Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
UniversityPressScholarshipOnline
OxfordScholarshipOnline
SharedStories,RivalTellings:EarlyEncountersofJews,
Christians,andMuslims
RobertC.Gregg
Printpublicationdate:2015
PrintISBN-13:9780190231491
PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:August2015
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231491.001.0001
SarahandHagarinChristianRetellings
RobertC.Gregg
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231491.003.0008
AbstractandKeywords
St.Paul’srecastingofSarahandHagarinhisbriefallegory(Galatians4:21–31)allowed
him(andhisChristiansuccessors)toassertthatGod’scovenantwithAbrahamnow
belongedtothebelieversthatJesuswastheMessiah,andnottohisJewishdetractors.It
felltothechurches’theologians,preachers,andartiststodemonstratethesignificanceof
thevisitingangels’announcementofIsaac’sfuturebirthtoSarahandAbraham.A
typologicalinterpretationproposedthatthetidingsofIsaac’smiraculousbirthtoSarah
prefiguredtheannunciationtoMarythevirginofJesus’sbirth(Luke1:26–38).Origen,
thefamedthird-centurythinkerandpreacherdisplayshisapplicationsofliteral,
allegorical,andspiritualinterpretationinhissermon,OnthebirthofIsaacandthefact
thatheisweaned.AnalysesoffourpiecesofChristianartcompletethechapter.
Keywords:Paul,allegory,Origen,annunciation,Sta.MariaMaggiore
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
WhenearliestbelieversthatJesuswasGod’smessiahclaimedthattheywerenowGod’s
covenantpeople,theywereobligedtoexplaintheirrelationtoAbraham,andtohistwo
women.AprovocativeobservationbyElizabethClarkisagoodonetoplaceoverthis
chapter—andtotestasweproceed:
ExegesesofthestoriesofHagar,Sarah,andAbrahambythechurchfatherswere
bornofneeds,astheyperceivedthem,oftheirowndays....[Their]mainconcern
istodefendthehonorandreputationofAbraham,theforefatheroftheMessiah,
oftenattheexpenseofthewomenwithwhomhesharesthestory.ThatSarahand
Hagarare“used”bytheFatherstoillustrateotherpointsofChristiantheology
shows,aboveallelse,thathoweverlittleconcerntheyhadforthesefemale
charactersintheirownright,they,likewomenelsewhere,were“good”formen
“tothinkwith.”
ElizabethA.Clark,“InterpretiveFateandtheChurchFathers” 1
ForJewsandChristiansonlythecouple,AbrahamandSarah,andtheirsonIsaacheld
centralimportance.Withthat“side”ofthepatriarch’sfamily,theBiblemadeclear,God’s
covenantanditspromiseswereoperative.Sarah,then,hadthestatusofrevered
matriarch—itwashersonandhisownoffspringwhowereespeciallyblessed.
Christianity’sassertionthatitbecamethatAbrahamic“family,”thepreferredandchosen
peopleofGod,wasattheheartofJewish-Christiandebateanddifference,andwilloccupy
usinthefollowingpages.Islamexultsinthedivinewillthatbroughtintobeingfather
Ibrahimtheprophet,andcelebratesespeciallyIshmaelandhisprogeny,fromwhom
continuedthatlineofGod’semmisariesthroughthe(p.155) centuries—downtothe
appearanceofMuhammad.Hagar,atonepointcalled“motheroftheArabs,”isthewifeof
IbrahimtowhomMuslimsgivespecialhonor.
Wehaveseentherabbis’judgmentsofSarahandHagarinconflict.Whatkindsof
valuationsofthetwowomendidearlyChristiansreach,andwhatbecameoftheir
personaeasscripturalcharacterswhenpreachers,theologians,andartistsexpanded
upontheiridentitiesandtheirsignificances?Inparticular,whatinterpretivefatewillbefall
Hagar?
