel patterns, and, in turn, the degree of access provided by the transportation system can
influence land use and development trends. Urban or community design can facilitate alternative
travel modes. For example, a connected system of streets with higher residential densities and a
mix of land uses can facilitate travel by foot, bicycle, and public transportation, in addition to
automobile. Conversely, dispersed land development patterns may facilitate vehicular travel and
reduce the viability of other travel modes.
Activities intended to stimulate economic development can affect the transportation network,
and, in turn, the transportation network can affect economic development.
2.6 Systems Approach to transport planning Operations research may be used in the development of appropriate models in transport planning,
especially due to its ability to optimize the performance of a ‘system’. Here, the system may be
defined as a complex whole, an organized whole, comprising of a set of connected parts, whose
components and interconnections are vital to the operation of the system.
8
The figure below summarizes the processes involved in a systems approach to transport
planning.
Decision to adopt planning
Problem definition, formulation of
goals
Problems, constraints,
potentials, forecasting
Solution generation
Solution analysis
Evaluation of possible alternatives
Implementation
Operation
Performance assessment and review
Figure 2.3: Transport planning process
The first step in transport planning process is the decision to adopt planning as a tool for
achieving the desired goals and objectives. Goals and objectives are therefore set first, setting the
9
basis for the generation of solutions. Among the considerations made in the generation of the
solutions are the problems, constrains, potentials and forecasting.
These solutions are then evaluated after thorough analysis, and the best amongst them selected
for implementation.
There is still need of continuing study after the implementation of the solution selected, where its
operation and performance is assessed. Certain stages of the planning process may then be
reviewed and the sequence repeated again. This ensures that dynamic changes of the network
due to demographic changes, developments, changes in land uses, change of policies, etc are
considered. [9]
2.6.1 Stages in Transport Planning The transport planning process can be broken down to five major stages.
a) Survey and analysis of existing conditions.
b) Forecast analysis of future conditions and plan synthesis.
c) Evaluation.
d) Programme adoption and implementation.
10
e) Continuing study.
Definition of the study area,
formulation of goals
Inventory of existing
travel patterns
Inventory of existing
transport facilities
•
•
•
•
•
•
Network planning:
• Development of
tentative network of
transport facilities
Land use and
economic activities
Basic analysis:
Car ownership
Trip generation
Trip attraction
Modal selection
Trip distribution
Goods vehicles trips
Future trip generation
Trip distribution
Assignment
Revise
network
Planning forecasts:
• Projections of
population and
households
• Projection of
employment
• Future land use
Formulation of feasible
alternatives
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Evaluation:
Preliminary cost estimates
Cost benefit analysis
Other considerations
Program adoption and implementation
Selection of network plans
Development of transport policies
Staging
Organization
implementation
Continuing study of 11
community development and
updating of plans
Figure 2.4: stages in the transport planning process
Revise
planning
forecasts
The five stages of the transport planning process are as described below:
2.6.1.1 Survey and Analysis of Existing Conditions This involves defining and sub-dividing the study area into smaller units, called zones, where the
patterns of movement are studied. This kind of zoning enables one to link information about
activities, travel, and transportation to the physical locations in the study area. These zones,
sometimes referred to as Transportation Analysis Zones, may vary in size depending on the
density or the nature of the developments. The zones are made in such a way as to encompass
homogeneous urban activities such as residential, commercial or industrial activities. Of
importance is the compatibility of the zone with the transportation network. The network then, in
most cases form the boundaries of the zones.
Transport planning is guided by the goals preset. These goals are so formulated that all the
relevant social, legal, aesthetic political, economic and technical considerations are
comprehensively weighed, evaluated and reconciled. Some of the goals that are commonly
sought include:
i. Minimum disruption of the general environment;
ii.
Minimum demolition of housing;
iii.
Re-vitalization of public transport;
iv.
The removal of through traffic from urban centers and residential areas;
v.
A high benefit/cost ratio;
vi.
Operational feasibility;
vii.
A qualitative compatibility with general urban structure.
The study is then carried out, being aimed at obtaining the following data:
a) Existing travel patterns data. This includes data on the following:
•
Origins and destination of journeys. This data may be collected through home interviews,
road side interviews, registration number plate survey, screen line and cordon surveys.
•
Movement of goods vehicles
•
Movement of public transport buses and coaches
•
Movement by rail transport
12
b) Existing transport facilities data: This includes data on the following:
•
Inventory of streets forming the transport network. This should include the
dimensions, type and condition of the surface, capacity of the roadway, volume of traffic
using the roadway, etc.
•
Travel times by different modes
•
Inventory of the public transport buses including their operating speeds,
schedules, terminals, number of passengers carried, etc
•
Inventory of rail transit facilities
•
On-street and off-street parking inventory, including loading and unloading
facilities for trucks
•
Accident data
c) Data on land – use and economic activities. This data consists of:
•
Information on land-use type (residential, industrial, commercial, recreational etc.)
and intensity for the various zones.
•
Zoning laws in operation
•
Population statistics, usually from census operations
•
Household structure, including family income, car-ownership, family size and sex etc.
•
Employment pattern
•
School attendance.
All this data listed above tend to describe the socio – economic characteristics, the travel
patterns, and the land – use patterns and the transportation system. Analysis of this data may be
done to identify quantifiable relationships between the above data. These relationships can now
be used to make mathematical models for transport planning.
Trip generation, trip distribution, trip assignment on the existing network and modal split are
then considered. Trip generation models determine the mathematical relationship between the
number of trips and the land-use and socio-economic characteristics.
13
The trip distribution models connect the trip-ends predicted by the trip generation models
between any set of two zones. Trip assignment is the procedure by which the route chosen by a
trip-maker is determined. The modal split model determines the mode of travel chosen by the
traveler, and can be considered at any stage between generation and assignment. The models so
formulated are calibrated and checked for their accuracy before they are further used for
determining the future travel pattern.
2.6.1.2 Forecast, Analysis of Future Conditions and Plan Synthesis Transport planning is done covering a long range of time; say 20 – 25 years ahead. It is therefore
necessary to consider the travel patterns and needs for future years, the projected changes in
economic activities and the future land – use issues.
A number of methods can be used to predict the future economic activities [9]. Such methods
include:
•
Extending the past trends in the various parameters representing economic activity,
•
More sophisticated methods such as the input-output model analysis
Past trends can be used to determine future demographic changes, while estimates of future
employment patterns may be determined from the predictions of economic activities.
Future level of car ownerships is an important parameter that influences future travel and mode
choice. The predicted growth in land use is determined by formulating suitable land-use
allocation models.
The future land-use activity arrangement and information concerning future income levels,
family size, car ownership rates, employment, population and other economic activity factors are
then fed as inputs to the previously formulated trip generation model, giving future trip
generation rates as the output.
The other stages such as trip distribution, assignment and modal split are synthesized using the
future predicted parameters governing travel pattern and the respective models formulated for the
base year. The output from the above stages yields the flow on each link of the network, and
speed and level of service afforded by the planned facility.
14
2.6.1.3 Evaluation A number of alternatives may be found to be feasible for a given area. In such a case, the
alternatives are each evaluated and the best suited, the one that fulfills the desired objectives, is
selected for implementation. Cost / Benefit techniques are applied while evaluating the
alternatives. Depending on the results of the evaluation, it may be necessary to revise the plans,
or even evolve further alternatives.
2.6.1.4 Program Adoption and Implementation Having selected the best alternative for implementation after evaluation, implementation of the
same is done in stages according to the available resources.
2.6.1.5 Continuing Study As said earlier, the process of transport planning is a dynamic and complex process involving
continuous review and updating with constant iteration and feedback. The study does not
therefore end once the selected alternative has been implemented, and instead, periodic surveys
are carried out to determine the trends in travel patterns, journey times and other relevant factors.
This may at times demand a change of plans, when necessary.
2.6.1.6 Citizen Participation Public involvement is integral to good transport planning. Without meaningful public
participation, there is a risk of making poor decisions, or decisions that are likely to invite
unintended negative consequences. The best way to plan for the transport system of an area is to
involve the affected members of the community in the formulation of the decisions, since the
major goal is to serve the community and fulfill their aspirations. Such aspirations may require a
change of goals and policies.
The fundamental objective of public involvement programs is to ensure that the concerns and
issues of each stake holder are identified and addressed during policy making, development of
programs and projects being proposed in their communities. Furthermore, the decisions arrived
at having consulted the affected people are easier to implement because the community itself
owns the decisions. Contradictions and public critism are therefore avoided. With public
involvement, it is possible to make a lasting contribution to an area’s quality of life.
15
2.7 Performance Measures for Transport System Performance measures demonstrate how well the transport system is working towards meeting
the public goals and the expectations of the network. It is used as a way to gauge the impact of
the decisions made in the transport sector in transport planning [3]. It attempts to answer the
question of whether or not the situation is getting better after the implementation of certain
decisions, and whether the transportation investments are correlated to the stated goals and
outcomes.
Some of the parameters that may indicate the performance of a transport system are:
•
Economic development: This includes the jobs created, new housing, and new business
openings along the transport routes under question. It may also be looked at as the
percent of the regions unemployed population who cite lack or poor condition of the
transport system as a hindrance to employment, or in terms of the economic cost of time
lost to congestion.
•
Mobility: This can be measured in terms of the average travel time from origin to
destination; change in travel time for specific origin – destination points; average trip
length, percentage of trips per mode (mode split); time lost to congestion, transfer
between modes, percent on – time transit performance.
•
Accessibility: This can be measured as the percent population within ‘x’ minutes of ‘y’
percent of employment sites which are able to use transportation, including special
populations such as the elderly or the physically challenged. It can be measured as
whether the transport system is able to provide access to underserved populations to
employment sites, and the quality of the service offered.
•
Quality of life: Here, parameters such as environmental and resource consumption,
amount of pollution generated, fuel consumption per vehicle mile travelled, decrease in
wetlands, changes in air quality, land use, etc.
