CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL PRACTICE ON THE RETENTION
OF A CONPLEX GROSS HOTOR SKILL AFTER
A FORCED PERIOD OF NO PRACTICE
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Physical Education
by
Harla Christine O'Connell
June, 1981
The Thesis of Marla Christine O'Connell is approved:
Dr. Ann Stitt
Dr. Ann! Stutts
Dr. Hillian}7"incent, Chairperson
California S-tate Uni ver si ty, Northridge
ii
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to my
chairperson, Dr. William Vincent, who provided invaluable
help and guidance in the completion of this experiment,
and to one other member of my committee.
Dr. Ann Stitt.
Further acknowledgment is extended to my understanding
husband for his patience and assistance throughout this
experiment.
Finally, I would like to thank all of the students
at Los Angeles Valley College who participated as subjects
for their patience and dedication that made this experiment
possible.
iii
Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgments
iii
List of Tables
vii
viii
List of Figures
ix
Abstract
Chapter
1.
II.
Introduction
1
Statement of the Problem
4
Scope and Limitations
4
Hypothesis
4
Assumptions
5
Definition of Terms
5
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
7
Review of Related Literature . .
Theories Explaining Mental Practice
8
8
Experimental Designs of Mental Practice
Studies
. . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Methods Used to Promote Mental Practice
and Retention
. . . . . . .
11
Physical Practice Before Mental
Rehearsal
11
Time Periods
13
iv
III.
IV.
Instruction to Experimental Subjects
14
Visualizing in Mental Practice .
17
Techniques to Enhance Retention.
21
Summary . . . . . . .
22
Methods and Procedures.
24
Selection of Subjects.
24
Complex Gross Motor Skill.
27
Pilot Study . . . .
28
General Procedure.
29
Experimental Design.
31
Statistical Procedure.
34
Presentation and Interpretation of the
Data
V.
. . . . .
35
Data and Analysis.
35
Analysis of Variance
36
Discussion . . .
45
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
49
Summary . .
49
Discussion
50
Conclusion
51
Recommendations.
51
References .
Appendix A.
Appendix B.
53
Sample Survey Data Form for Selection
of Subjects . . . . .
60
Orientation of Subjects
61
v
Appendix
c.
Appendix D.
Spiking and Attack Variations
.
63
Numbered Grid for Volleyball
Court.
.
.
.
65
Appendix E.
Sample Skills Test Score Sheets
Appendix F.
Verbal Description of the Volleyball
Spike.
.
vi
.
66
.
67
List of Tables
Table
1.
Page
Descriptive Statistics for the Pre-Test
36
and Post-Test . . .
2.
Two-Way Analysis of Variance on
41
Speed Scores
3.
Two-Way Analysis of Variance on
41
Accuracy Scores . .
4.
Two-Way Analysis of Variance on
Total Scores
42
5.
Pre-Post Speed Mean Differences
42
6.
Pre-Post Accuracy Mean Differences
43
7.
Pre-Post Total Mean Differences
43
8.
Post Speed Mean Differences
44
9.
Post Accuracy Mean Differences
44
Post Total Mean Differences
45
10.
vii
List of Figures
Figure
A.
Diagram of Court During Pre-Test
and Post-Test . . . . .
B.
. . . .
Flight of Set Ball During Pre-Test
26
and Post-Test
C.
Graph of Speed Improvement from Pre-
37
to Post-Test
D.
Graph of Accuracy Improvement
from Pre- to Post-Test
E.
26
38
Graph of Total Improvement
39
from Pre- to Post-Test
viii
ABSTRACT
THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL PRACTICE ON THE RETENTION
OF A COMPLEX GROSS MOTOR SKILL AFTER
A FORCED PERIOD OF NO PRACTICE
by
Harla Christine O'Connell
Master of Arts in Physical Education
This study was designed to determine the effects of
mental practice on the retention of a complex gross motor
skill after a forced period of no practice.
Ninety subjects from three Intermediate Volleyball
classes held at Los Angeles Valley College participated
in the study.
The three volleyball classes were randomly
assigned as Groups 1, 2, and 3.
Group 1 mentally
practiced the volleyball spike for ten minutes twice per
week; Group 2 physically practiced volleyball skills for
forty minutes twice per week; and Group 3 did not mentally
or physically practice volleyball skills.
ix
The experiment lasted five weeks with training
sessions twice per week for three weeks.
The first week
was devoted to the pre-test; the last week to the posttest.
The data from the pre-test scores and post-test scores
for both accuracy and speed were converted to standard
T scores and these T scores were summed to obtain a total
T score for each subject.
The two-way analysis of variance revealed significant
differences between and within the three groups.
Tukey's
post hoc test was used to identify group differences.
The data revealed that significant differences existed
between pre- and post-test scores for the mental and
physical practice
group(~<
.01), and significant
differences existed between the mental and control groups
in speed scores (~ < .05), accuracy scores (~ < .01),
and total score (£ < .01).
Significant differences also
were found between the physical and control group in
speed, accuracy and total scores
(~
< .01).
The physical
and mental practice groups were significantly different
only in speed and total scores (£ < .10).
The accuracy
scores between physical and mental practice groups showed
no significant difference.
The analysis of the data resulted in a rejection of
the null hypothesis.
The following conclusion appears
X
justified:
The process of retaining speed and accuracy
in a volleyball spike is positively affected by mentally
practicing the skill during a forced period of no practice.
xi
Chapter I
Introduction
-------Finding the most effective way to teach and coach a
given physical activity is one of the major concerns of
coaches and physical educators.
There is a professional
interest in improving the performance of athletes and
students, with an emphasis upon quick improvement and the
retention of the desired performance.
Physical educators know that one of the factors that
facilitates learning and improvement is practice, or
physical repetition of a given skill.
However, mental
practice is another factor in the learning of a physical
skill.
A considerable body of evidence exists in mental
practice research studies showing that subjects improve
their physical performance after spending various amounts
of time imagining themselves in the act of performing
their particular skill.
Mental practice is not superior
to physical practice, but various studies have indicated
that a combination of both is very effective for learning
a motor skill (Clark, 1960; Oxendine, 1969; Shick, 1970;
Start, 1964; Twining, 1949).
The function of mental
practice as it affects the learning of a gross motor skill
1
2
can be very significant in the teaching of physical education in our schools and in the coaching of various competitive sports.
However, few studies have been performed
which indicate the effects of mental practice method on
the retention of a skill.
One of the many problems that face coaches and
athletes today are the minor injuries that are incurred at
the beginning of an athletic season.
Once the injury has
occurred the athlete is forced into a period of no practice.
One question important to both coach and athlete is, "How
can we help retain the athlete's skill level during this
layoff period?"
Usually the layoff period for minor
injuries is one to five weeks.
A longer layoff would
probably involve a major injury such as a severe twisted
knee or ankle.
If mental practice is employed during this
layoff period, perhaps the athlete can maintain his/her
skill level.
Relatively few studies have been carried out to
determine the effect of mental practice on the retention
of a complex gross motor skill.
Rubin-Rabson (1941), in
studying piano playing ability, found that a group who
employed physical practice initially and then a mental
practice followed by physical practice retained musical
skills better, after a week had passed, than other groups
who had either all physical practice or first practiced
mentally then physically.
3
Another study by Ulich (1957) reported an interesting
finding on a finger dexterity test, in which a six-month
rest period was inserted between initial practice and post
test of the task.
Four groups were used during this study:
Group one was given all mental practice; group two
alternated mental practice with physical practice; group
three had physical practice only and group four observed
only group three performing the task.
The results were
that group one and two showed evidence of improvement and
group two best retained the skill; the other two groups
showed significant decrements.
Most studies dealing with the retention of a skill
have used refined motor skills which have been administered.
within laboratory conditions [e.g., finger dexterity
(Ulich, 1957); finger maze (Sackett, 1935); key-hole
punch test (Smith, 1962)].
Thus, there is a need for
studies to be conducted in the actual classroom or field.
It is generally recognized that mental practice can
improve physical performance.
However, it has not been
determined whether or not one can retain the speed and
accuracy of a complex gross motor skill through mental
practice alone.
This investigation may contribute to a
better undersanding of the use of mental practice and its
influence on the retention of a complex motor skill.
4
Statement of Problem
The problem is 'best stated as a question:
Will the
use of mental practice during a layoff period help the
athlete retain the speed and accuracy of a complex gross
motor skill?