St.PaulonSarahandHagarandTheirSons
Galatians4:21–31
NoearlyChristianwriter’suseofSarahandHagar“tothinkwith”wasmoreinfluential
thanPaul’s,eventhoughtwootherpassagesintheNewTestamenteffectivelyfashioned
Sarahintotheexampleofwifelyobedience(1Peter3:6)andoflifelived“byfaith”
(Hebrews11:11).2TherecipientsoftheEpistletotheGalatians,whichPaulsent
sometimeintheearly50sCE,couldonlyhavebeensurprisedbyhisanalysisofthe
Sarah-Hagarstoryinhisletter.TakinglibertieswithtraditionalJewishunderstandingsof
theGenesisnarrative,PaulradicallyreimaginedAbraham’sfamilyintermsconsistent
withtherevelationhehimselfhadexperienced.Hisconversioncausedhimtoleave
behindhis“earlierlifeinJudaism”(anaccountofwhichhegivesinGalatians1:11–2:14)
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
andbecomethe“apostle[ofGod]totheGentiles”(Galatians2:8;Romans11:13).
Abrahamandhisfamilyarethusinterpretedinawayconsistentwiththe“gospelforthe
uncircumcised”(2:7)thathepreached,apparentlypersuasively,tothecongregationsin
thisareainAsiaMinor.
TheunexpectedmeaningsPaulderivesfromthetaleofSarahandHagarandtheirtwo
sonshavechallengedcommentatorsthroughthecenturies,includingmodernscholarsof
theNewTestamentandthosewhoinvestigatethehistoryofrelationsbetweenJewsand
Christians.Largeissuesareatstake.PaulassertsinGalatians(1)thatobedienceto
commandsofGodwasnotthebasisuponwhichAbrahamwas“reckoned”orcounted
righteous;(2)thattherevealedMosaiclawwasadivineinterventionnecessarytoGod’s
dealingswithhispeople,butthatitspurposeandeffectshadbeensurpassedinthe
removalofthe“curse”uponhumankindbyJesus’sdeathonthecross;(3)thatthelaw,
whichisimpossibleformenandwomentoobeyinitsentirety,isanegativeweight,a
burden,aformofslavery(aviewpeculiartoPaulamongfirst-centuryJewishteachers); 3
and(4)that“works”ordeedsundertakentosatisfytherequirementsofJudaiclaw
(p.156) havenobearinguponthesalvationnowmadeavailabletoconvertsfrom“the
nations,”theGentiles,whothroughChristhavebecomechildrenofAbrahamandsons
anddaughtersofAbraham’sGod.
InthisletterPaulrespondsindeepangertowhathehaslearnedofrecenteventsinthe
“churchesofGalatia.”Whenpreachingthereasonedivinelysenthehadconverteda
numberofGentilestofaithinJesusastheJewishGod’sagentofsalvation,but
subsequentlyandinhisabsenceothermissionarieshadcometotroublethefaithful
there.Theserivalpreachersproclaimeda“differentgospel”andsought,hesays,“to
pervertthegospelofJesusChrist”(Galatians1:6–7).TherevelationthatPaul
championedamongthem(whenhefirstwasintheirmidstasamissionaryandnowever
morefirmlyinthiscrisis-moment)wasthe“goodnews”thatGentile(polytheist)converts
areclaimedasGod’sownbytheirfaithinJesusChrist,andnotthroughadherenceto
Jewishlegalobservance.HavingbeenvisitedbyGod’sspiritwhichworkedmiracles
amongthem(Galatians3:3–5),andhavingbeenrituallycleansedfromfalsebeliefsand
destructivebehaviors(“youwerebaptizedintoChrist”(Galatians3:27)),these
believersarenow,together,a“newcreation,”nolonger“JeworGreek…slaveorfree
…maleorfemale…butoneinChristJesus”(Galatians3:27–28).Indeed,Paulasserts,
thenewlyinitiatedfaithfulhavebecometheauthentic“IsraelofGod”(Galatians6:14–18).