•
Safety: number of accidents / crashes, or the economic cost of the crashes experienced.
16
3.0 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH The study was based on the following:
•
Review of the extensive literature on the nature of the transport system in Nairobi, the
previous surveys done, recommendations and what has been implemented so far.
•
Interviews with the various professional players and bodies such as the various ministries
involved, other players in the transport industry. Officials from the Ministry of Planning
and the Nairobi Metropolitan, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Public Works, Kenya
Railways, Kenya Highway Authority were interviewed.
•
Field study involving observation and interviews at various points within the study area.
Various road users including drivers (both matatu and private cars), commuters (buses
and matatu), pedestrian and members of the Business community etc were asked
questions covering the user experiences with the current state of the transport system
especially congestion, projected impact of the ongoing sector projects on travel times and
mobility once they are completed, personal satisfaction with the policies and plans in the
transport industry within Nairobi County, varying recommendations for considerations in
future planning.
The written and unwritten questions asked sort the opinion of the people on the state of
the congestion experienced in Nairobi and the on-going projects, looking into how the
policies have been implemented and the challenges that have faced the implementation of
the same. The study sort to understand how people have embraced the various changes
brought about by the projects and the possible sources of resistance from the people. Also
of concern was the people’s view on the current congested state of the roads and the
recommendations they would give for the future tackling of the same.
Basically, the interviews were conducted at different points of the transport network including
bus terminals and road junctions. The following is the summary of the sample interviewed:
17
Table 33.1: Sampling Schedule
Uhuru Highway /
University way
junction
Thika Road /
Pangani Junction
Mombasa road /
Nyayo Stadium
junction
Uhuru Highway /
Museum hill
junction
Railways Bus
Terminal
Ronald Ngala Bus
Terminal
Kencom Bus
Terminal
TOTAL
Motorized
road users
pedestrian
Business
Community
TOTAL
6
8
2
16
6
5
2
13
4
4
3
11
3
3
2
8
4
6
2
12
2
4
3
9
3
3
3
9
28
33
17
78
3.1 Sampling procedure: The samples were taken at random at the indicated points as shown in the table above. The
motorized road users included commuters using public means (matatus and buses), drivers and
private car users.
A mixture of structured and unstructured questionnaires was used alongside oral interviews for
the key departments such as the KENHA, the Ministry of transport, Ministry of Roads and
Kenya Railways. The following is a summary of the types of data collected and the methods
used.
18
3.1.1 Primary Data: This was collected by the following methods:
i.
Direct observation.
ii.
Photography.
iii.
Roadside interviews and questionnaires.
iv.
Scheduled interviews with key informants in the targeted ministries, departments and
bodies.
3.1.2 Secondary Data: This involved research and review of documented materials from the various sources and
institutions. The materials studied were obtained from:
i.
The Ministry of Planning and Nairobi Metropolitan Library
ii.
The Engineering Department of the Kenya Railways Corporations
iii.
Policy documents
iv.
Government reports and legislation
v.
Past Case Studies
vi.
The Internet
3.2 Data Analysis and Presentation: Various tools such as Ms Excel were used in the analysis of the data collected especially the
questionnaires. Simple frequency distribution tables, pie charts, bar graphs etc. were used to
present the analyzed data. Maps, photographs sketches and illustrations were also used especially
for spatial data. Descriptive notes and photographs were used to present qualitative information
while charts, graphs, and tables were used for quantitative information.
19
3.3 Limitations and Challenges: The study posed various challenges which were resolved by various means. These challenges
included the financial constrains as the data collection required a lot of financial input. Also, the
study area was extensive covering a large area with many factors coming into play.
There was a lot of bureaucracy especially when dealing with the various ministries and
departments, which demanded a lot of patience and various trips had to be made to the key data
sources, most of the time being referred from one official to another in the same department,
some of whom were too busy or absent for various reasons. Some of the information requested
for was termed as highly secretive and hence inaccessible, while some officials feared being
victimized for release of the information.
Insecurity was an issue of concern especially in areas such as Pangani and Mombasa Road,
especially during peak hours which had been seen as a prime time to get information.
Some respondents, especially private car users and business owners were reluctant to give
information out of past experiences with fraudsters and conmen.
20
3.4 Case Study: Nairobi Two transport surveys were carried out in Nairobi to establish the state of the transport system in
Nairobi and find out ways to tackle the problem of congestion in Nairobi. One was done by the
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 2004. The other study was done by the Kenya
Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA), which was also conducted in 2004.
JICA did a survey covering about 10,000 households [10] including a roads census and screenline survey, while KIPPRA covered about 2000 households [11]. Both reports however were
found to yield similar data on the state of Nairobi.
Following the various surveys that have been done before in Nairobi, several Master Plans have
been formulated over time, which have shaped the current state of Nairobi, while some of the
plans are still being implemented.
The first Master Plan was developed in 1948, (Nairobi Master Plan for a Colonial Capital) as a
guideline for planning the consequent 20 years, to cope with the urban challenges that were
arising in Nairobi following the rapidly growing economy and the increasing population growth
in Nairobi. The second Master Plan was formulated in 1973 addressing various issues including
population forecasts and transport planning.
Following study carried out in 2004, JICA formulated a master plan for the development of
urban transport in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area, from which various projects have been
proposed, with some of them being in progress.
3.4.1 Introduction to the Study Area The name ‘Nairobi’ comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi which translates to ‘the place
of cool waters’. It is also popularly known as ‘The Green City in the Sun’, and is surrounded by
several expanding villa suburbs. In the late ‘90’s, Nairobi emerged as a simple rail deport on the
railway linking Mombasa to Uganda. Nairobi has since then grown into the city it is today with
its transport network developing a lot over time.
3.4.1.1 Administrative Area The county of Nairobi serves as the host to the capital city of the republic of Kenya, Nairobi,
which is also arguably the busiest and most populous city in East Africa. Nairobi was founded in
1899, and was handed its Capital status from Mombasa in 1905. It lies towards the South of
Kenya with an elevation of 1661m (5450 ft) above sea level.
The city of Nairobi has its administrative area of 684 km2 at present and remains the same after
its expansion in 1969. Before 1969 it was only 83 km2 [12]. According to “Parliamentary
Constituencies, 6th Edition 2002”, the city area is divided into 8 constituencies and each
constituency is sub-divided into 48 locations as presented in the table below and each location is
further subdivided into a large number of sub-locations.
21
Table3.2: Administrative Division of Nairobi City (Source: Parliamentary Constituencies, 6th Edition 2002)
Constituencies
Locations
1
2
3
4
Makadara
Kamukunji
Starehe
Langata
5
Dagoreti
6
7
Westlands
Kasarani
8
Embakasi
Makongeni, Maringo, Makadara, Viwandani
Kamukunji, Eastleigh, Bahati, Pumwani
Starehe, Ngara, Kariokor, Mathare
Langata, Karen, Sarangombe, Kibera, Laini Saba, Nairobi West,
Mugumoini
Uthiru/Ruthimitu, Mutuini, Waithaka, Kawangware, Riruta, Woodley,
Kenyatta Golf course
Highridge, Kitisuri, Kangemi, Parklands, Kileleshwa, Kilimani
Kahawa, Githurai, Roysambu, Kasarani, Ruaraka, Kariobangi,
Korogocho
Embakasi, Mwiki, Ruai, Njiru, Kariobangi South, Dandora, Kayole,
Umoja, Mukuru
The city is bounded with Kiambu and Kajiado Districts on the west, Kiambu and Thika Districts
on the north, Thika and Machakos Districts on the east, and Machakos and Kajiado Districts on
the south. Such adjacent areas are now absorbing increasing population and economic activities.
Map 33.1: Map of Nairobi County showing the three districts and 8 constituencies (adopted from KNBS)
22
3.4.1.2 Population growth In 1901, there were only 8000 people living in Nairobi. By 1948, the number had grown to
118000 and by 1962, the city had a population of 343500 people [13]. According to “Statistical
Abstract 2005”[14], population in the city was 828,000 in 1979, 1.32 million in 1989 and 2.14
million in 1999. According to the city council of Nairobi, the estimated population in 2007 was
approximately 3.03 million.
Table 33.3: Nairobi Population and distribution. (Source: CBS 2009)
Year
Population (1000)
1979
1989
1999
2009
828
1325
2137
3130
Average population
growth rate (%)
4.7
4.9
4.5
4.1
Population density
(head/km2)
566
1937
3124
4436
Figure 33.1: Population of individual constituencies within Nairobi county (source of data: KNBS)
23
Nairobi’s early growth was fuelled by rural migrants and an explosion of growth took place
between 1979 and 1989 when 772 624 newcomers came to the city (NEMA 2003). The forces
motivating rural-urban migration to Nairobi include better economic prospects, opportunities for
higher education and higher wage employment, and the attraction of Nairobi as a market for
goods and services.
Nairobi is currently home to nearly three million people and represents about a quarter of
Kenya’s urban population. A growing economy and swelling population numbers from both inmigration and natural growth are continually increasing the city’s size. A significant number of
commuters from satellite towns such as Thika, Naivasha, Ngong, and Machakos come into
Nairobi daily to work or bring goods and supplies. Daily commuters from such satellite towns
contribute an estimated additional half-million people to the city’s population.
3.4.1.3 Poverty line Some of the estates that form Nairobi County are predominantly inhabited by low income
earners. There is also middle and high income earning populations living in various estates. It is
common to find people of the same income level living in the same estates for various reasons
including security issues, social class, cost of living, and standard of living, among others.
There is a direct link between the level of income and the modal choice since many high income
earners feel that it is below their standard to travel using public means and hence prefer using
private cars and taxis. However, low income earners do not own private cars and taxis are way
too expensive for them and they therefore opt to use either public means (buses or matatus)
while they walk or cycle for short distances.
Poverty is usually measured in monetary values, but Odhiambo and Manda (2003) [15] defines it
differently. They suggested that the definition of poverty also includes vulnerability, entitlements
and social exclusion. That it means ill health, social exclusion, insecurity and powerlessness, a
lack of access to information and institutions and often, a lack of self confidence and voice [16].