Hypothesis
The following null hypothesis was tested in this
study:
There will be no significant difference in the
retention of speed and accuracy of a complex gross motor
skill among and between the groups that practiced mentally
and those that did not practice mentally.
Scope and Limitations
Ninety college coeds volunteered to participate in
this study.
All the coeds were enrolled in Intermediate -
Advanced Volleyball classes at Los Angeles Valley College,
Van Nuys, California.
The age group of all subjects
ranged from eighteen to twenty-six years of age.
There
were thirty subjects in each of three groups.
Limitations of the study were there was no data to
assume that subjects in the mental practice and control
groups did not engage in physical or mental practice of
the skill outside of the testing room, although it was
emphasized that subjects should refrain from such practice.
No attempt was made to control subjects' attitudes and
thoughts before or after each experiment.
The findings
5
and results of this study are confined only to the subjects
used.
Assumptions
It was assumed that the subjects in the mental
practice group were actually mentally practicing the
skill.
It was also assumed that each subject was per-
forming to his/her best ability during both pre test and
post test.
Importance of Study
It is generally recognized that mental practice can
improve physical performance.
However, it has not been
determined whether one can retain the speed and accuracy
of a complex gross motor skill through mental practice
alone.
This investigation may contribute to a better
understanding of mental practice and its relationship to
the retention of speed and accuracy of a complex gross
motor skill after a forced period of no practice.
Further,
this study attempts to step outside the laboratory setting
by selecting a sport skill (volleyball spike) which is an
integral part of the game of volleyball.
Definition of Terms Used
The following definitions were used in this study:
!:fental practice - a symbolic or mental rehearsal of a
motor task without any gross motor movements is known as
mental practice.
The word "mental" means that the person
is thinking about a particular task and imagining
6
him/herself perform it.
He thus produces a pattern of
neural impulses in the brain.
The activity of the
nervous system during mental practice is certainly
"physical" in the sense that body cells are functioning
and electric current is being passed along these nerve
cells.
Many synonomous terms for mental practice are
found in the literature.
A few of these terms include:
covert rehearsal, conceptualization, mental rehearsal,
symbolic rehearsal, ideational functioning, introspection,
imagery, and visualization (Sage, 1971).
Complex gross
motor skill refers to a motor activity which involves the
whole body.
given skill.
In this study, the volleyball spike was the
Volleyball spike is the motor act of
jumping into the air and striking a moving ball from above
the level of the net down into the opposite court.
To
measure the performance of the volleyball spike two
elements were observed:
after initial contact.
speed and accuracy of the ball
Speed involves the distance an
object moves in a given time.
Accuracy is the precise and
consistent movement of an object to a given point.
The
method used to measure accuracy was a numbered grid on the
floor where the spike fell after being hit.
The Midex
Sports Radar Gun was used to measure speed.
Minor injuries
refers to injuries which are disabling but rapidly selfhealing such as sprains.
The injury must heal in one to
five weeks so that the athlete can return to play.
A
7
major injurx in this study would refer to an injury that
requires casting, surgery, or extended (more than five
weeks) layoff.
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
The contents of the remaining chapters include the
review of literature in Chapter II which deals with the
examination of studies that are explicitly concerned with
mental practice and retention.
The experimental design,
the methods, and the procedures used in this investigation
are described in Chapter III.
Chapter IV contains the
results, an analysis of the data, and a discussion of
findings.
The summary of the investigation, its conclu-
sions, and the recommendations for future research related
to this study are described in Chapter V.
Chapter II
Review of Related Literature
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects
of mental practice on the retention of a complex gross
motor skill after a forced period of no practice.
This chapter contains an introduction to theories of
mental practice, the methods used to promote mental
practice and retention, and a summary of research findings.
Theories Explaining Mental Practice
A number of attempts have been made to explain the
reasons for the usually positive findings of studies
exploring the effects of mental practice on the learning
of motor skills.
Two of the more popular explanations for
this improvement are the neuromuscular theory and the
ideational elements theory (Cratty, 1973).
The neuromuscular theory suggests that imagining a
movement produces recordable electric action potentials
in the same muscle groups that are required by the skill
being mentally rehearsed.
Ulich (1957), in research on
this theory, concluded that too much tension produced
disorganized and inefficient muscular impulses during
mental practice, whereas the low-tension group probably
was not activated enough.
A moderate amount of physical
8
9
tension seemed most effective.
He recorded the amount of
electric potential emanating from the hands of 18 retarded
subjects while they mentally practiced a finger dexterity
test.
He separated the group into thirds, according to
the amount of muscular tension they evidenced (high,
medium, low) on an electromyograph.
The greatest improve-
ment in the task was recorded by the group evidencing a
moderate amount of tension (95% improvement as compared to
50% and 56% for the high and low - tension groups
respectively).
Ulich concluded too much tension reflected
disorganization and inefficient muscular impulses
accompanying thought, whereas the low - tension group was
probably not activated enough.
On the other hand, the
moderately activated group was most productive, since the
muscular response accompanying their thoughts more closely
matched the actual demands of the task.
The ideational elements theory explains mental
practice by suggesting verbal mediation or word series
as the cause for a change in performance.
In this theory,
Cratty (1973) describes verbal mediation as "a selfdirected sub vocal rehearsal of the skill attempted."
These word series are then retained by the individual until
time for some type of utilization is reached.
Clark (1960) has suggested that most perceptual
information is translated into word series that are
9
tension seemed most effective.
He recorded the amount of
electric potential emanating from the hands of 18 retarded
subjects while they mentally practiced a finger dexterity
test.
He separated the group into thirds, according to
the amount of muscular tension they evidenced (high,
medium, low) on an electromyograph.
The greatest improve-
ment in the task was recorded by the group evidencing a
moderate amount of tension (95% improvement as compared to
50% and 56% for the high and low - tension groups
respectively).
Ulich concluded too much tension reflected
disorganization and inefficient muscular impulses
accompanying thought, whereas the low - tension group was
probably not activated enough.
On the other hand, the
moderately activated group was most productive, since the
muscular response accompanying their thoughts more closely
matched the actual demands of the task.
The ideational elements theory explains mental
practice by suggesting verbal mediation or word series
as the cause for a change in performance.
In this theory,
Cratty (1973) describes verbal mediation as "a selfdirected sub vocal rehearsal of the skill attempted.''
These word series are then retained by the individual until
time for some type of utilization is reached.
Clark (1960) has suggested that most perceptual
information is translated into word series that are
10
retained until time for some kind of reproduction or
interpretation.
Experimental Designs of Hental
Practice Studies
There has been much research in this area on a wide
assortment of tasks and subjects.
Generally the experi-
ments investigating the effects of mental practice include
the formation of a control group (which does not practice
the skill at all), and three experimental groups (one
which practices the skill physically only; one which
practices the skill using a combination of physical and
mental practice; and one which practices the skill mentally
only).
All four groups are then tested for skill achieve-
ment at the end of the experimental period.
Most often, it is found that physical practice
results in the best performance, the combination of mental
and physical practice is almost as effective as physical
practice, and mental practice results in poorer performance than the first two groups but still significantly
better
than that of the control group which had not
practiced (Egstrom, 1964; Mendoza, 1978; Sttick, 1970).
It is now well accepted that mental practice is better
than no practice at all in the learning of a physical
skill (Oxendine, 1968).
In the current study, the
assumption that mental practice is effective in learning
11
was accepted, and hypotheses to test its effect were
proposed.
Methods Used to Promote Mental
Practice and Retention
Several approaches have been employed in the attempts
to determine the most effective techniques for promoting
mental practice.
Mental practice techniques have varied:
visualizing a demonstration through films or live performance, imagining oneself performing the skill without
visual stimulus, getting the "feel" of the movement
(during which muscular involvement occurs to varying
degrees), and reading a description of the skill (Beckhow,
1967; Jones, 1965; Kelly, 1965; Robertson, 1973; Smith
& Harrison, 1962).
In sum, mental rehearsal may be
visual, auditory or proprioceptive.
The author of this
study attempted to combine all these techniques by using
films, verbal description, and undirected mental
rehearsal of the skill.
Physical Practice Before Mental Rehearsal
Different investigators (Corbin, 1965; Burns, 1953;
Symth, 1975; Trussell, 1958; Wilson, 1961) have concluded
in their studies that prior physical experience with the
specific skill is needed before a subject can effectively
mentally practice it.
Therefore, mental practice for
beginners does not appear to be of value as a select
practice technique.