Paul’sannouncementofwhathasbeengiventothem—freedomfromwaywardnessand
theblessingofbelongingtoGod—isthreatenedbytheinterlopers.Accordingly,he
frameshisletterasanapologia:thatGreco-Romangenreoflegalspeechandwriting
designedtorefutechargesthathavebeenbrought.
What,specifically,isPaulprotestinginhisfollow-upcommuniquétotheGalatian
churches?Thecompetingmissionaries,withtheirdeviantdoctrine,werepersuading
(male)GentileconvertsthattocompleteandconfirmtheirnewconvictionthatJesusis
theirsavior,itwasnecessaryforthemtobecomecircumcised—toacceptasaneffective
markoftheirsalvationthetraditionalsignofinclusioninGod’scovenantpeople.4Paul
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
denounceshisrivalmissionariesfortheirfailuretounderstandandacceptthenew
revelationandpromiseofGod—bothitsaccessibilitytohumankind,anditsliberating
force.“Accursed”promotersofthisaliengospelintheGalatianchurcheswill,hehopes,in
theirzealforcircumcising,somehow“castratethemselves”(Galatians5:12).
Theapostle’scondemnationandcursefallsalso,thoughabitlessferociously,uponthose
“foolishGalatians”whohavebeendupedintotakingupJewishlawanditsobligations.To
doso,heinsists,istoforfeitthegiftGodgavetotheminthelife,suffering,death,and
victoryofChrist—thatwhich,undertheinspirationofPaul’spreachingandteaching,
inspired(p.157) themandledthemtotheirnewandsavingconvictions.Reflectiveofhis
postconversionretrospectiononhispersonalreligiousstruggles,asE.P.Sanders
convincinglydemonstrated,PaulpresentsapictureofJudaiclawthatholdsittobea
“yoke,”aservitudethatheisconvincednowwasremovedwhenhecameto
acknowledgeandtobelieveinJesus,whosedeathonthecrossentailedtakingonhimself
thesin/“curse”thathadseparatedhumankind(andcertainlytheapostlehimself)from
God(Galatians5:1,3:10–14).5
ImportanttoPaul’sargumentagainsttheunwelcometeachingthatGentilebelieversin
JesusmustundergotheJewishpracticeofcircumcisionishisowndoctrinethat
Abraham’srightrelationshipwithGodcameaboutthroughthepatriarch’sfaith:
“AbrahambelievedGod,anditwasreckonedtohimasrighteousness”(Genesis15:6).6
Itwasnotthroughthepatriarch’sobservanceofdivinerequirementsanddemandsthat
hewas“justified.”Paul’sassertioncarriesthereminderthatthisencounterand
transactionbetweenAbrahamandGodprecededAbraham’scircumcision,whileitalso
statesthefact(andPaulisadamantinunderliningthis)thatMosaiclaw“camefour
hundredthirtyyearslater”(i.e.,than“thepromisesmade…toAbrahamandhis
offspring,”astheprecedingv.16notes).Sinai,hesays,“doesnotannulacovenant
previouslyratifiedbyGod,soastonullifythepromise”(Galatians3:17).Thetruegospel
hebroughttothechurchesinGalatiaisatonewithandfulfillsitsancientbiblical
precedent:
3:7Soyousee,thosewhobelievearethedescendantsofAbraham.8Andthe
scripture,foreseeingthatGodwouldjustifytheGentilesbyfaith,declaredthe
gospelbeforehandtoAbraham,saying,“AlltheGentilesshallbeblessedinyou”
[seeGenesis12:3;18:18;22:18].9Forthisreason,thosewhobelieveareblessed
withAbrahamwhobelieved.
PassionateandstarkideasandlanguagemakeupPaul’srebuketothosewhorejectthe
truthofhisdeclarationthatthose“baptizedintoChrist”nolongerstandinneedofthe
law’stutelageordiscipline,butare“free”(3:23–29,5:1–6),aresonsanddaughtersof
Abraham,“heirsaccordingtothepromise,”andthereby“childrenofGodthroughfaith.”