Hence, poverty is not just the lack of income; but also the lack of means to meet the basic social
needs, the inability to break out of the poverty cycle, and the feeling of insecurity of persons and
property.
In 1997, Nairobi had 51% of its population living in absolute poverty (republic of Kenya, 2000).
By around 2005, about 44% of the city’s population still lived below the poverty line (CBS 2003,
CBS 2005). The eight divisions that form the Nairobi county accounts for 6% of the total
national poverty level, with the majority of them being concentrated in only three divisions:
Embakasi (19.1%), Kasarani (17.3%), and Makadara (12.5%) divisions (CBS 2005).
24
Table3.4: poverty line (Source: CBS 2003c)
Division
Population
(‘000)
Central
Dagoreti
Embakasi
Kasarani
Kibera
Makadara
Pumwani
Westlands
205
230
409
321
271
185
183
188
Poverty incidence (%
of people below
poverty line)
45
46
42
48
41
59
46
32
Estimated number of
poor individuals
(‘000)
92
106
170
153
111
108
85
61
The other impact of poverty on the transport system is the encroachment of transport reserves by
structures in such of shelter and a source of income. This makes it hard to develop the existing
infrastructure and even reduces the efficiency of the infrastructure already in use. Some roads
have been rendered impassable and others narrowed due to the encroachment of structures on the
roads, especially in the slums. This makes the places inaccessible and reduces mobility on the
roads.
photo 33 -1: Encroachment of the railway reserve land by human settlements and activities in slum areas
source: [17]
3.4.1.4 Road network The road network in Nairobi is based around a series of radial routes that radiate from the core
central business district (CBD) area. This network structure combined with the fact that Nairobi
is Kenya’s capital and primate city and has a CBD that is fast transforming into a market place
with mushrooming exhibition centers, works to channel traffic to the City Centre resulting in
serious congestion in the CBD.
25
Map 33.2: Map showing the major roads linking Nairobi County to the neighbouring areas
(Source: Google )
The map above shows the three major roads passing through the county linking it to the other
parts of the nation. A 109 is the road linking Nairobi to the Kenyan Coast which is a major hub
for East and Central Africa. A104 on the other hand links Nairobi to the Western parts of the
Country as well as to other countries in East and Central Africa which ferry goods from the
Kenyan coast. A2, commonly known as the Thika road connects Nairobi to the Central and
Northern parts of Kenya. Nairobi County therefore forms a busy central point of exchange for
goods coming from all these routes while at the same time handling the traffic ‘passing by’ from
any of the three directions to a different direction.
26
Map 33.3: showing the major roads in Nairobi County
Several roads crisscross the county, interconnecting one suburb to another within the county and
linking them to the CBD as shown above. These form a network of arterials originating from all
directions to converge at the CBD. They therefore forms the major origin – destination routes
within the county.
27
Figure 3.2: Traffic Volumes per day on main roads (Source JICA, 2006)
Several projects have been initiated to counter the congestion problem in Nairobi, some of which
are still ongoing. Examples of these are
• The expansion and development of the Thika – Nairobi highway (A2)
This project was initiated in 2006 by the Government of Kenya under the funding of the African
Development Bank. It involves the expansion of Thika road, which is also part of the
international trunk road, class A, (named A2) connecting Nairobi City with Ethiopia to the
North. The project is located in Nairobi and Central province, starting on Uhuru Highway on
three points, namely: Haille Sellassie Avenue, University Way, and Museum Hill Roundabout
and converges at Pangani Roundabout on Thika Road. It then proceeds to Thika via Muthaiga,
GSU Camp, Kasarani, Githurai roundabouts, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Town, Juja Town and
ends at the bridge near Blue Post Hotel in Thika, a total length of 50.4 km.
This project involves the expansion of Thika Road from 4 lanes to 8 lanes including the
provision of cycle tracks and foot paths. It further eliminates several roundabouts and junctions,
replacing them with flyovers at Globe Cinema, Museum Hill, Limuru junction (four lane
flyovers at each of this places), and six lane flyovers at Muthaiga, Survey, Kahawa Sukari,
Kasarani, Githurai, Kimbo, Ruiru Bypass Junction, Gatundu Junction and Mangu. An underpass
is also being made at Pangani.
28
•
Construction of the Northern, Southern and Eastern bypasses
These are meant to provide an alternative for motorists who have no interest in the city to bypass
the city via other routes passing at the peripherals of the city and hence reduce the demand for
road through Nairobi. Once in full operation, it will allow the motorists to avoid the highly
competed for roads passing through the city.
Map 3.4: proposed Eastern, Southern and Northern bypasses under construction (Source: Ministry of Roads)
•
Rehabilitation of the JKIA Junction – Machakos Turnoff Road (A104/A109)
This is a project to expand the road to a double carriageway from JKIA Junction to Athi River
and a single carriageway from Athi River to the Machakos Turnoff Road, with interchanges at
Athi River and JKIA Junction.
29
3.4.1.5 Road safety Due to the reckless driving experienced in Nairobi especially among the matatu drivers, coupled
with the low capacity of the busy roads among other factors, various accidents occur on the
roads, contributing to the congestion problems experienced. The chart below shows the
occurrence of accidents on several of the arterials radiating from Nairobi.
Figure 33.3: Average number of accidents reported annually (city council of Nairobi)
3.4.1.6 Modes of Transport Available modes of transport in the Nairobi include matatus (shared mini-bus taxis), buses,
trains, boda bodas (motorbikes), Tuk-tuks (three-wheeled taxis) and regular taxis. According to
the comprehensive study done by JICA (2006) [10], out of 4.82 million trips per day made in
Nairobi in 2004, 2.32 million trips/day were made by either walking or cycling while almost all
the rest are by motorized transport. The non-motorized transport (NMT) therefore represents
48.2 % of all daily trips and occurs for short distances, usually less than 5Km. An overwhelming
majority of the NMT trips [22.7million] are made by walking [47%] while cycling contributes 55
thousand trips or 1.1% of all NMT trips. Except for train services provided by the governmentowned Kenya Railways Corporation, all other modes of transport are operated by private sector
investors.
The following table summarizes the mode of travel and the modal split.
30
Mode of travel
Matatus
Private cars/taxis/trucks
Buses
Walking
Railway
Two wheel mode
School/ college bus
Others
Percentage split
29%
15.7%
3.4%
47%
0.4%
1.2%
3.1%
0.2%
Table 3.5: modal split (Source: JICA, 2006)
3.4.1.7 Commuter Train Service in Nairobi The commuter train offers more reliable travel times than the roads since the train is not affected
by traffic jams during its travel and it reaches the targeted destinations within the scheduled time.
Train is also more affordable than road travel.
In an effort to improve railway transport in Nairobi and encourage the use of commuter train
services, expansion and improvement of the existing railway line and construction of new lines
to cover the major trip attraction and destination zones have been proposed.
Map 3.5: Nairobi city commuter train network map showing the already existing and proposed new railway lines.
The proposed new railway lines is estimated to handle traffic from some of the estates which are
heavy traffic sources and destination and since the commuter train has a bigger capacity than the
busses and matatus, and considering its other advantages such as being a cheaper alternative and
having a fixed time schedule, it’s bound to be a preferred mode of transport especially for the
low and middle income earners who form the bigger percentage of the population in the affected
estates.
31
Map 33.6: Proposed railway link between JKIA, Syokimau and Embakasi stations for the commuter train
(source: Kenya Railways, coutersy of the Kenya Railways design engineers)
3.4.1.8 Trip generation and prediction About 7 500 000 trips are generated daily [10], translating to about 7.5 trips per person per day
which may be summarized as in the table below according to the purpose.
Trip purpose
Home
Work
School
Others (eg hospital)
Daily % No. of trips
46.5
25
9.8
18.7
Table 3.6: Daily trip generation by purpose (JICA 2006)
Main trips are concentrated towards the CBD from Kasarani, Westlands, Embakasi, with
Kiambu and Thika supplying a big percentage of traffic from the Northern side of Nairobi and
Athi River, Machakos and Mombasa being the external supplier from the Eastern side.
However, about 93 % of traffic at the Nairobi boundary originate or arrive at the Nairobi
Boundary while only about 7 % of the traffic is ‘pass through’ traffic [10].
32
3.5 National Legislation Policies There are numerous statutes which have been put in place to govern the transport sector. There
are specific statutes affecting the transport parastatals although the parastatals are also under the
State Corporations Act. However, these parastatals lack experience a lack of managerial
autonomy and depend on the decision making of their respective ministries and hence are
burdened by bureaucracy.
3.5.1 The Traffic Act Cap 403 of the Laws of Kenya:
Section 91 of this act declares it illegal to erect any structure of interference within the road
reserves. This forms the legal basis of the demolition of houses and structures built along the
road reserves in Nairobi to pave way for expansion and development of the roads.
3.5.2 The Trust Land Act Cap 28 and the Physical Planning Act Cap 286:
The above Acts states that while giving due considerations to the rights and obligations of land
owners, there shall be compensation wherever a materials site, a diversion, or realignment results
into relocation of settlement or any change of user whatsoever of privately owned land parcels.
3.5.3 Kenya Roads Act 2007
This Act gives the Kenya National Highways Authority the mandate to provide oversight of
three roads authorities which will operate under the State Corporation Advisory Board
Regulations. All roads in the country including those controlled by local authorities therefore fall
under these new authorities. The three authorities are:
3.5.3.1 The Kenya Highways Authority (KENHA)
This is the implementing agency that manages and maintains all road works on class A, B, and C
roads. In addition to implementation of works, KENHA advices the Kenya National Highways
Authority on technical issues such as standards, axle loads, research and development. KENHA
also creates regions and then reports to the Kenya National Highways Authority that approves its
development budgets while the Kenya Roads Board approves the maintenance budget.