12
In Corbin's (1965) study, 120 college men practiced a
novel juggling task which required them to toss and catch
a wand by use of two other wands which were held in each
hand.
Mental practice did not appear to be of value when
used as an exclusive practice technique.
Corbin suggested
that prior experience was needed before mental practice
would prove valuable.
This conclusion is supported by
Trussel (1958), who reported that mental rehearsal was ineffective except in combination with physical practice.
Her study involved a ball-juggling task which was new to
all her subjects.
Burns (1953) conducted a study in which girls ranging
from junior high school to college age practiced the skill
of dart throwing.
She found that groups which followed a
physical practice schedule or a combination physicalmental practice schedule improve significantly.
However,
a group engaging only in mental rehearsal did not improve.
While conducting a study using a mirror drawing task,
Smyth (1975) found mental practice to be only minimally
effective for initial learning.
She concluded that prior
physical experience on the task or more explicit step-bystep instructions may be necessary for mental practice to
be more effective.
Therefore, in a study of retention,
such as the one being proposed, mental practice should be
very effective because the subjects have developed a high
level of skill prior to the advent of mental practice.
13
Time Periods
Different investigators have experimented withvarying
time periods in mental practice.
Twining (1949) ran his
experiment for twenty-one days, with each mental practice
session lasting fifteen minutes.
However, he found that
mental practice was effective only for the first five
minutes, with concentration becoming increasinglydifficult
after that time.
Rubin-Rabson (1941) utilized four
minutes of mental practice to be beneficial for memorizing
piano music.
Vandell, Davis, and Clugston (1943) used
thirty minutes of mental practice on the second and nineteenth day of their twenty-day experiment, and concluded
that mental practice is about as effective as physical
practice.
Steel (1952) conducted his study for nine days,
and found that mental practice lasting ten minutes was
effective.
Similarly, Start (1964) gave his subjects nine
days of mental practice, but each practice lasted only
five minutes.
Surburg (1968) directed ten minutes of
mental practice three times per week for a period of eight
weeks.
Shick (1970) concluded that three minutes of
mental practice was superior to one minute of mental
practice, when equal times was given to physical practice.
Curby (1976) had three groups of mental practice:
one
group mental practiced for three minutes, second group
mental practiced for six minutes, and the third group
mentalpracticedfor nine minutes.
All groups mentally
14
practiced the gymnastic headstand two times per week for
three weeks.
The group that mentally practiced for three
minutes was significantly better than the control group,
but there was no significant difference between the other
mental practice groups.
Thus, the previous research
literature indicates that a positive effect of mental
practice can be obtained in practice periods ranging from
three minutes to ten minutes.
This study will use a mental
rehearsal period of nine minutes, broken into five minutes
of audio visual persentations, two minutes of directed
verbal instruction, and two minutes of undirected mental
practice in an attempt to make use of all possible techniques.
Instruction to Experimental Subjects
Some evidence suggests that mental rehearsal which is
rigidly directed by the instructor may prove less effective
than rehearsal sessions in which the learner is allowed
greater freedom of imagery (Jones, 1963; Start, 1960).
After a certain amount of guidance, students apparently
need some freedom in organizing their own patterns for
conceptualization, because their concept of the skill may
not exactly fit the description given by the experimenter.
In particular, a ballistic skill such as the volleyball
spike can be conceptualized much faster than it can be
described.
Therefore, a verbal description may cause the
15
learner to see him or herself in slow motion.
This may or
may not be an effective technique.
J. P. Jones (1963) tested the value of directed
versus undirected types of mental practice with 30 college
students in the learning of a new gymnastic skill.
In the
directed rehearsal, subjects received a practice sheet
which gave general practice direction as well as a mechanical description of the task.
This group's practice was
controlled to a great extent by the instructor.
The
undirected mental practice group had less direction from
the instructor and greater freedom in conceptualizing.
Jones found that the undirected mental practice group
learned more quickly than the group which was more
formally directed by the instructor.
He also discovered
that combined reading and mental practice could aid in
the performance of a new motor skill.
Jones theorized
that undirected mental rehearsal proved most effective
because a better kinesthetic image is achieved if the
individual receives the information and is then free to
form a pattern on his own.
Start's (1960) mental practice sessions involved
both instructor-led exercises and individual practice.
In the first case, the instructor described in detail the
proper techniques for shooting a free throw.
At the
same time he asked the boys to picture themselves performing the skill.
Next, they were asked to mentally
16
perform the throw without an oral description.
This was
followed by another short instructor led practice.
Stu-
dents remained seated for the entire session at subsequent
sessions, the instructor would concentrate on certain
specific aspects of the performance.
In some practices
the students were asked to picture themselves from the
time they left the bench in the gymnasium, completely
through the execution of the free throw, and until they
returned to the bench.
In Clark's (1960) basketball free-throw experiment,
the student first read a printed description of the
proper technique.
Next, he stepped up to the free-throw
line and, as the instructor demonstrated and gave oral
instructions, slowly went through the motions of the
shot (without the ball).
Clark encouraged the subject to
see himself and the instructor in the different body
positions, and to feel the movement with his eyes open
and then closed.
Next, the subject took twenty-five
shots at the conclusion of which any necessary changes
were pointed out.
The students later reported that they
gained greater confidence through this method of mental
practice.
They also expressed the belief that this
technique enabled them to visualize the skills more
effectively and to instantly recognize an incorrect
response.
17
An interesting study compared various forms of
practice upon speed and accuracy of performing a simple
eye-hand coordination task (Smith
& Harrison,
1962).
Six
different groups of ten male university students were
each given a one-minute speed test and re-test on a threehole stylus punch board.
To compare the effects of visual,
motor, mental, and guided practice upon speed and
accuracy of the performance, five groups received different
types of practice between the tests.
One group acted as
a control and read between tests.
The control, motor practice, and reversed visual
practice groups significantly improved performance in
terms of correct hits and the total number of trials;
they did not, however, reduce their number of errors.
The visual and mental practice groups reduced their total
number of errors and also increased their performance
significantly in terms of correct hits and total number of
trials.
It was concluded that visual practice and mental
practice improved accuracy on a punch board learning task,
whereas motor practice and guided practice did not.
Visualizing in
Menta~ Pract~ce
In Wilson's (1961) study, which included the learning
of tennis strokes, an interesting feature was that the subjects were asked to feel the body going through the
stroke, and not to picture it.
This instruction was used
on the fact that when a stroke is actually performed,
18
one does not see it.
Further, when a poor hit was
mentally made, students were asked to analyze it and try
to correct it.
Mendoza and Wichman (1978) explored the effects of
mental rehearsal on the performance of a dart throwing.
Subjects in the mental practice group were instructed to
sit comfortably with eyes closed and hands folded, and to
imagine themselves throwing darts.
They were instructed
to be aware of all sensory input, to "feel" the darts
in their hands, to "see" the target as clearly as possible,
to "hear" the darts hitting the target.
to correct for imagined misses.
They were told
The subjects in the men-
tal/motor group were given the same general instructions
but were required to stand at the throwing line facing
the target and, with each imagined throw, to perform
their natural dart-throwing motions.
The results of the
experiment confirm the value of mental practice for
improvement of performance on dart throwing.
In a study by Harby (1952), two hundred and fifty
subjects were divided into mental practice and physical
groups to compare the value of the two methods in learning
to shoot free throws.
The mental practice group viewed
a motion picture of the skill while the physical practice
group actually practiced foul shots.
It was found that
viewing films as used in this study was a significantly
effective method for learning free throw shooting, but the
19
relative effectiveness varied with the subject and the
length of time spent in practice.
Harby suggested that
combined mental and physical practice was probably more
effective than mental practice alone.
A comparison of the effectiveness of mental practice
by viewing loop films on the learning of the long and
short serves in badminton was conducted by Beckhow in
1967.
Beckhow concluded that the use of the loop film
as a mental practice technique was effective in improving
both the long and short badminton serve.
However, motor
skills requiring more fine control and precise movements,
such as the short serve, were influenced by mental practice to a larger extent than those skills which are explosive or dynamic, such as the long serve.
Somewhat similar studies by Kelly (1965) and Shick
(1970) investigated the effectiveness of selected mental
practice techniques on the acquisition of volleyball
skills.
Kelly found that verbal-mental practice, physical-
mental practice, and physical practice were more effective
in developing ability to perform the overhand serve than
was imagery-mental practice.
She also found no signifi-
cant difference in the effectiveness of verbal mental
practice and physical mental practice.