WhenhedeploysaspartofhisapologiaaretellingofwhoSarahandIsaac,Hagarand
Ishmaelare—theclearlessonsheseesintheirstory—Paulisaninterpreterofscripture
excitedtomeethisimmediatechallenge.ThecrisisinthecongregationsinGalatiadictates
ateverypointwhathechoosestohighlightinhisrepresentationofAbraham’swomenand
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
sons.PaulisimpelledtoadoptamodeofreadingthatreconstructstheSarah-Hagar
storyinotherthanliteralorhistoricalterms.
(p.158) Themodernreaderisstruck,nolessthantheancientwas,bytheemotional
andintellectualferocityinPaul’sallegoryandtheversessurroundingit.Radiatingfrom
theselinesistheforceful,daring,andoftenoverstretchedreasoningthatisapolemicist’s
sharpesttool:
4:22Tellme,youwhodesiretobesubjecttothelaw,willyounotlistentothelaw?
ForitiswrittenthatAbrahamhadtwosons,onebyaslavewomanandtheother
byafreewoman.23One,thechildoftheslave,wasbornaccordingtotheflesh
(katasarka);theother,thechildofthefreewoman,wasbornthroughthepromise
(di’epaggelias).24Nowthisisanallegory:thesewomenaretwocovenants.One
woman,infact,isHagarfromMountSinai,bearingchildrenforslavery.25Now
HagarisMountSinaiinArabiaandcorrespondstothepresentJerusalem,forshe
isinslaverywithherchildren.26Buttheotherwomancorrespondstothe
Jerusalemabove;sheisfreeandsheisourmother.27Foritiswritten,
“Rejoice,youchildlessone,you
whobearnochildren,
burstintosongandshout,you
whoendurenobirthpangs;
forthechildrenofthedesolate
womanaremorenumerous
thanthechildrenoftheone
whoismarried”[Isaiah54:1LXX].
28Nowyou,myfriends,arechildrenofthepromise,likeIsaac.
29Butjustasatthattimethechildwhowasbornaccordingtotheflesh(kata
sarka)persecutedtheonebornaccordingtothespirit(katapneuma),soitisnow
also.30Butwhatdoesthescripturesay?
“Driveouttheslaveandherchild;forthechildoftheslavewillnotsharethe
inheritancewiththechildofthefreewoman”[quotingPsalms21:10LXX,towhich
Paulhasaddedthefinalphrase,“ofthefreewoman”].31Sothen,friends,weare
childrennotoftheslavebutofthefreewoman.
Acloselydetailedexplorationofthispassageandscholarlydebatessurroundingitisnot
possiblehere.ForourpurposesitwillsufficesimplytounderlinePaul’smajorassertions
—andtoseeinthemadistinctivepieceofbiblicalinterpretation.
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Thepassage’sopeningmodeofrhetoricmaybeclassifiedasdiatribe—apseudodialogue
inwhichthespeakerchallengestheopponentandthenprovides,controls,ormuteshis
responses.HencethechallengingridiculeinPaul’sinvitation:Soyouwanttocleavetothe
law.Thenletusexamine(whichistosay:letmelayoutforyouinunmistakableterms)
whatthe(p.159) lawsays.7ItisnotthebodyoflawsnoranyparticularlawintheTorah
thatPaulthentakesup,butratherwhatscriptureteachesinanarrative—thatof
Abraham’swomenandsons.Heisintentuponmakingelementsinthestory“standfor”
andspeaktothecontroversyathand—oneinwhichhearguesfortheGalatianbelievers’
salvation“inthegraceofChrist,”rebuttinghisopponents’teachings,which“pervertthe
GospelofChrist”(Galatians1:7).