3.5.3.2 Kenya Urban Roads Authority (KURA)
KURA manages and maintains all road works on urban cities and major municipalities. It falls
under the Kenya National Highways Authority where the ministry approves its roads
development budgets. The Local Authorities Transfer Fund has the meaning assigned to it by
the Local Authorities Transfer Fund Act, 1999. The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) remains a
roads agency responsible for roads under their jurisdiction as well as access roads allocated to
KWS by the Kenya National Highways Authority. KWS reports to the Kenya National
Highways Authority and Public Works on development projects while the Kenya Roads Board
33
approves its maintenance works. The implementation of the Kenya Roads Act 2007 acts as a
catalyst for mobilizing more resources for roads developments and maintenance.
3.5.3.3 National Development Strategy
National Development Strategy was formulated on the realization that Development was taking
place in urban centers alone leading to Rural – Urban migration which was resulting in the young
people in the society migrating to the urban areas in search of a better standard of living and
access to economic and social amenities leaving the old and sickly people in the villages.
To reverse this situation, the District Focus for Rural Development Strategy was formulated so
as to take development closer to the rural areas and enable the people to make and participate in
decision making and access facilities at the grassroot level, hence easing the urban
overpopulation.
34
4.0 FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS 4.1 Survey Findings From the survey done in the course of this project, where about 78 persons were interviewed
there was a general observation that congestion is experienced in Nairobi during peak hours, i.e.
in the morning hours (between 6.00am to 10.00am) and evening (between around 4.30pm to
8.30pm). Other times are for example during lunch hour (12-2pm), though at this time it’s not as
bad as it is in the mornings and evenings.
During special events such as when such vehicles as the presidential escort which have right of
way are passing or when there is a demonstration or a public rally which are especially common
during the political seasons, congestion is still felt temporarily for some time which then dies off
gradually when the trigger is removed. However, sometimes this triggers a congestion which
with time builds up rather than dying off.
Rain occurring during these congestion periods worsens and prolongs the situation.
4.1.1 Perceived Level of Congestion in Nairobi 36.67% of the respondents termed the state of congestion experienced in Nairobi as ‘extreme’.
56.67% termed it as ‘high’ and 5% as ‘moderate’. Only 1.67% thought of Nairobi to have no
congestion, while none of the respondents thought of the congestion level as being low.
Figure 4.1: the State of Congestion in Nairobi Transport Network
35
4.1.2 Factors of Congestion Majority of the respondents felt that there was a connection between the number of vehicles in
the network and the level of congestion, citing especially, the number of private vehicles and the
low capacity PSV vehicles in addition to the limited transport facilities which are already in a
poor condition and the non – adherence to the traffic rules by the drivers, especially matatu
drivers who were said to drive so carelessly blocking the roadways in an effort to overlap and
overtake other vehicles and leading to the many accidents experienced on the network. The
accident zones themselves take too long to be cleared, forming bottlenecks on the roadway,
which reduces the flow of traffic.
The law enforcement bodies, majorly the Traffic Police and the City Council of Nairobi were
also accused of being corrupt, taking bribes to allow the law – breaking drivers to go unpunished.
The junctions on the other hand, especially the roundabouts were said to be poorly managed,
with traffic lights on most of the junctions not working hence being replaced by traffic police,
who, in as much as they try their best, are quite inefficient.
The following table summarizes the factors of congestion in the Nairobi Transport Network:
Table 44.1: Factors of Congestion
Category
Transport
network
Infrastructure
Elements
the inter-linkages
between the
individual
facilities and
infrastructure
Roads
Streets
Lanes
Characteristics
•
•
Poorly planned network
Buildings too congested
•
•
•
•
•
•
Narrow, low – capacity roadways
Few routes into and out of the CBD
Narrow road reserves for expansion
Insufficient facilities for non-motorized transport
Poor condition of roads and streets
Improvement of infrastructure not at a pace
comparable to the growth of congestion
Limited parking space within the CBD for vehicles
entering the CBD
Limited parking space outside the CBD
On-street parking
On-street loading and unloading for trucks
Lack of traffic lights at the junctions
Available traffic lights not working at some
•
Other
facilities
Parking facilities
Junctions
Bus stops
Bus terminals
•
•
•
•
•
36
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Road users
and law
enforcement
Type of vehicles
Drivers
Traffic police
City council of
Nairobi
Human behavior,
Developments
Factors related Demographic
to Human
factors,
activities
Economic factors
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Other factors
Natural factors
•
•
junctions
Roundabouts inefficiently managed by the traffic
police
PSV vehicles dropping and picking passengers at
non-designated places
Bus terminals not well developed and managed
Terminals within the CBD allows too many PSV
vehicles into the CBD which is already too
congested
Uncontrolled number of vehicles in the network
accessing the CBD
Large number of private cars accessing the CBD
Dominating low capacity (14 seater) PSV vehicles
in the network
Heavy trucks
Careless driving
‘overlapping’ of matatus
Non-adherence of drivers to traffic rules
Accidence occurrences
Slow response of the relevant bodies to events such
as accidents
Un-roadworthy vehicles in the network
Corruption among the law enforcement bodies
Increasing population
Increasing vehicle ownership
Investments near transport facilities
Human settlements and encroachment into the
reserve areas
Closure of some roads during construction and
maintenance
Closure of some roads due to public rallies,
demonstrations etc or to give way to vehicles and
persons who have ‘right of way’.
Nature of the Nairobi Economy (daytime economy)
where almost all offices and other places of work
open in the morning and close in the evening.
Weather (rain, fog, etc)
Natural calamities eg floods
37
4.1.3 On – going projects 91.7% of the respondents were aware of at least some on – going projects towards reducing
congestion in the Nairobi Transport Network while 8.3% were not aware of any.
86.2% of the respondents had some level of confidence that the projects being implemented
would help reduce congestion. However, there was a general feeling that what has been done is
just part of the solution and that much more need to be done, and it should be done, in addition to
what’s on – going.
Some of the projects quoted as being implemented with some confidence that they will reduce
congestion are:
•
The construction of the Northern, Southern and the Eastern Bypasses.
•
Expansion of Mombasa road
•
The expansion of the Thika Highway Complex with its various distributaries, linkages
with other roads, overpasses and underpasses.
•
Elimination of roundabouts and replacement with flyovers
•
The proposed phasing out of low capacity (14 seater) PSV vehicles from the city.
•
Construction of the railways to accommodate the commuter train
•
Conversion of some lanes in the CBD into one-direction lanes.
57.63% of the respondents were satisfied with the implementation of the on-going projects while
6.78% had not felt any impact even after the projects being implemented the far they’ve been.
38
Figure 4.2: Level of Satisfaction with the implementation of projects
The following were the points noted for the satisfaction with the implementation of the projects:
•
The projects are seen as being long overdue, and should have been implemented much
earlier than now, hence its good news that at long last it’s being done.
•
With the projects gone this far, congestion has reduced in Nairobi and its environs, with
the greatest impact being felt on Thika road.
•
New capacity has been created with the expansion of the roadways
•
Mobility has been improved.
•
It has also led to much saving on travel times
•
The resulting infrastructure is of good quality and expected to last long in good condition
•
Efforts have been seen being made towards meeting deadlines and timelines even in the
midst of all the challenges experienced during implementation.
•
Alternative routes are being made available to various destinations and especially the
bypasses which provide alternative routes to bypass the congested city for those who
don’t have to pass through the city.
39
•
Service lanes being constructed are doing well to avoid disturbing the middle lanes
hence vehicles can travel at higher speeds on the middle lanes
However, there were also concerns over the implementation process in that:
•
Some projects have taken too long to be completed
•
Accidents have increased on the expanded roadways since travel speeds have increased.
•
There are reports of corruption in the local authorities carrying out the implementation of
the projects
•
There is need for regulation of traffic volumes since population is growing at a high rate
and may soon congest the new capacity again.
•
Some roadways have been left out which should also be worked on.
•
Roundabouts are still major points of congestion.
•
The progress so far has proven to solve the congestion problem only partly; road users
are still suffering from the same problem, only that it has been eased by some degree.
There is therefore a feeling that though much has already been done, there is still room for
improvements.
4.1.4 Improvements Recommended by the Respondents towards a congestion free network: ¾ Expansion of more roads, especially the inlets and outlets into and out of the city
¾ Repair and proper maintenance of roads and streets
¾ Construction of more bypasses avoiding the congested areas
¾ Expansion of road reserves for future road expansion
¾ Re – classification of roads and limiting of some roadways for use by either heavy –
commercial, light, etc according to the kind of transportation allowed on those roads
¾ Replacement of roundabouts with flyovers / overpasses
40
¾ Installation of traffic lights in junctions where there is none and maintenance of the
existing ones
¾ Efficient traffic control at the junctions
¾ Use of IT to control traffic in the network
¾ Use of CCTV to monitor traffic flow
¾ Regulating the traffic volumes in the network at a given time
¾ Make public transport so good that road users will prefer to travel by public means rather
than use their own private cars.
¾ Advocating for the use of public means through sensitization of the public
¾ Taxation of private vehicles entering the CBD
¾ Establishment of safe and reliable parking facilities outside the CBD
¾ Introduction of rapid transit system
¾ Phasing out of low capacity (14 seater) PSV vehicles and use of higher capacity buses
(25 seater and above).
¾ Limiting the entry of matatus into the CBD
¾ Relocation of some matatu stages and termini out of the CBD, allowing only a few buses
to serve within the city.
¾ Regulation of bus stops and parking services
¾ Putting in place rules to limit the entry of heavy trucks into the CBD
¾ Introducing ‘park and ride’ or ‘park and walk’ in the PSV.
¾ Elimination of un-roadworthy vehicles from the network
¾ Use of strict rules and punishment for traffic rule offenders
41
¾ Vetting of PSV drivers and strict rules on acquisition of driving license.
¾ Encouraging the use of other modes of transport such as rail transport by enhancing and
maintaining good facilities
¾ Expansion and improvement of railway transport
¾ Establishment of underground train system (high speed trains) to serve major estates
¾ Improvement of the drainage system
¾ Decentralization of facilities to reduce the mass influx of traffic into the CBD.