A review of literature by Richardson concluded that
improved performance can result from mental practice and
that visual and kinaesthetic imagining abilities may well
20
play a significant role in the amount of gain obtained
by any particular individual (Richardson, 1969).
The White, Ashton and Lewis (1979) study used
performance in an action/reaction start in competitive
swimming to evaluate the effectiveness of mental and
physical practice, and to assess the importance of
individual differences in imagery ability.
Twenty-four
high school and university students took Sheehan's (1967)
adaptation of the Questionnaire Upon Hental Imagery devised by Betts in 1909 to measure imagery vividness in
seven modalities and Gordon's (1949) test was used to
assess visual imagery control.
The physical practice
group engaged in ten minutes' individual instruction.
Those in the mental practice group were given a sheet
that detailed 15 steps in the execution of the skill,
together with six diagrams illustrating correct techniques.
Members of that group were instructed to study the
material and mentally rehearse it one step at a time for
five minutes every night before retiring.
They did this
for eight consecutive nights giving a total 40 minutes'
mental practice.
Results support an observation made by
Jones (1965) that the development of kinesthetic imagery
is important for mental practice to be fully utilized.
Implications of this study suggest that it should be
possible to use appropriate mental practice to strengthen
21
skill learning or perhaps even substitute for physical
practice expecially if the skill is a previously practiced
one.
Techniques to Enhance Retention
It appears that the extent to which instruction is
retained is a function of the quantity and quality of
rehearsal.
At least two types of mental rehearsal have
been identified.
"Coding," for example, refers to a
class of control processes in which the information to be
remembered is put in a context of additional, easily
retrievable information . . . , whereas imagining is
a control process in which verbal information is remembered through visual images . . . '' (Atkinson & Shiffren,
1971).
An important concept for the practitioner to
remember is that the quality (type) as well as the quantity (amount) of rehearsal influences retention.
The technique of mental practice usually involves
visualizing the movement pattern of the skill or imagining
oneself performing it.
Such mental practice contributes
to learning the spatial pattern of a skill (Oxendine,
1968; Smith & Harrison, 1962).
While the efficacy of
mental practice depends in part on the nature of the
skill and the stage of learning, it is suggested by the
studies just cited that mental rehearsal can enhance
retention of the visual spatial pattern of the skill.
the same basis, it is conceivable that mental rehearsal
On
2Z
may aid retention of the spatial image of the skill during
intervals when overt practice is not possible.
The
author has developed this study to test this very concept.
Summary
The literature reviewed in this chapter leads to
the general conclusion that mental practice has proven
to be a statistically significant method for effecting
motor learning in selected sports and physical education
activities as well as many other unrelated motor skills.
Although much of the literature reveals that physical
practice is superior to mental practice, a combination of
physical and mental practice in some cases (Jones, 1965;
Richardson, 1967) is at least as effective as physical
practice alone.
Much of the literature establishes a close relationship between muscular activity and mental work.
An
increase or decrease may occur in muscular acitvity during
mental practice of a given task.
Some authors (Kelsey,
1961; Perry, 1939) also claim that there is involuntary
neuromuscular activity during mental work.
Clark (1960), Corbin (1967), Egstrom (1964),
Oxendine (1968), Phipps and Morehouse (1969), Start (1964),
Surburg (1969), and Twining (1949), all came to similar
conclusions, although various methods were used in
different degrees, that mental practice was effective in
learning motor skill.
Clark (1960) and Phipps and
23
Morehouse (1968) pointed out that some degree of physical
experience might be necessary so as to provide maximal
effects of mental practice.
Jones (1965) theorized that
undirected mental practice proved most effective from
directed mental practice, however, both methods were
significant.
Beckhow (1967) and Harby (1952) showed that
the use of loop film and motion picture film to mentally
practice a gross motor skill was a significant method
for learning a skill.
It was also found by Smith and
Harrison (1962) that mental practice could provide a
positive effect on the accuracy of the task.
Based on this evidence, the author selected a combination of film, verbal instructions, and directed mental
practice as the training mode for subjects in this study.
Chapter III
Methods and Procedures
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect
of mental practice on the retention of a complex gross
motor skill after a forced period of no practice.
This
chapter describes the general design of the study which
includes selection and grouping of subjects, the description of the skill and the experimental design.
Selectton of Subjects
The population of this study consisted of ninety coed
college students enrolled in Intermediate/Advanced
Volleyball classes at Los Angeles Valley College during
the spring of 1981.
Their ages ranged from seventeen to
twenty-six years.
Prior to the study each student completed a short
questionnaire to determine their age and experience in
volleyball (Appendix A).
The three volleyball classes met two times a week for
the first six weeks and conducted (1) warm-ups, (2)
practice drills, which included volleyball spiking with
the same setter and (3) games.
At the end of six weeks
each student performed the volleyball skills test, with
scorei being recorded as pre-test data.
24
25
Volleyball spike skills test.
The skills test
for the spike consisted of the following procedure:
(1)
The subject stood at the left front position of the volleyball court, close to the bisection of the sideline and
the 10-foot line.
The subject faced the net or long
corner of the other side (Figure A). (2) The setter stood
at the net in center front position facing the left front
sideline, the setter had 10 balls.
was given the command:
"Ready."
(3) The subject
One ball at a time was
set along the net approximately five feet above the net
and out so the ball landed in front of left front
position (Figure B).
(4) The subject approached the ball,
executed a volleyball spike before the set ball could drop
below the top of the net.
Orientation.
After all scores had been recorded,
students vJere read a brief introduction of the study
(Appendix B).
Grouping of students.
Three volleyball classes that
met two times per week were randomly assigned to:
Group 1 - 30 students were given mental practice
training of the volleyball spike twice per
week during a three-week physical layoff.
This training took 10 minutes a day.
Group 2 - 30 students were given three weeks physical
volleyball skill practice with no mental
practice for 40 minutes per day.
26
Figure A
Diagram of court during pre-test and post-test
Hitte-r
Ladder
I
I
0:
I
I
I
3
!4
~~~----------~
i
' I
r
1
I
l
X
.S'¥1tR
4
\?
JO FOOT LINE
·-·-·-· FLi&trr
OF
BALL
Figure B
Flight of set ball
27_:
Group 3 - 30 students were given three weeks no
physical or mental practice of any volleyball skills.
They played badminton for
three weeks for 40 minutes per day.
Complex Gross Motor Skill
Description of skill.
The volleyball spike was
selected as the complex gross motor skill to be studied.
In all three classes prior to the pre-test, the
volleyball spike was taught by instructors' demonstrations.
The subjects then practiced the skill with verbal advice
from the instructor (Appendix C).
The verbal advice is
based upon the investigator's experience as a player and
instructor in volleyball.
Equipment utilized in the study.
equipment was used in the study:
The following
(1) one volleyball net
and standards (net measuring 7'4%" in height); (2) one
regulation volleyball court with a numbered grid laid
on one side (Appendix D); *(3) one eight-foot ladder
(Figure A, location); (4) ten volleyballs, Tachikara's;
*(5) one Midex Sports Radar Gun (use of gun, see Pilot
Study); (6) one film and projector (screen was gym wall);
*(7) ninety score cards, two pencils (Appendix E); (8) a
sixty-second stopwatch; (9) six badminton courts and nets;
30 badminton rackets; 16 birdies (*used only during pretest and post-test).
28
Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted in the Fall, 1980, to
determine the reliability and validity of the radar gun
in measuring throwing velocities of a volleyball.
Relia-
bility and validity were measured by comparing the time
of the stopwatch and the miles per hour measured by the
radar gun of the same throw as described below.
Ten college students volunteered as subjects.
Each
subject was instructed to warm-up their throwing arm.
Five overhand throws at a set distance of 30 feet were
timed with a digital readout stopwatch and the Hidex
Sports Radar Gun.
Since velocity is a measure of time and
distance, and the distance was held the smae (30 feet),
the time was the critical element.
For this reason,
the obtained time figure was then used as an inference of
velocity.
The velocity units were converted into feet per
second and multiplied by .6 to give miles per hour, which
then was compared to the radar gun's findings of the same
throw.
The Pearson produce moment coefficient was used
to determine the relationship between the time scores and
gun scores of the same throw.
The results of the correlation coefficient was .9976,
which represents a highly positive correlation between the
tvm measurements of scores.
The degrees of freedom were
calculated and the relationship determined to be significant at better than 1 percent level of confidence.