ThedisputeoverthetwodefinitionsofbeingChristianbeingadvocatedinthechurches
ofGalatiaistheenginethatdrivesPaul’ssearchingoutofcontrastsbetweenthetwo
women,eachwithherson,andwhattheysignify.Opposedare(1)asonmarkedby
slaveryand“flesh”versusafreebornsonwhosebirthfulfilledadivinepromise;(2)two
women(who“are”twocovenants),onelinkedwithSinaiandtheJerusalemofPaul’stime,
whosechildrenareenslaved,versustheotherwho“correspondstotheJerusalem
above,”shewhoisfreeand“ourmother.”Protectingthedivinetruthhe“received…
througharevelationofJesusChrist”(Galatians1:11–12),Paul’sallegorydiscovers(or
invents)contraries,andthensharpensthem.Comparedtowhatwehaveseenin
rabbinicalinterpretations,andevenviewedonitsowntermsasanargumentadvanced
byabiblicallyinformedJewofthefirstcentury,themoststartlingelementinPaul’s
treatmentofAbraham’ssonsandwomeninvv.24–26iswhatbecomesofHagar.She
signifiesMountSinai—thatis,theLawgiventotheHebrewsthereintheageofMoses.
(Paul’ssupportofthiscuriousattributionconsistsinhisreportthatSinaiisinArabia,the
landwithwhichheassociatesher,andinhisfurtherstrictidentificationofthetwo:Hagar
equalsMountSinai.Thislatterconstructionissoperplexinganduntenableasaclaim
issuingfromeitherhistoryorlegendthatwesuspectthatPaulissimplyrestating,by
compression,histrope.Hagar,orMountSinai,“bear[s]childrenforslavery”[24.b].The
phraseisnotsoambiguousasitissuggestive,andintwodirections:itplaysonHagar’s
statusasSarah’sservant—seeingherprogenyalsoas“slaves,“anditpointstoconditions
oflife“underthelaw,”inbondagetothatcovenant—thatis,lifethatdoesnotpartakein
theliberationwonforGalatianconverts.Inchoosingtobecircumcised,the“foolish”in
thosechurchesarechoosingtobe“cut…offfromChrist,”who“hasset[them]free”
(Galatians5:4;5:1).
ThehaplessHagar“correspondstothepresentJerusalem,forsheisinslaverywithher
children”(25b).EnslavedJerusalemisametonymforJudaism—thepanoplyofitsbeliefs
anditspractices(andnot,itseems,anallusiontoIsrael’spastandpresentconditionsof
beinginvadedandgovernedbyforeignrulers).TheTorahcovenantis,asPaularguesat
variouspointsinhisletter,“slaveryunderthelaw”(seeGalatians3:22–25,(p.160) 28;
4:1–10;5:1).ThedescriptionofJerusalemandherpeopleas“inslavery”constitutesone
ofPaul’sstrongestassaultsontheJudaiclawanditsobservers.Hedisparagesinasingle
phrasepreciselythatrevelation,vision,andcommunitytowhichhehad,untilrecently,
beenfullycommitted.
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Paul’sinterpretationisstunninglycontrary.Hagar,whointhescriptureisnofriendto,
andcertainlynowillingparticipantin,thedivineplanmakingIsaacandhisprogeny
inheritorsofthelandpromisedbyGod,ishereidentifiedbyPaulwiththatpeopleofthe
oldcovenant.Herslavestatusqualifieshertorepresent,orrather,tobeJerusalem,
Judaism,anditslaw,anditrendershertheforemotherofthoseheldinthrall—Jews,and
byextension,Gentileconvertswhoresorttocircumcision.Thisradicalalterationinthe
identityandvalueofHagar,strangeandunprecedentedasitis,workstoPaul’s
advantageasacontroversialist,andhasitsjustificationinthat.