¾ Working out a way to convert the Nairobi economy into a 24 hour economy
¾ Civil education to encourage proper use of infrastructure at a personal level in a
responsible way.
4.2 Causes of Congestion The factors causing the congestion experienced in Nairobi can be categorized into three broad
categories:
•
‘Micro’ or congestion triggers: these are the kind of factors that relate to the traffic
itself on the roadway. They could be intended, such as traffic lights and ramps intended
to reduce the flow speeds and they could also be unintentional such as crashes, right hand
turns, on – street parking and possible visual impediments such as buildings, etc.
•
‘Macro’ or congestion drivers: are those factors which relate to the demand for road use
and a set of exogenous factors that relate to the patterns and volumes of trip making.
These includes the factors influencing travel demand which at long last result to
congestion, including socioeconomic growth, increase in urban population, travel
patterns, land uses, car ownership and dependency, public transport operations, parking
and urban freight transport and goods delivery.
•
‘Random’ variables such as weather and visibility that can play a part at the onset of
congestion. The occurrence of rain or fog, for example, will tend to reduce travel speeds.
42
This category has the least of impact in Nairobi, relative to the other two described
above, yet anytime there is heavy rain, road users will not miss out on its effects.
Generally, congestion develops in a series of steps triggered and driven by the factors
categorized above. These factors are related to one another as exhibited by the road user
experiences. The following is a summary of the steps towards the development of congestion on
the roadways:
i.
Travel behavior for individuals, households and firms is impacted by the activity patterns,
which are themselves determined by demographic, social, and economic factors, along
with land – use patterns.
ii.
In turn, travel behavior gives rise to a level of travel demand which is spread out in time
and space.
iii.
This travel demand leads both to a general level of traffic flow on the roadway network
and to specific mixes of vehicles and drivers on discrete segments of the roadway
network such as mix of vehicle types, lengths, traffic speeds, lane switching, etc.
iv.
Congestion arises when the general flow on the network surpasses the dynamic capacity
of the specific roadway.
v.
Roadway users attempt to navigate through the congested roadway by using their
experience and in a way to respond to the congestion end up adapting their travel
behavior to the situation. This ends up causing longer-term changes in activity patterns,
which in turn influence travel behavior and hence demand.
These interconnections of factors therefore demand a solution that covers a broader view.
Also, as the transport network is improved and capacity increased, it attracts newly generated
travels on the roadway which otherwise wouldn’t have been if the new capacity was not
available. This may be referred to as ‘induced’ traffic which may end up causing ‘induced’
congestion. This phenomenon denies the newly added capacity its potential to reduce congestion
on the roadway, especially on roads under expansion. This process is seen to resemble the
vicious cycle of congestion described by the European Conference of Transport Ministers [3]
illustrated in figure 4.3 below, where they observed that an increase in infrastructure capacity
together with various other factors such as demographic factors may lead to changes in travel
patterns which eventually may lead to such effects as longer travel distances in a given duration.
43
Furt
her
incr
easi
ng
fact
ors
Improvement of transport
networks
New accessibility
needs
Development of
population,
age structure,
migration
Smaller house holds
Lifestyle and living
standards
Urban sprawl
Longer trips in
same time
Increased car
ownership
New opportunities
for the attractive
locations
Larger radius for
activities
Changed leisure and
shopping behaviour
Figure 43: vicious cycle of congestion (EMCT, 2007)
As said earlier in (3.4.1.4), several projects are ongoing having been proposed towards
decongesting the transport network in Nairobi. Some of the projects like the expansion of Thika
road, Uhuru Highway, Mombasa Road and Outer – Ring Road are almost complete. The
construction of the Eastern, Southern and Northern Bypasses are also almost complete. A light
rail is also already being constructed for the commuter train, with construction work being
already in progress on the proposed Syokimau Railway Station. All these project major on the
expansion of the road ways and railway lines and the construction of missing links, which will
increase the capacity of the transport network.
However, there is need to have an integrated plan that will include programs and plans to cover
the three strategies that were found effective in solving congestion in Nairobi, if implemented
together.
44
The three strategies are:
•
Coordinating land use and transport planning: this strategy would relate to the speed
with which new capacity is utilized – and the impact the policies might have on the
nature and scope of future demand for road travel.
•
Delivering reliable transport system performance: this addresses how transport
authorities can deliver improvements in the road travel performance even when it may be
difficult to put in place measures that deliver large travel time savings.
•
Pro – actively managing demand for road capacity: this on the other hand relates the
necessity to manage capacity such that transport system performance is not negatively
impacted.
As said earlier, there is a very strong linkage between spatial policies and transport policies.
Land uses give rise to trip generation while the interplay between spatially distant origins and
destinations give rise to regional trip patterns. Experience from a number of countries which
have applied land use policies which link between the community expectations relating to the
long term development and the transport outcomes have proven to succeed in traffic and
congestion management. Usually, in as much as the congestion would arise from the roads, the
solutions would involve players in other domains.
On the other hand, in as much as congestion has been found to impact both travel speed and
reliability, it is seen that reliability is more important in the sense that road users can plan for
congested travelling, but get frustrated by unreliable travels. These sets the basis for the adoption
of the second strategy above, targeting travel time variability and the most extreme congestion
first and therefore enhance reliability and predictability in the system.
The third strategy is based on the fact that although there are many congestion management
techniques, they can be summed up into two: those which either provide new capacity or free up
existing capacity, and those which tend to limit or otherwise manage traffic levels on the new or
recently freed – up capacity. However, the newly added or freed capacity, especially for such a
city growing as fast as Nairobi, will soon fill up to saturation levels unless the usage of the added
capacity is in a way managed. Hence, capacity producing measures such as the expansion of
roads should be accompanied by traffic level management measures to serve the community
effectively.
There are various approaches that may be considered for implementation. A combination of
several of this is seen to work well especially when they complement one another.
45
4.3 Analysis of various solutions 4.3.1 Ensuring a safe environment for sharing of the road. 4.3.1.1 Land use policies Measures should be put in place to govern development and land use on road and railway
reserve lands to avoid encroachment by human activities, settlements and investments. This
will preserve the space required for expansion of the infrastructure and avoid a situation where
the government has to sympathize with the members of the public over whether there should be
demolitions of property on reserve lands or not.
4.3.1.2 Provision for Non – Motorized Transport Non-Motorized Transport accounts for 48.2% [10] of the modal share as noted in (4.4.1.6).
There is need to provide them with improved facilities and infrastructure to aid this mode of
transport noting that these group of road users are quite vulnerable to accidents. Such facilities
are:
•
Footpaths / Side walks
•
Cycle tracks
•
Foot bridges
•
Zebra crossings
•
Wheel ramps for the physically challenged, etc.
These will
¾ Reduce motor traffic volumes
¾ Reduce the overall cost of transport in the city
¾ Lead to improved traffic safety
¾ Reduce air pollution
¾ Enhance the health of the city’s environment
46
4.3.1.3 Taming careless drivers Another important consideration is that concerning the nature of driving experienced. Here,
strict laws and regulations should be enhanced to govern over-speeding, overloading, careless
switching of lanes and un-roadworthy vehicles. The traffic rules commonly referred to as
‘Michuki rules’ given by the former minister of transport the Late John Michuki had achieved
well to control the quality of transport offered by PSV vehicles. However, the law enforcers
have relaxed with time due to corruption (bribery) and lack of political good will by other
politicians and hence they fail to support the initiative.
4.3.1.4 Integrity in Service There should therefore be a program to govern the conduct of the law enforcers, to reduce the
level of corruption and to develop a culture of integrity among the concerned bodies.
4.3.1.5 Managing Induced traffic: Newly available capacity attracts re-scheduled and newly generated travels around preferred
peak hour arrival times. This reduces the potential of the newly available capacity to reduce
peak hour congestion. Induced traffic can be managed by:
i. Managing the physical access to the roadways through access policies.
ii. Affecting the ability of potential road users to travel by car to their final
destinations through comprehensive and consistent parking policies applied to
high trip density location.
iii. Managing the level of traffic seeking to use the available road capacity at
different times of the day (e.g. through pricing policies that moderate the use of,
or access to, road networks or parts of the city).
4.3.1.6 Improving the flow on the network This can be achieved by:
• Constant monitoring of roadway and intersection performance where necessary,
improvement of local infrastructure and increasing of intersection capacity through
measures such as traffic signal coordination, turning lanes, etc.
• Removing constraints that impede traffic flow in congested periods, e.g. restricting onstreet parking
• Attempting to maximize the capacity of the infrastructure to meet traffic demand
47
4.3.1.7 Improving reliability of travel times Travel times are often affected by formation of bottlenecks which may be due to various factors
occurring on the roadway such as incidents (crashes, etc), road works, heavy trucks, on-street
loading and unloading or even intentional barriers put up by traffic police for various reasons. As
noted earlier, if there was prior information on such impediments, they can be planned for. The
worst case is where impediments occur without prior information hence affecting travel time
reliability.
Travel time reliability can be achieved by:
i)
Development of integrated and coordinated incident management policies
ii)
Better coordination and management of road works to reduce congestion
iii)
Better management of urban freight transport.
i) Incident management
This is the process of detecting, responding to and removing impediments caused by traffic
incidents and re-establishment of the road capacity as quickly and safe as possible.
Examples of incidents are crashes, vehicle breakdowns, debris, etc on the roadway.
Enough space must be available for rescuers and emergency vehicles – but this is provided for by
temporary perimeter created at the time of the incident.
It also affects the other lanes as drivers slow down to see what is going on.
ii) Road work management
Road works are necessary and important to improve or maintain infrastructure for better and
ultimately smoother traffic flow. However, road works should be scheduled such that road users
are informed in advance to avoid unexpected periods of congestion. It should also be considered
to have road works done at off-peak hours for example at night, or divert traffic to other
alternative routes. It’s a trade-off between delays and the cost of the method used to reduce
delays.
iii) Urban freight management
Freight transport suffers delay (delayed delivery of goods) but it also cause congestion by
slowing down traffic or blocking traffic especially within the dense street networks.