Thus,
29
a true relationship exists between the radar guns measurement and the time measurements of the same throw.
In sum,
the radar gun was proven to be highly valid when compared
to stopwatch measurements.
Therefore, it can be indirectly
assumed that if the gun is valid, it therefore must also
be reliable.
General Procedure
Each of the subjects were given a pre-test and posttest on the volleyball spike along with general warm-up
of the hitting arm prior to the test.
of:
Warm-up consisted
(1) general stretching of the whole body and
(2) the participants threw the volleyball overarm into
the gym wall to loosen up their arms and shoulders.
Scoring procedure.
Each subject was given 10 trials
during the pre- and post-tests.
The starting position
was on the left side of the volleyball court at the
bisection of the sideline and 10-foot line.
was given a command:
The subject
"Ready," by the investigator.
The
investigator was the setter and stood at the net in center
front position facing the left side of the court.
the command:
After
"Ready," the investigator would toss the
ball to herself and then set the ball approximately five
feet above the level of the net (Figure B).
The subject
approached the ball and executed a volleyball spike
before the set ball could drop below the net.
of each spike was measured by two factors:
The score
(1) speed
30
measured by the Sports Radar Gun in miles per hour
(see Pilot Study);
(2) accuracy measured by where the
ball landed within the number grid on the other side of
the court (Appendix D).
The pre-test and post-test consisted of ten trials
each.
The subjects ten raw scores for accuracy were
totaled and the ten raw scores for speed were totaled.
These total raw scores were converted to standard Z
scores and then to standard T scores, one for speed and
one for accuracy.
The subjects T scores for accuracy
and speed were summed together to obtain a total T score
for each subject.
Thus each subject was credited with
three T scores, one for accuracy, one for speed, and one
for the sum of speed and accuracy.
This conversion of
raw scores was conducted to assure that each variable
(speed and accuracy) was contributing SO percent to the
final total score.
In addition, T scores have the
advantage of being scaled so that the mean is SO and
the standard deviation is 10.
If the subject did not hit the ball over the net,
the score of zero was given for both speed and accuracy.
If the subject hit the ball over the net to get a speed
reading, but hit the ball out of the court, the speed
score was recorded and a zero was given to the accuracy
score.
These zero scores were summed along with the other
scores obtained by the subject.
Experimental Design
In the experiment, the classes were randomly assigned
to a mental practice group, a physical volleyball skill
practice group, and a non-mental or physical volleyball
skill practice group.
All groups took the pre-test.
Group
1 with no physical practice performed mental practice of
volleyball spike two times per week for three weeks,
then took the post-test.
Group 2 with no mental practice
performed physical volleyball skill practice wtihin regular
class meetings two times per week for three weeks, then
took a post-test.
Group 3 had no physical nr mental
volleyball practice for three weeks, although during this
time they participated in badminton, then took the
post-test.
Summary of design.
Group A
Pre-test
VB spike
Mental practice volleyball spike two times per
week for three weeks, no
physical practics.
Group B
Pre-test
VB spike
Physical volleyball skill
Post-test
practice two times per week VB spike
for three weeks, no mental
practice.
Group C
Pre-test
VB spike
No mental or physical
volleyball practice for
three weeks. Played
badminton for three weeks.
~1enta,l
practice procedure.
Post-test
VB spike
Post-test
VB spike
The subjects of the
mental practice group were seated on the floor facing a
blank wall of the gym.
behind the group.
The film and projector were placed
The investigator turned on the film.
32
The subjects watched the film and listened to the investigator read the verbal description of what was being performed in the film (Appendix F).
After viewing the film,
the investigator directed each subject to imagine themselves performing the skill as she read the verbal description of the skill (Appendix F).
Subjects were then
instructed to imagine themselves performing the skill
without the film or verbal description.
two minutes to do this.
They were given
Mental practice can be summarized
as follows:
Pre-test
(1 day)
Training
(6 days)
Post-test
(1 day)
VB spike
Five minutes volleyball
spike film with verbal
description
VB spike
Group 1
Two minutes directed mental
practice (Appendix F)
Two minutes undirected
mental practice
This group met two times per week for three weeks.
Physical volleyball skill practice procedure.
The
subjects of the physical volleyball skill practice group
met two times per week during regular class time.
class continued to conduct:
The
(1) warm-ups, (2) practice
drills, which included volleyball spike, and (3) games.
At the end of three weeks, the class took the volleyball
spike post-test.
as follows:
Physical practice can be summarized
33
Pre-test
(1 day)
Group 2
VB sp-ike
Trainin~
Post-test
(1 day)
(6 days
General Class Meeting
1) warm-up, stretching
2) pepper with drills
3) serving drills
4) spiking drills
5) games
6) cool down, stretch
Control group procedure.
VB spike
The control group came to
the gym for roll call and participated in badminton two
days per week for three weeks.
Control group procedures
can be summarized as follows:
Pre-test
(1 day)
Group 3
VB spike
Post-test
(1 day)
Training
(6 days)
No mental or physical
volleyball practice.
VB spike
Played badminton
Practice and testing environment.
The pre-test,
post-test, the mental, the physical and the control group
sessions were administered indoors throughout the course
of the study in the main gym of the Womens' Physical
Education Department at Los Angeles Valley College.
doors remained locked throughout the experiment.
The
All
efforts were made to keep lighting and temperature the same
for each group.
All three classes attended physical, men-
tal, and control practice sessions at the same time class
was normally scheduled to meet.
During the pre-test and post-test, each individual
performed ten trials of the volleyball spike.
After
34
finishing their trials, they were asked to help collect
balls for others being tested.
Statistical Procedure
The analysis of variance technique was employed to
determine the variability among and within groups.
Chapter IV
Presentation and Interpretation of the Data
The purpose of this experiment was to investigate
the effects of mental practice on the retention of a
complex gross motor skill after a forced period of no
practice.
Data and Analysis
The pre-test and post-test consisted of ten trials
each.
The subject's ten raw scores for speed were totaled
and the ten raw scores for accuracy were totaled.
These
total raw scores were converted to standard Z scores and
then to standard T scores, one for speed and one for
accuracy.
The subject's T scores for accuracy and speed
were summed together to obtain a total T score for each
subject (Appendix G),
Thus, each subject was credited with
three T scores, one for speed, one for accuracy and one
for the sum of speed and accuracy.
This conversion of raw
scores to standard T scores was conducted to assure that
each variable (speed and accuracy) was contributing 50
percent to the final total score.
In addition, T scores
have the advantage of being scaled so that the mean of 50
35
36
and the standard deviation is 10, making them easier
to interpret than raw data.
Analysis of Variance
The two-way analysis of variance test was used to
determine if significant differences existed among and
within the three groups on the pre-test and post-test
scores.
Descriptive statistics for the pre-test and the
post-test are presented in Table 1.
In addition, graphs
of the analysis of variance from data gathered of all
three groups are shown in Figures C, D, and E.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for the Pre-Test
and the Post-Test
Mental
MeaniS.D.
Physical
MeaniS.D.
Control
MeaniS.D.
Pre Speed
49.446110.1
49.58110.35
50.92 I 9.6
Pre Accuracy
49.2731 9.8
50.2 111.4
50.2
Pre Total
98.72 116.7
99.78120.4
101.106115. 9
Post Speed
59.833112.0
70.88111.03
50.30 110.1
Post Accuracy
66.08 I 4.8
67.531 3.7
50.36 112.0
125.913114.7
138.671 8.12
100.673116.6
Grou:e
Post Total
I 8.6
An I_ ratio of .198 for speed, . 086 for accuracy, and
.135 for total on the pre-test scores indicates no significant difference between the means.
37
Figure C
Graph of speed improvement from pre- to post-tests
Pre-test
Post-test
38
Figure D
Graph of accuracy improvement from pre- to post-tests
70
Groups
1.---------
.:t.-. ___.. __..
3----
55
so
N.S .
•
4ct.:l.7
Pre-test
Post-test
39
Figure E
Graph of total improvement from pre- to post-tests
/to
Groups
1---------
.l-·-·-·
/30
3----
/J.O
110
100
Pre-test
Post-test
40
A two-way analysis of variance on the data indicated
significant differences between and within the groups for
rows, columns, and interaction(£< .Ol)(Tables 2, 3, and
4).
In order to determine where the differences existed
between the groups, Tukey's post hoc test was used to
treat the data.
Tables 5, 6, and 7 compare pre- and post-
test scores by group, while Tables 8, 9, and 10 compare
post-test scores between groups.