Inadequate freight delivery bays (loading and unloading) may cause micro and temporal bottle
necks.
48
Delays due to these factors are difficult to predict. They can be solved by:
•
Just in time deliveries: reducing inventory stocks and relying increasingly on floating
stock in trucks causes frequent half-loaded truck trips. This should be avoided.
Example:
Europe has adopted ‘city logistics’ strategies to efficiently bundle desperate freight
movements within the city center and organize modalities.
•
City logistics can be very well applied together with fleet management and warehouse
outside the city from where goods can be delivered as ‘home shopping’.
•
We can also consider controlling exactly when (i.e. the hours) deliveries should be made.
This allows us to restrict heavy vehicles during peak hours.
Example:
In Athens, heavy vehicles are restricted during morning peak hours.
4.3.2 Utilizing the benefits of available capacity: (City Access, Parking Control and Parking Management).
“In light of the induced and suppressed demand, capacity producing measures that manage
traffic levels should be applied in order to lock in the benefits derived from the new capacity.”
(OECD, 2007) [3]
Demand management policies:
As noted earlier, Nairobi is experiencing ‘too much traffic’ in the network, and even more is
the high rate of population growth and hence traffic volumes. There is therefore an increasing
demand for available infrastructure. Managing demand will ensure that traffic flows on the
network do not increase to levels where network reliability is continually put at risk. This will
involve measures that moderate demand (e.g. in peak hours), limit traffic capacity (e.g. for
access to sensitive areas), or increase the costs faced by individual users to better reflect the
social cost involved. The following measures can be put into considerations:
• Access management and control
• Parking management and control
• Road / congestion pricing
49
4.3.2.1 Access management and control This involves setting rules regarding either the physical access to the road network (the
whole network, part of it or some roadway links) or access to limited zones such as the CBD
or other sensitive areas.
i) Access control to designated zones e.g. CBD
The volume of vehicles able to use the road system to travel into the CBD is controlled. In
addition to containing traffic, these measures will also protect sensitive social, environmental
and historical value of such sensitive areas.
Access control initiatives can apply to vehicles or drivers and may take one of the following
forms:
i.
Limited access for selective kinds of vehicles, e.g. heavy trucks, PSV matatus and the
number of private cars. This may work well if applied together with the city
commuter buses with a higher capacity (26 seater and above) being allowed into the
CBD and hence more people are transported into the CBD using fewer vehicles.
ii.
Permit based system: this focus on limiting access to designated users so that only
certain people who have a permit can access some areas. Criteria for access and
acquisition of permits may be decided by the local authorities.
iii.
License plate based system: this gives access to only certain vehicles e.g. some
license-plate number of vehicles on certain days.
However, these measures may require additional cost of implementation and enforcement. These
have been applied in Italy and Athens.
In Italy:
A ban on private car circulation was implemented in the city center during certain
hours of working days. The ban affected all private vehicles excluding those owned by
people resident in the area and a few categories of other drivers who needed their cars
because of working purposes.
In Athens:
Private vehicles access in designated Athens downtown areas e.g. Athens Ring Road is
restricted depending on the date and the last digit of the license plate. Vehicles with an
50
odd last digit in their license plate are allowed when the date is odd and vise versa.
Permanent inhabitants of such areas are excluded from such measures.
Also, heavy vehicles face strict restrictions regarding their ability to cross the city’s
downtown area during morning peak hour
Result:
•
Increased travel speeds in the city center
•
Space recovered for walking, shopping, tourist and leisure activities
In Florence, such measures have resulted in a reduction of approximately 25% of the
traffic volumes and delivered important environmental benefits within the restricted zones.
In Rome, non-residents are made to pay (either on a per-trip or by an yearly flat fee)
for access to the restricted zones, with very effective drop in volumes. However, these led
to an increase in motorized two wheel access to the same zones over time.
ii) Access control for specific roadway links (e.g. ramp metering)
Ramps may be put at the entrance to high speed freeways on the service lanes to reduce
congestion on the free way by staggering the volume of traffic that enters the highway from on –
ramps when the freeway is heavily trafficked. Traffic signals may also be used for the same
purpose.
Expected results:
•
Increase in travel speeds on the freeway
•
Reduction of crashes at the junctions
4.3.2.2 Parking management and control This can be applied on the basis of location and time. However, if used in isolation of other
measures, it’s likely to face resistance from the public and hence be rendered less effective.
It can be implemented as physical limits in the parking spaces available, increase in parking
costs, establishment of alternative parking space outside the CBD. By reducing the space
available for parking within the CBD, the number of vehicles on the road network entering the
CBD will reduce, but there is a need to provide them with alternative parking elsewhere.
Abundantly available parking in the CBD draws more vehicles in and hence increases
congestion, hampering the efforts to promote alternative modes of transport. However, caution
51
should be taken as too little parking space available may also lead to ‘cruising’ as vehicles
struggle finding parking space, and this will increase congestion again. Parking management
should therefore be done with care to balance demand and supply.
However, local authorities are only able to control on-street parking while off-street parking is
majorly controlled by the private sector.
Another important balance is between the parking expectations of city inhabitants (to be able to
have on-street parking) and the parking expectations of the city users1 i.e. to have sufficient
parking available for them to carry out their activities.
Important aspects in the parking management policy:
• Location – nearness to the CBD
• Time of the day and duration of parking.
• Type of user and their activity – living / working / visiting / shopping / delivery
• Incentives for high occupancy vehicles
• Integrated multi-purpose parking facilities serve more users, using less space than
individual parking lots
• Appropriate enforcement programmes should be implemented in the parking
management to ensure the strategy’s success
Park and Ride facilities may be included being situated in suburbs location for support of high
occupancy vehicles and public transport. This serves also to promote a higher modal share of
public transport. Care should be taken, however, to avoid a situation that favors Car + Park and
Ride instead of a rapid transit system for the whole distance.
4.3.2.3 Congestion pricing: This could be applied without resistance from the public only when there is an accepted view
that the congestion is too heavy and other methods would fail to solve it. It’s likely to elicit
public concerns for a city like Nairobi where the greater population is low and middle income
earners, considering that already the oil prices and other expenses are being taken to be over
taxing to the other users. It has however been applied in places like the London with good
results.
1
Persons found in the city, but not living in the city
52
This method may at times serve well to limit private cars in some roads especially during peak
hours. Again this would only work if measures are put in place to enhance the integrity of the
law enforcers.
4.3.2.4 Car pooling This is a form of behavioral change where people share the car. It ensures that the commuters
have the benefits of the car, especially the reliability and the convenience of being dropped at
your door, yet serves well to reduce the number of private cars in the network. Several people
living in the same estate and working in the same are decides to share one car and share the
expenses.
4.3.3 Promoting Public Transport Public transport has the potential to transport a larger number of people than private cars, yet
without occupying as much road space (for the case of buses) or even none (for the case of rail
transport). However, many people in Nairobi would prefer to travel by private cars rather than
use public means - for various reasons, amongst them: unreliability of public transport, comfort,
convenience, economic class etc. To convince such people to leave their cars for the public
transport would mean upgrading the quality of travel offered by public transport and
improvement of infrastructure as well as public awareness initiatives on the need to have fewer
cars in the city. These, when coupled with the parking management system discussed earlier, will
work well to reduce congestion in Nairobi.
4.3.3.1 Championing for public transport The media could be a very useful tool to encourage people to use public means by showing them
the advantages of public rather than private car use. The government could well invest in such
initiatives to educate people on how they can contribute to the congestion solution in Nairobi.
Once people understand the need, it’s even easier to implement other plans towards the same
goals with the public cooperation.
4.3.3.2 Improvement of public transport These would include a number of activities which will end up improving the reliability, comfort
and the convenience of using public transport. It will include ways that reduce accidents such as
tightening the rules governing the acquisition of driving license and the taming of careless PSV
drivers by the application of strict rules. It will also involve better management of public
transport vehicles to ensure passengers are handled correctly, including regulation of fares,
consistency of travel routes, and improvement of travel environment and reduction of travel
times. Travel environment includes the level of noise and the smoothness of the ride.
The current behavior of public transport providers to put very loud music is not desirable for
many travelers. In response to that, NEMA had introduced a rule to monitor the noise levels in
53
public places including public vehicles, but such rules were not effectively implemented, partly
because of the corruption bug eating up the nation and partly because of a laxity in the
enforcement authorities which cannot really be quantified.
The famous ‘Michuki rules’ introduced by the former minister of transport to curb over speeding, overloading and to ensure the safety of the passengers have also lost meaning and
instead become a income generating program for the law enforcers (bribery).
Also, many roads are full of potholes making the ride too bumpy, especially with the kind of
careless driving experienced in Nairobi.
The bus terminals on the other hand are not inviting – being too congested, disorganized, and
neglected. Some terminals actually flood after raining making them unattractive. The matatu
touts are too loud and confusing and sometimes becomes a nuisance to the public as they pull
you around, each trying to force the passenger into his vehicle, which may even be travelling a
different route from the one of interest. These also pose a risk of one losing their belongings or
even being pick-pocketed.
Trains are a cheaper alternative and even more desirable since they carry a bigger capacity than
vehicles and have a relatively higher reliability in travel times. However, booking stations are too
crowded and terminals reaching only a few suburbs. They also sometimes exceed capacity to the
extent of passengers overhanging the doors and some travelling on the roof, which is quite risky.
4.3.4 Conversion of some routes to accommodate Bus Rapid Transit: A Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is a transit system whereby there is right of way for mass transit
vehicles, buses, which carry a high capacity from one point to the other with minimal
interruption from other modes of transport [18]. This gives the passengers an experience that
makes them prefer this mode of transport over the others while at the same time easing
congestion, enhancing mobility, without having to design for completely new roads which did
not exist before. This could be a preferable method of increasing mobility in Nairobi where land
is scarce for construction of new roads, but there is space for expansion of some of the currently
existing roads. It provides a high degree of performance (especially speed and reliability), ease of
use, gives consideration to aesthetics, and lead to maximum utilization of available resources at
lower cost.
It involves the use of dedicated or semi-dedicated bus lanes on the urban roads.
Some of the goals of BRT in Nairobi would be:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Increase the average number of persons per vehicle,
Enhance the people moving capacity of the already congested highways,
Improve public transport efficiencies,
Enhance mobility options for travelers.
54
4.3.4.1 Issues associated with the implementation of BRT in Nairobi Some of the issues in implementing the BRT in Nairobi are obtaining a right of way for buses,
while at the same time maintaining the quality of the existing traffic. An example is where two
lanes may be required for both directions in a multi-lane road, hence leaving fewer lanes for the
other road users. This may reduce the mobility of other modes of transport on the same road,
parallel to the bus lanes, especially if the number of vehicles does not reduce.
Another challenge that may come up is where users of other modes, especially private car users
may choose to avoid the BRT by shifting to other routes and end up reducing mobility in those
roads. This means that there is need to have sufficient number of buses, otherwise, other
commuters will still prefer to use other means and the bus lanes will be under-utilized, while
congestion will have been increased parallel to the bus lanes.
4.3.4.2 Desirable features in Bus Rapid Transit Bus Rapid Transit is often seen as a preferred option for urban transport because it integrates
most (if not all) of the following features which are quite desirable for a busy city like Nairobi.
• Bus Lanes: a lane or several lanes on an urban arterial or street is reserved for the
exclusive or near exclusive use of buses.
• Bus streets and busways: this is where a bus street or transit mall may be created in an
urban center by dedicating all lanes of a city street for the exclusive use by buses.
• Bus signal preference and pre-emption: buses may be given a preferential treatment at
intersections, which may include the extension of the green light time or even actuation
of the green light on detection of an approaching bus. This works very well especially
when applied together with bus lanes or bus streets because the general-purpose traffic
does not intervene between buses and traffic signals.
• Traffic management improvements: this could be implemented as the provision of
low-cost infrastructure elements that aid the ease of speed increase and increase the
reliability of the bus service. This could include bus turnouts, bus boarding islands, curb
re-alignments, etc.
• Faster and convenient boarding: sometimes the collection of fare is better done on the
ground before boarding, even before the bus arrives (as is the case with Mololine which
offer transport services majorly between Nairobi and Nakuru areas), to speed up the
55
boarding process, although in some situations, especially where the passengers are few
on a given bus stop, and when such bus stops are frequent on a single route, it may be
preferable to collect fare on-board, as the bus moves. This is already in use amongst
some of the buses in Nairobi, especially the Kenya Bus Company. Use of published bus
fares improve the reliability and reduce the possibility of hiking fares on the way. This
gives the passengers an assurance that they can trust the services offered and hence
encourages them to use the public buses rather than other modes such as private cars.
Another alternative would be collection of fares upon entry into an enclosed bus station
or shelter area prior to the arrival of the bus, but again this may pose challenges in
implementation due to the diverse bus service providers and the liberal mindset of the
passengers.
Pre-paid “smart cards” could also be used for automated fare collection and this would
really speed up the boarding and improve a lot in reliability. This would however be best
applied in routes which targets medium and high income earning class of people, posing
a challenge in implementation among the low income earners.
There could also be adjustments in either the bus or platform design to provide level
boarding by the use of either low-floor buses or raised platform, or some combination of
the two. This would make boarding easier and faster for all kinds of passengers, rather
than have them climb up the bus from a lower level ground. However, since there is
limitation of the design of buses, since it is more dependent on the body designers, it is
easier to raise the platform to a preferable level that would work with most of the buses.
The government could as well dictate a standard level for the bus designs, but that would
face resistance from the already existing bus companies which already have the ‘old
style’ design, although it is still possible with a good enforcer, since a former minister of
transport (the Late John Michuki) was able to enforce the introduction of seat belts and
other rules such as the ‘speed governor’ which saw the reduction of accidents in the
national transport systems.
• Integration of transit development with land use policies: bus rapid transit goes very
well when implemented alongside pedestrian – oriented land use development which
promotes the vitality of neighborhoods and urban commercial centers. BRT could be
implemented in a more effective way when integrated within a broader planning
framework encompassing land use policies, zoning regulations, and community
development plans.
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• Improved facilities and amenities: improved amenities such as Bus shelters and
stations can be applied together with the bus lanes to add up to the benefits of
operational and travel time benefits of the bus rapid transit that results from the
separation of the bus lanes from the general – purpose traffic. This facilities provides
protection for the passengers from various elements such as adverse weather, provides a
safe waiting position avoiding the risk of standing on the road, and may even have
resting benches to avoid standing for long as one awaits the buses. As discussed earlier,
these facilities could also serve as fare collection points for the service providers. They
could as well be well equipped to furnish information such as printed bus routes and
schedules or electronically transmitted real time schedule data. Space can even be leased
to private commercial enterprises to provide convenient services, which will have
provided more job opportunities for the people.
4.3.4.3 Use of Bus Rapid Transit to Reduce Delays: The major advantage which forms the whole essence of Bus Rapid transit is the reduction of
travel times by reducing the delays which can be seen as emanating from different sources as
will be discussed below. There are obviously other advantages that come with the BRT such as
convenient, reliable, relatively cheaper means of urban transport, but the major advantage is the
enhanced mobility. The following are ways that can be used to reduce delays on a BRT:
• Delay due to general congestion: this can be reduced on a BRT if the general
congestion is reduced and / or if buses are given a preferential treatment through the
creation of a reserved lane. This would call for policies requiring the general – purpose
traffic to give way to the buses re-entering the main traffic stream from bus stops. The
general congestion can also be reduced by the expansion of the roads to have more lanes
for the general – purpose traffic in addition to the bus lanes. Another way would be to
limit the number of general purpose vehicles entering the CBD by such restrictive
measures as increasing parking fees.
• Delay due to traffic signals: this could be solved by giving preferential treatment to the
buses at intersections. This calls for the improvement of traffic signal control systems to
allow buses to flow past traffic light restrictions without being held for long. However,
it is important to still have the traffic lights interconnected to enhance a good flow along
the various streets forming the urban transport grid. The bus signal priority treatment
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would therefore have to be constrained to the modest variations that would maintain
progression.
Bus operating speeds could also be improved if the traffic signal cycles would occur
within duration sufficient for passenger service, such as having the red light occur
during the time needed for passenger boarding and fare collection.
• Delay due to right turns: this would occur when a queue of vehicles turning right blocks
the buses from moving forward. This occurrence can be solved by relocating bus stops
to the far side of the intersection such that the bus is able to bypass the right turning
queue in the lane next to the curb lane. Alternatively, right turns may be prohibited in
some sections of the road, where possible.
• Delays due to passenger stops: This includes passenger boarding time, fare collection,
etc. Boarding time can be reduced by the ways explained earlier on the desirable
features of the Rapid Bus Transit, by means such as improvement of the amenities such
as raising of the boarding platform for easier and faster boarding and to enable even the
wheelchair – bound passengers to board without the difficulty of having to climb up,
improvement of fare collection methods such as pre-payment of fares, self – service
fare collection, greater use of passes, smartcards, etc. An important factor to be
considered here is the stop spacing, which, if increased and hence reducing the number
of stops, could reduce delays due to passenger stops. However, a trade – off has to be
done, with much care to avoid resistance in implementation, between the stop spacing
and convenience to passengers.
• Uncongested moving or free flow operating time: This refers to the time taken by the
buses when operating freely without the effects of congestion. This can be reduced only
if speed limits are raised in certain sections of the roads.
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4.3.4.4 Types of running ways Running ways can be classified into three types [19], depending on the degree of grade
separation and lateral segregation from general-purpose traffic:
1. Segregated running ways
2. Freeway
3. Urban street
Each of these can have various forms as described below.
1. Segregated (separate) running ways
This is the most developed form of a busway. It has been implemented in big cities in developed
countries such as Brisbane, Australia. It consists of a road or guideway dedicated to buses built
on its own alignment and may include both at-grade and grade separated intersections with cross
streets and free- flow ramps to and from other types of bus rapid transit running ways. It however
requires relatively heavy funding and space to implement, both of which are a challenge in
Nairobi.
2. Freeway
These are running ways built within the cross section of a freeway, either as part of new
construction or by retrofitting an existing facility. Its geometry is dependent on the freeway’s
general traffic lanes. It can appear in three different forms as:
•
Median busway: where a dedicated bus running way is left at the median area of the
freeway usually separated from other forms of traffic and with free flow ramps to and fro
other types of running ways.
•
High-occupancy vehicles lanes: this kind of running way is shared with high occupancy
vehicles either on the median or the outer lanes of the freeway and is not necessarily
separated from the other general traffic lanes.
•
Shoulder: this is where the BRT vehicles are permitted to use the outside shoulders of
the general traffic lanes. Sometimes it is limited to peak hours especially in towns and
cities where there are defined hours when traffic concentration is maximum. This is
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usually early in the mornings and evenings as most people travel to their various areas of
interests.
3. Urban streets:
These are running ways developed within the limits of the cross section of a roadway. It may
be developed as part of a new construction or by retrofitting an existing facility. The
geometry of the running way is hence dependent on that of the roadway. It can also have
three forms:
•
Median busway: This is where a dedicated bus facility is provided at the median of
the roadway, and is sometimes shared with other high occupancy traffic. It is
sometimes separated from other forms of traffic with some form of transit priority at
locations where it intersects with other traffic.
•
Bus lanes: This is similar to the median busway other than its typical location
outside the arterial roadway. It is sometimes shared with other high occupancy
vehicles. Bus lanes are not usually separated from the general traffic lanes and may
sometimes be shared for business access and right turns, hence they are also referred
to as Business Access and Transit lanes (BAT).