The pre-test comparison
shows that both mental and physical groups improved at
£ < .01 but the control group did not.
The post-test speed score analysis revealed a significant difference between the physical and control groups
at the .01 level of confidence, the mental and control
groups at the .05 level of confidence, and the physical
and mental groups at the .10 level of confidence (Table
8).
Post-test accuracy scores analysis showed mental
and control groups, and physical and control groups
differed significantly at the .01 level of confidence
(Table 9).
There was no significant difference in
accuracy between the mental and physical practice
groups.
The post-test score comparison between groups revealed
mental and control groups and the physical and control
groups significantly different at the .01 level of
Table 2
Two-Way Analysis of Variance on Speed Scores
Source of
Variation
Group (Row)
Mean
Degree of
Freedom Squared
Sum of
Squares
F
S.D.
2
1399.42
6.45 .01
18873.839
87
216.94
.01
Trials (Columns)
4827.76
1
4827.76
752.47 .01
Trials x Group
3601.475
2
1800.7
280.67 .01
Error (Between)
558.184
87
Error (Within)
2798.84
6.41592
Table 3
Two-Way Analysis of Variance on Accuracy Scores
Source of
Variation
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Degree of
Freedom Squared
F
S.D.
Group (Row)
2592.24
2
Error (Hi thin)
9881.62
87
113.581
Trials (Columns) 5881.306
1
5881.306
121.43 .01
Trials x Group
2960.971
2
1430.485
29.53 .01
Error (Between)
4213.74
87
48.433
1296.12
11.41 .01
42
Table 4
Two-Way Analysis of Variance on Total Scores
Source of
Variation
Degree of
Mean
Freedom Squared
Sum of
Squares
Group (Row)
9322.686
Error
4780.66
F
S.D.
2
4661.343
87
549.467
Trials (Columns)' 20260.856
1
20260.856
471.25 .01
Trials x Group
11254.581
2
5627.29
130.89 .01
Error (Between)
3740.457
87
(~.Jithin)
8.48 .01
42.993
Table 5
Pre - Post Speed Mean Differences
Mean Differences
.
Mental Group
10. 38'k
Physical Group
21. 30~·-­
Control Group
-.64
~\'p
< . 01
43
Table 6
Pre - Post Accuracy Mean Differences
Mean Differences
Mental Group
16. 8l·k
Physical Group
17.33"k
Control Group
-.01
Table 7
Pre - Post Total Mean Differences
Mean Differences
Mental Group
27 .19"''"
Physical Group
38. 89"''"
Control Group
.43
44
Table 8
Post Speed Mean Differences
Mental
Mental
Physical
Control
11. OS**
X
Physical
X
Control
20.S7*
X
.01
*E_ <
~'\i'\p_
< .OS
J'ci'::j'::E.
< .10
Table 9
Post Accuracy Mean Differences
Mental
Mental
Physical
Control
'l'~l~- <
• 01
X
Physical
Control
1.4S
1S.72*
X
17.17"k
X
45
Table 10
Post Total Mean Differences
Mental
Mental
Physical
Control
25. 24''"
X
Physical
36. 0''"
X
Control
X
confidence (Table 10), while the mental and physical
practice groups differed only at the .10 level of confidence.
Discussion
The findings in this experiment indicate that there
were significant differences in learning between the groups
during the forced period of no practice.
The physical volleyball skill practice group had the
overall highest level of improvement from the pre-test to
the post-test scores in speed, accuracy, and total scores
of the volleyball spike (Table 7).
The mental practice
group also showed significant improvement from their
pre-test scores to their post-test scores in speed, accuracy and total score (Table 7) .
However, the data
support the literature which indicated that mental practice
46
alone is not superior to physical practice alone (Egstrom,
1964; Phipps and Morehouse, 1969; Steel, 1952; Vandell &
Clugston, 1943).
These results are strongly supported by
the fact that the control group in the pre- to post-test
comparison resulted in a flat line.
The control group
accuracy scores show slight improvement, but it was
insign~
ficant (Figure D), and the speed and total post-test
scores actually declined when compared to the pre-test
scores (Figure C and E) .
Both the mental and physical volleyball skill practice groups showed significant improvement over the
control group in their accuracy scores (£
<
.01).
But they
did not significantly differ ·. between their accuracy scores
(Figure D) .
These findings might be accounted for by the
fact that both groups practiced hitting the ball to a
particular spot--even though the practice sessions were
through different modes (mental and physical).
The fact
that the subject practiced accuracy by hitting a certain
spot may account for the improvement in both groups and
also for the lack of difference.between the groups.
Speed scores for both the mental and physical volleyball skill practice groups improved significantly over the
control group, and they differed from each other indicating
a differential effect of treatment on the groups (Figure
C).
There are several reasons which might account for this
difference in the findings,
First, the mental and physical
47
volleyball skill group will improve because the two groups
practiced the skill either mentally or physically.
Secondly, the significant difference between physical
and mental groups on speed (£ < .05) may be attributed
to the physiological maintenance of the muscles in the
physical practice group which were called into play to
perform the skill at its maximum speed.
The mental
practice group did not perform any physical activity for
three weeks.
Thirdly, the non-significant difference in
accuracy scores between the mental and physical practice
groups may be attributed to the specific techniques used
in mental practice in this study.
While the subjects
mentally practicedthevolleyball spike, they could have
imagined the ball landing in slow motion to a specific
area of the court.
If the subject imagined the speed of
the ball in slow motion, this would slow down and tense
the arm swing.
Therefore, this may account for the signi-
ficant difference between the speed scored and the nonsignificant difference between accuracy scores of the
mental and physical practice groups.
The total scores of the groups revealed a significantly high difference (£ < .01) between the physical
and control groups and the mental and control groups,
The
total score differences between the mental and physical
volleyball skill practice group was at theE< ,10 level
of confidence (Figure D).
The significant difference
48
between the control group and the other two groups (mental
and physical) indicates that physical or mental practice
retains overall performance of the volleyball spike.
The
-
data also show that mental practice techniques in this
study improve the accuracy of a volleyball spike more than
they do the speed of the spike.
These findings are similar to the findings of several
researchers that mental practice may not be superior to
physical practice but it is better than no practice
(Richardson, 1967; Robertson, 1973; Start, 1964; Sage,
1971; Symth, 1975; White, 1977; Vandell & Clugston, 1943).
The conclusions of the study based upon the
analysis and interpretation of the data are presented in
Chapter 5.
Chapter 5 also includes the summary and
reconunendations.
Chapter V
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
Summary
This experiment was designed to determine the effect
of mental practice on the retention of a complex gross
motor skill during a period of physical layoff.
This was
accomplished by having the mental practice group abstain
from physical practice, the physical practice group
continue to practice the entire game of volleyball with no
physical layoff, and the control group perform neither
physical nor mental practice of the volleyball spike.
Ninety college students enrolled in three Intermediate
Volleyball classes at Los Angeles Valley College completed
the study.
The classes were randomly assigned to groups.
Group 1 mentally practiced the volleyball spike for ten
minutes, Group 2 physically practiced all volleyball
skills for 40 minutes, and Group 3 served as the control
group by playing badminton.
The experiment lasted five weeks.
During the first
week, a pre-test was conducted, followed by three weeks
of training (twice a week).
The post-test was conducted
during the last week.
49
50
A two-way analysis of variance revealed significant
differences existing between qnd within the three groups
for rows, columns, and interaction.
Tukey's post hoc test
indicated that significant difference existed between preand post-test scores for the mental practice group and the
physical practice group (£ < .01).
Also, significant
differences existed between the mental and control groups
in speed scores (£ < .05), accuracy scores (£ < .01), and
total scores (£ < .01), and significant differences were
found between the physical and control group in speed,
accuracy, and total scores (£ < .01).
The physical and
mental practice groups differed in speed and total
scores (£ < .01), but the accuracy scores showed no
significant difference.
Discussion
The findings of this study indicate that the groups
that physically and mentally practiced were significantly
better in the speed and accuracy of the volleyball spike
than the control group after the
three~week
training
period.
The differential improvement of the pre to post
accuracy and speed scores for the mental and physical practice groups may be attributed to the techniques used for
mental practice in this study.
All three types of mental
practice (film, verbal and undirected) could conceivably
enhance accuracy, but it is possible that verbal instructwn
5L
may be detrimental to an effective full-speed mental
image because the instructor cannot speak as fast as
'
the skill is performed.
Thus, if one mentally practices
a ballistic action in slow motion, it may not transfer to
the actual skill at full speed.
The fact that the speed scores differed (~ < .01)
between mental practice and physical practice group
might also be attributed to this aspect of the mental
practice techniques.
If the subjects imagined the speed
of the arm swing in slow motion before contact with the
ball, this could slow down and tense the arm muscles
and swing.
Therefore, imagining the action in slow motion
may result in negative transfer to the actual ballistic
task.
Conclusion
On the basis of the experimental evidence presented
the null hypothesis was rejected.
Within the scope and
limitations of this experiment, the following conclusion
appears justified;
The process of retaining speed and
accuracy of the volleyball spike is affected positively
and significantly by mentally practicing the skill during
a forced period of no practice.
Recommendations
The following suggestions for further study in this
field are offered:
52
1.
Once the mental practice group has finished
their session, they should return to another
unrelated activity to equalize activity time
spent among the groups.
2.
The differential effects of directed and undirected mental practice on ballistic skills
should be investigated.
References
Adams, J. A., & Dijkstra, S.
responses.
Short-term memory for motor
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1966,
71, 314-318.
Atkinson, .R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M.
term memory.
Beckhow, Paul.
The control of short-
Scientific American, 1971,
~.
82-90.
A comparison of the effectiveness of men-
tal practice upon the learning of two gross - motor
skills.
Unpublished master's thesis, University of
Oregon, 1967.
Burns, Patricia L.
The effect of physical practice,
mental practice and mental - physical practice on
the development of a motor skill.
Unpublished
master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1962.
Clark, Verdelle L.
Effect of mental practice on develop-
ment of a certain motor skill.
1960,
Corbin, C.
~.
Research Quarterly,
560-569.
The effects of mental practice on the
development of a unique motor skill.
The Journal of
General Psychology, 1967, 143-150.
Cratty, B. J.
(3rd ed.).
Movement behavior and motor learning
Philadelphia, Penn.:
1973.
53
Lea and Febiger,
54
Curby, Jesusa C.
The effect of various periods of various
periods of mental practice on the learning of a
novel gross motor task.
Published master's thesis,
California State University, Northridge, 1976.
Egstrom, G. H.
Effects of an emphasis on conceptualizing
techniques during early learning of a gross motor
skill.
Gordon, R.
Research Quarterly, 1964,
~'
472-481.
An investigation into some of the factors
that favour the formation of stereotyped images.
British Journal of Psychology, 1949, 39, 156-167.
Harby, S. F.
Comparison of mental and physical practice
in the learning of a physical skill.
U.S.N. Special
Development Center Technical Report.
S.D.C.
260-275, 1952.
Jones, J. G.
Motor learning without demonstration or
physical rehearsal under two conditions of mental
practice.
Research Quarterly, 1965,
Kelly, Darlene A.
1.
270-276.
The relative effectiveness of
selected mental practice techniques in high school
girl's acquisition of a gross motor skill.
Unpub-
lished master's thesis, University of Washington,
1965.
Lawther, J. D.
Sport psychology.
Hall, Inc., 1972.
New Jersey:
Prentice-
55
Mendoza, D., & Wichman.
"Inner" darts:
Effects of
mental practice on performance of dart throwing.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1978, 47, 1195-1199.
Oxendine, J. B.
Psychology of motor learning.
New York:
Meredith Corporation, 1968.
Oxendine, J. B.
Effect of mental and physical practice on
the learning of three motor skills.
Quarterly, 1969,
Phipps, S. J.,
~.
Research
755-763.
& Morehouse, C. A.
Effects of mental
practice on the acquisition of motor skills of
varied difficulty.
Research Quarterly, 1969, 40,
773-778.
Richardson, A.
Mental practice;
a reviev7 and discussion.
Research Quarterly, 1967, 38, 263-273.
Richardson, A.
Mental imagery.
New York:
Springer
Publishing Company, 1969.
Robertson, W. F.
Effects of different types of mental
practice upon motor learning.
Unpublished master's
thesis, California State University, Northridge, 1973.
Rubin-Rabson, G. A.
A comparison of two forms of mental
rehearsal and keyboard overlearning.
The Journal
of Educational Psychology, 1941, 32, 593-602.
Sackett, R. S.
The relationship between amount of
symbolic rehearsal and retention of a maze habit.
The Journal of General Psychology, 1935, 13, 113-128.
56
Sage, G.
Introduction to motor behavior:
logical approach.
A neurophysio.:..
Menlo Park, Calif.:
Addison-
Wesley, 1971.
Samuels, H. D. , & Samuels, N.
New York:
Random House, 1975.
Sheehan, P. W.
(Ed.).
New York:
Shick, J.
Seeing with minds eye.
The function and nature of imagery.
Academic Press, 1972.
Effects of mental practice on selected volley-
ball skills for college women.
Research Quarterly,
1970,
Smith, L. E.,
& Harrison, J. S.
Comparison of the effects
of visual, motor, mental and guided practice upon
speed and accuracy of performing a simple eye hand
coordination task.
Research Quarterly, 1962, 33,
299-307.
Smyth, M. M.
The role of mental practice in skill
acquisition.
Sommer, Robert.
Journal of Motor Behavior, 1965,
The minds eye.
New York:
z,
199.
A Delta
Book, 1978.
Stalings, L. M.
Hotor skills development and learning.
Washington, D.C.:
Start, K. B.
Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers.
Kinaesthesis and mental practice.
Research
Quarterly, 1964, 35, 316-320.
Start, K. B.
Intelligence and the improvement in a gross
motor skill after mental practice.
British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 1964, 34, 85-90.
57
Steel, W. I.
The effect of mental practice on the acqui-
sition of a motor skill.
Journal of Physical
Education, 1952, 44, 101-108.
Surburg, P. R.
Audio visual and audio visual instruction
with mental practice in developing the forehand
tennis drive.
Trussel, E.
~1.
Research Quarterly, 1968,
~.
728-734.
Mental practice as a factor in learning
a complex motor skill.
Unpublished doctoral disser-
tation, University of California, Berkeley, 1958.
Twining, W. E.
Mental practice and physical practice in
learning a motor skill.
Research Quarterly, 1949, 20,
432-435.
Ulich, E.
Some experiments on the function of mental
training in the acquisition of motor skills.
Ergonomics, 1957, 10, 411-419.
Vandell, Davis,
& Clugston.
The function of mental prac-
tice in the acquisition of motor skills.
Journal of
General Psychology, 1943, 29, 243-250.
Wilson, M. E.
The relative effect of mental practice and
physical practice in learning the tennis forehand
and backhand drives.
Unpublished doctoral disserta-
tion, State University of Iowa, 1961.
White, K,, Ashton, S.,
skill:
& Lewis, S.
Learning of complex
Effects of mental practice, physical practice,
and imagery ability.
International Journal of Sports
Psychology, 1979, 10, 71-78.
58
White, K., Sheen, P. W., & Ashton, R.
A survey of self-report measures.
Imagery, 1977,
1, 145-70.
Imagery assessment:
Journal of Mental
59
Appendices
60
Appendix A
Sample Survey Data Form for Selection of Subjects
I am conducting a research on motor learning.
The
questions below will enable me to choose the subjects
that would qualify for the study.
Please answer care-
fully.
Thank you,
Marla O'Connell
Name:
--------------------------
Address:
---------------------------
Home Phone:
Class Time: ____Day:
Age:
-----------------------
City _ _ _ _ _Zip
Work Phone:
---------------
Please check the following:
1.
Have you had any instructed volleyball classes
before this one?
Yes
No
2.
If yes, how many?
3.
Circle number of years you have played organized
volleyball.
1
4.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Have you competed for a school volleyball team?
Yes
No
If yes , when and where?
61
Appendix B
Orientation of Subjects
Thank you for participating.
As you recall, your
class was asked to fill out a small questionnaire pertaining to your physical knowledge and experience in volleyball activities.
The data collected enabled me to select
the subjects that would qualify for the experiment.
And
you qualified for it.
Let me make it clear that this experience had nothing
to do with your physical education activity.
It will
not affect your grade.
Read to Group 1:
You will be taught mental practice of
the volleyball spike.
cause for alarm,
It is very easy, and there is no
I assure you that you will not be hurt,
nor be made uncomfortable.
All you do is listen and
watch a film, follow instructions and try your best.
We
will start learning mental practice on your next class
meeting.