•
Mixed – use lane: this kind of runways are usually used by both transit and general
traffic, hence the name. Buses may be allowed to ‘jump the queue’ at such positions
as intersections by the provision of such facilities as auxiliary lanes or even widening
of the road at the intersection, and this improves the service times and reliability.
In many cases where it has been applied, site constraints within the already existing roadway
sections such as buildings, parks, curbs, rights – of – way, frontage business improvements, etc
limits the expansion of the roadway to probably only a few feet or even none. In such a case,
there are several strategies which could be employed such as the use of:
•
Bidirectional lanes
•
Reversible lanes
•
Peak – hour – only exclusive lanes
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1. Bidirectional lane: this is an exclusive single lane that allows the BRT vehicle to pass in
one direction through a constrained section while a BRT vehicle waits or dwells at a
station or bypass area until it can be given the green signal to pass through the section in
the other direction. This is applied especially when there is only a single lane and the
headways are restricted in length as a matter of practicality to traverse no more than three
signalized intersections. It is necessary, in such a case, to put ‘block outs’ to ensure that
only one BRT vehicle is in the bidirectional lane at a time.
2. Reversible lane: this has the same physical characteristics as a bidirectional lane, in that
it is a single exclusive lane in the section, but operationally, it functions differently. The
BRT vehicle uses the facility in one direction during the morning peak and the reverse
direction during the evening peak. This allows the BRT vehicles to bypass the most
congested stretches of the roadway during the peak period. However, during the off –
peak period, the BRT has to use the mixed – traffic lane during the off – peak period
since the traffic volumes are low enough at this time and the travel speed is therefore not
critically affected. This is best applied in sections where the traffic volumes are distinct
and with a significant split in both directions between the morning and afternoon peak
periods, say with traffic being in the ratio of about 70 : 30 %. It may not be practical in
routes where the forecasted volumes of traffic are balanced in both directions for the
morning and evening periods.
3. Peak – hour – only exclusive lanes: this is where the general purpose lanes or the
parking lane areas are restricted for the BRT vehicles during a given period of time,
usually the peak hours. This could favor Nairobi well especially during the morning and
evening hours when traffic is predominantly in one direction and lighter in the other. This
could save much on travel time, although it would also require an aggressive enforcement
of the lane(s) during the peak hour restriction.
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4.3.5 Application of Information Technology in Transportation Intelligent Transport System (ITS) would work well if applied in Nairobi alongside the Bus
Rapid Transit and Parking management techniques which regulate the volumes of traffic entering
the CBD. ITS involves the integration of information technology to infrastructure and vehicles.
Drivers are therefore able to access information on congested routes which they can decide to
avoid and available parking to avoid wasting time looking for parking space. Passengers on the
other hand can access travel information that aid them in decision making. Road users can then
adapt to the real time or near real time information conveyed to them in the course of their
travels via road signs, radio, internet, mobile phones and in – vehicle systems.
It also helps operators to manage the available capacity and respond to disruptions by suggesting
alternative routes or modes to the drivers. This can even improve incidence detection and
management and minimize risks of further congestion – causing crashes in the vicinity of the
incident scene.
Figure 4.3: funtional concept of ITS measures [20]
There is however the need to invest in either loop detectors or visual traffic monitoring
capabilities [20]. Also, there is a trade – off between investing in major routes only to reduce the
cost of implementation and investing in the whole network to enhance reliability. Where it has
been applied in other major cities, it has proven to have greater benefits that out-weigh the costs
especially when the benefits of reduced accident and congestion costs are considered.
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Examples:
In the United States, dialing 511 will give you the local traffic information.
In Germany, the RoDIN24 traffic monitoring system passively observes signal data
from mobile phone networks to generate anonymous location information for all
subscribers which is then used as an input to a Floating Car Data (FCD) for analysis to
generate real time road traffic information including the Estimated Time of Arrival
(ETA) for requested routes for the subscriber.
In Munich, NetzInfo aims to achieve optimal distribution of traffic among the routes
by informing the driver about the current traffic situation and the potential alternative
routes.
photo .4-1: ITS application in Munich
(source: mobinet)
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5.0 RECCOMENDATIONS Considering among others, the congested state of Nairobi, the high rate of population growth, the
economic level and growth rate, and the expected consequent rise in congestion, the following
recommendations were seen appropriate to improve the transport network. They are measures
which if well applied, would reduce congestion and improve the mobility of the network. They
are geared to achieve this by increasing the reliability of the transportation, saving on the travel
time, improve the quality of transport services and providing a relatively safer means of
transportation and thereby enhance the environmental health of the city.
It’s worth noting that there is no single ‘killer solution’ to the congestion experienced in Nairobi.
The overall solution will therefore involve the integration of various solutions which should be
implemented in such a way as to complement one another. The recommendations given are an
addition to the current on-going projects aimed at creating new capacity.
• Integrated land use and transport planning
There is need to have a policies in place to control land use and development near transport
infrastructure and facility. This will help avoid a situation whereby land use planners plan
without consideration of the transport system while the transport planners disregard urban
development resulting in conflicting strategies.
• Safer and convenient environment for the non-motorized transport modes
Even as we enhance a faster and reliable motorized transport, it’s important to make relevant
considerations for the non-motorized transport users to enhance their mobility as well as to
protect them since they are quite vulnerable to accidents. It is important to have facilities such as
side-walks, cycle tracks, well managed pedestrian crossing, flyovers, etc while at the same time
taking care of the physically challenged by availing facilities such as ramps where necessary.
• Managing the volumes of traffic entering the CBD
Measures such as described in chapter 5 above should be put in place to control the volumes of
traffic accessing the CBD. This can be achieved by managing parking sites in the CBD while at
the same time providing alternative parking outside the CBD and the use of access management
and control techniques discussed in section (3.3.2) above. Facilities such as Park and Ride will
work very well for the same goal.
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• Sensitizing the public on the use of transport means that do not enhance
congestion
Such behavior as car pooling and the use of public means for longer distances and non-motorized
means for shorter distances should be encouraged.
• Continuous maintenance and repair of roads and streets
Frequent checks should be made to avoid a situation where the
roads and streets are either unusable or full of pot holes which
end up wearing out the vehicles and making the ride bumpy and
undesirable. Situations such as the one illustrated in the photo
should be avoided. Such potholes usually floods with water after
raining which becomes a hazard for road users since they can’t
assess the condition of the road surface they are travelling on.
Note the portion of road rendered unusable being full of
potholes. Notice also the cycler being exposed to multiple
hazards as he navigates too near vehicles being driven
irregularly due to the potholes, competing for the relatively
smoother portion of the road for vehicles in both directions and
the danger of hitting a deep unforeseen pothole covered by water.
photo.5-1: a bumpy section of road near Ngara,
Nairobi
• Improvement of travel time reliability
This may be achieved by managing unpredictable bottlenecks on the roadway through the road
work management, road works being done preferably during off-peak times and traffic being
relocated to other routes, incident management and freight management techniques. On-street
parking should also be reduced within certain parts
of the city.
photo 5.5-2: heavy trucks causing congestion to be
allowed on some roads only during off-peak times
Off-peak freight delivery, just in time delivery and
city logistics should be adopted by the companies.
The authorities should also limit the use of some
roads by heavy trucks during the peak hours.
Freight being transported to areas served by rail
should use rail transport while that being
transported using trucks to other parts of the
country that does not have to necessarily pass
through the city should use the bypasses. This can
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be achieved by taxing the heavy trucks using the restricted roads and reducing the levy on
bypasses and rail.
• Promoting Public transport
This can be done by providing improved facilities for public transport and giving public transport
vehicles right of way in junctions.
Bus terminals should be well managed both in terms
of the maintenance of the facility to avoid a case such
as shown in the photo 5.3. Such is not attractive to
anyone who can find a more convenient means, such
as private means. Nobody would want to walk
through floods to board a bus.
photo .5-3: flooded bus terminal in
railways bus stage
The railways terminal is another facility that needs to
be worked on, especially its environment (photo 5.4).
The place is a bee hive of activities with people
rushing up and down, hand carts being pulled here
and there in a way to compete for luggage, vehicles
turning in a harp hazard way, noisy touts and so on.
These need to be managed to make the railways
station and its environment attractive and convenient
for boarding. Other improvements to promote public
means are: bus stops to be provided with a raised
platform for convenient boarding, better management
of transport service providers to enhance reliability,
strict enforcement of traffic rules to avoid careless
driving and non-roadworthy vehicles and to enhance
safety and quality of travel, proper maintenance of
bus lanes, provision of enough buses for each route and publishing /regulation of bus
fares.
photo 5-4:railway station environment a bee
hive of activities
• Phasing out the low capacity public service vehicles
The government should implement the proposed plans to phase out 14 seater matatus to
promote the use of higher capacity vehicles such as buses. These can be implemented
gradually, denying permits to the low capacity vehicles in favor of buses and removing
the ones currently on the roads as they grow older an un-roadworthy.
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• Investing in bus rapid transit
This will involve conversion of some lanes on the congested roads into bus lanes for use
either exclusively by BRT vehicles or in a mixed flow system with preferential treatment
of buses to allow them right of way especially during peak hours. The government and
the private sector can then invest in BRT vehicles and facilities to offer high quality
services. Buses coming to the CBD from such routes as Mombasa road, Ngong road via
Haille Sellasie / Uhuru highway junction, Thika road and Uhuru Highway at University
way junction should be treated with priority.
• Improvement and further expansion of rail transport
There is still much untapped potential in rail transport in Nairobi. A light rail can further be
extended to cover every major trip generation route such as connecting the major estates and
suburbs to the CBD. Boarding facilities should also be improved and managed to offer quality
services to its customers.
• Use of ITS (Integrated Transport System) to give traffic information to road
users.
This can be implemented in phases starting with the major routes and extending with time to the
whole network and later on making the whole network totally automated even in the control of
traffic. This way, each phase would be affordable enough for the authorities and would make
way for the next phase, giving the planners enough time to evaluate and adjust any changes that
need to be made at each stage.
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