Read to Group 2:
We
~.vill
meet in the gym during regular
class hours to continue our work on your volleyball
skills.
Read to Group 3:
We will meet in the gym for roll call
and as indicated earlier in the semester, we will start
participating in badminton games at our next class meeting.
~2
Your attendance is very important to my study.
hope that everyone of you will continue with me until
the study is completed.
Any questions?
I
-63
Appendix C
Following taken from the concepts used
at Mary Dunphy's Volleyball Camp
Spiking and Attack Variations
I.
Philosophy
Aggressive spiking - aggressive attack.
Always
do things on the court to defeat the opponent.
If
players can move feet to ball--then she should jump
and hit.
The attack - can be broken down into three
parts:
the approach, the jump, and the hit.
The
was reference for investigator.
A.
B.
Approach
1. Watch pass - teach players to track ball at
all times.
2. Read (analyze) set - speed, trajectory, depth,
etc.
3. Wait! Most spikers (all skill levels) start
their approach too soon.
a. Under ball
b. No power
c. Unable to see block
d. Poor summation - lose several inches in
vertical jump.
4. Four-step approach with step close. Right
left for righties.
a.
Open to court
b. Power cross court
c. Rotate to hit line
d. Same for all approaches including off hand
5. Always give direction to the ball, do not
let the set determine what you can do with
the ball.
Role of Arms and Arm Swing
1. Movement by side--efficient - not rushed
2. Newton's Law
3. Non-hitting arm: height, balance, guide, aid
in rotation
64
4.
Arm swing
a.
elbow back for power
b. contact - above and in front of attacking
shoulder
c. natural follow through--do not teach
C. Ball Contact
1. Whole hand
2. Hand must snap freely
Various types of spikes -- Encourage players to develop a
wide selection of shots, but the ability to hit two
"power shots" (line and angle) is essential for all
spikers.
Key Words Used in Classes:
A.
B.
C.
Feet to ball
Pendulum arm action
Swing
65
Appendix D
Numbered Grid for Volleyball Court
Numbered grid used on one half volleyball court.
Equipment used:
1) 6 yards thick yarn
2) one roll masking tape
3) medal measuring tape
Diagram on dimensions of number grid:
(
II '.3~'
3
:l.9, /,''
~
lh'3l'
)
66.
Appendix E
Sample Skills Test Score Sheets
Class Time: - - - - Day:
---Post-Test
Name:
Pre-Test
MPH
Grid
:f/:
MPH
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Total:
Total:
Grid
:ffo
67'
Appendix F
Verbal Description of the Volleyball Spike
The performer is in the starting position on the court
(left front).
The players feet are ready to move.
feeling of slight dancing or hopping
The word "ready" is heard.
A
is- in the feet.
The player swings outside
with a gliding two steps and waits.
traveling high and close to the net.
The set is up; it is
The player pushes off
with the back foot, and strides the ball.
The body remains
open to the court as the feet come togetheri with a powerful bend in the legs, the arms swing up explosively to
m~et
the ball.
The elbow is extended back and then the
crackle of the hand hitting the ball above and in front of
the shoulder is heard.
natural
follow~through.
The air and arm swishes by in a
The thud of ball and feet finish
the production of the spike.
Appendix G
Raw Scores Converted to T Scores
Mental Practice Group 1
Subj.
Pres:e
Preac
T-s:e
T-ac
T-tot
Posts:e
Postac
T-s:e
T-ac
T-tot
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
203
220
220
232
242
250
251
270
270
287
302
290
297
316
323
334
336
356
356
362
340
367
371
380
20
26
28
28
32
36
36
28
20
28
32
30
30
30
33
34
31
29
30
34
34
24
30
24
31.8
34.3
34.6
36.1
37.5
38.7
38.9
41.7
41.7
44.2
46.4
44.7
45.7
48.5
49.5
51.1
51.4
54.3
54.3
55.2
52.0
56.0
56.6
57.9
26.8
39.8
44.2
44.2
52.8
61.5
61.5
44.2
26.8
44.2
52.8
48.5
48.5
48.5
54.9
57.1
50.6
46.4
48.5
57.1
57.1
35.5
48.5
35.5
58.6
74.1
78.8
80.3
90.3
100.2
100.4
85.9
68.5
88.4
99.2
93.2
94.2
97
104.4
108.2
102
100.7
102.8
112.3
109.1
91.5
105.1
93.4
245
297
288
270
298
334
327
334
352
323
359
322
352
371
398
398
401
419
450
443
419
440
450
470
31
38
40
38
36
39
38
35
36
40
40
37
37
36
40
39
40
38
35
40
40
38
40
35
38
45.7
44.4
41.7
45.8
51.1
49.9
51.1
53.7
49.5
54.8
49.4
53.7
56.6
60.0
60.0
61.0
63.7
68.3
67.2
63.7
66.8
68.3
71.2
50.6
65.8
70.2
65.8
61.5
68.0
65.8
59.3
61.5
70.2
70.2
63
63
61.5
70.2
68
70.2
65.8
59.3
70.2
70.2
65.8
70.2
59.3
88.6
111.5
114.6
107.5
107.3
119.1
115.7
110.4
115.2
119.7
125
112.4
116.7
118.1
130.2
128
131.2
129.5
127.6
137.4
133.9
132.6
138.5
130.5
·0\
.~
Subj.
Pres2
Preac
T-s2
T-ac
T-tot
Posts2
Postac
T-s2
T-ac
T-tot
25
26
27
28
29
30
394
401
410
428
429
440
31
31
31
38
38
35
60.0
61.0
62.3
65.0
65.2
66.8
50.6
50.6
50.6
65.8
65.8
59.3
110.6
111.6
112.9
130.8
131
126.1
476
470
480
525
530
560
40
40
40
40
40
38
72.0
71.2
72.7
79.4
80.1
84.0
70.2
70.2
70.2
70.2
70.2
65.8
142.2
141.4
142.9
149.6
150.3
149.8
Physical Practice Group 2
Subj.
Presp
Preac
T-s:e
T-ac
T-tot
Posts:e
Postac
T-s12
T-ac
T-tot
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
199
273
247
241
210
205
218
270
288
287
310
293
308
322
327
335
346
352
366
359
20
23
36
30
20
20
22
30
30
32
30
34
30
33
30
34
31
28
29
31
31.2
42.1
38.3
37.5
32.8
32
34
41.7
44.4
44.2
47.6
45.1
47.3
49.4
49.9
51.2
52.9
53.7
55.8
54.8
26.8
33.3
61.5
48.5
26.8
26.8
31.1
48.5
48.5
52.8
48.5
57.1
48.5
54.9
48.5
57.1
50.6
44.2
46.4
50.6
58
75.4
99.8
86
59.6
58.8
65.1
90.2
92.9
97
96.1
102.2
95.8
104.3
98.4
108.3
103.5
97.9
102.2
105.4
330
393
419
394
341
395
335
419
410
415
445
434
460
480
473
504
478
501
513
490
35
38
40
40
39
37
34
38
37
40
40
40
39
40
39
40
38
35
40
40
50.2
59.8
63.7
60.0
52.1
60
51.2
63.7
62.3
63
67.5
65.9
69
72.7
71
76
72
75
77
74
59.3
65.8
70.2
70.2
68
63
57.1
65.8
63
70.2
70.2
70.2
68
70.2
68
70.2
65.8
59.3
70.2
70.2
109.8
125.6
133.9
130.2
68.1
123
108.3
129.5
125.3
133.2
137.7
136.1
137
142.9
139
146.2
137.8
134.3
147.2
144.2
0\
\.0
Subj.
PresE
Preac
T-sE
T-ac
T-tot
PostsE
Postac
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
376
357
443
341
378
376
398
428
440
419
34
31
35
34
34
34
40
38
33
38
57.3
54.5
67.2
52.1
57.6
57.3
60.0
65.0
66.8
63.7
57.1
50.6
59.3
57.1
57.1
57.1
70.2
65.8
54.9
65.8
114.4
105.1
126.5
109.2
114.7
114.4
130.2
130.8
121.7
129.5
520
512
595
466
520
517
560
486
602
587
40
39
40
40
40
40
40
38
40
38
T-sE
T-ac
T-tot
78
77
89
70
78
78
84
88
90
88
70.2
68
70.2
70.2
70.2
70.2
70.2
65.8
70.2
65.8
148.2
145
159.2
140.2
148.2
148.2
154.2
153.8
160.2
153.8
-....j
o.