Sarah,bycontrast,Pauldivorcesfromassociationwiththelaworwithanyservitude
“underit.”Sheisfree,andtheJerusalemshe“correspondsto”istheheavenly,not
earthly,one—theholyandtranscendentcity“above”—theimaginedfinalhomeofthe
blessed.8
Sarahdidnotproduceherson“naturally”(whichisoneconnotation,forPaul,of
“accordingtotheflesh”),but“throughthepromise,”andthroughitsmiraculousand
divinefulfillment.Paulwantsnoonetobeuncertainabouttheapplicationofhisallegoryto
themattersathandinGalatia:“you,myfriends,arechildrenofthepromise,likeIsaac.”
ThoseadheringtothegospelPaulpresentedareheirsbornofsupernatural“promise”
intothe“freedom”ofsalvation,whotravel,liketheirforefather,towardthesuperior
Jerusalem:“AndifyoubelongtoChrist,thenyouareAbraham’soffspring,heirs
accordingtothepromise”(5:29).
Ontheotherside,Hagar,thepresentJerusalemwhosechildrenareinbondage,thelife
accordingtothefleshwhichshebegets,and“doingworksofthelaw”(3:5)allstandfor
andidentifypeopleoutsidethesavingcovenant,unredeemedbyGod.
Inverses29through30Pauloffersananalogythatseekstomakeparallelthe
circumstancesofIsaac,ofPaul,andofthosefollowersofJesuswhosidewithhim.Aware
ofthetraditionwemetinGenesisRabbahthatIshmael“persecuted”Isaac,Paul
suggeststhathisgospelanditsadherentsarelikewisesubjectedtothreatandhostilityin
“playing”withhim.Paulprobablyrefersbothtowhatheregardsasthetormenthe
suffersfromthoseJudaizingtroublersofGentileconvertsofGalatiaandalsoother
reportedrun-insheandhisdevoteeshadexperiencedatthehandsofJewishfoesof
(p.161) histeaching(cf.1Thessalonians2:15–16).9Inthefaceofsuchconflicts,hesees
nootherrecourseexceptthatactionthatwasoriginallytaken(Genesis21:10):throwout
theslaveandherson,anddenytothemtheinheritancethatbelongsto“thechildofthe
freewoman.”Paulisencouragingthoughtsofexpellingtheadvocatesofcircumcisionwho
troublethechurchesthere,onthegroundsthattheyhavenorighttothepromisesGod
hasmadeavailableinChrist,buthesettlesforanotherdivisionorpolaritywhichhehopes
willsolidifyandencouragehisallies:“Sothen,friends,we[unlikeouropponentsinGalatia
andthe‘fools’whoheedtheirteaching]arechildren,notoftheslave,butofthefree
woman.”Inotherwords,thosewhostandwithhimandhisteachingaretheonessaved
byGod,whilehisopponentshavetakenuponthemselvesoncemoretheslaveryfrom
whichtheywerereleasedbyChrist’ssacrificialdeathandhisresurrection.
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Again,thepointanddirectionofPaul’sallegoricalcontrast,thistimefocusedonthe“free
woman,”canbegivenbluntsummarization:“Sarah=heavenlyJerusalem=Christianity,”
asHansDieterBetzputitinaformula.10Thelineageofthe“family”enjoyingGod’s
particularfavornowruns,atleastasPaulpresentsthecasehere,fromAbraham,Sarah,
andIsaactotheirchildreninthechurcheshehascalledintobeing.Paul’szealforhis
gospeltotheGentiles,ferventlyarticulatedinhisbattleagainstthe“circumcisionparty,”
drivesawedgebetweenthenewrevelationtowhichhetestifies,ontheonehand,and
Judaism,oranyconfidencepeoplemightputintheMosaiccovenantandtherewardsof
theirfaithfuladherencetoit.Israel’smatriarchandherson,“bornaccordingtothe
spirit”and“accordingtothepromise”are,inPaul’sviewofthehistoryofsalvation,
coguarantors,withAbraham,ofthedivinepledgenowgiventothosewhowillsoonbe
knownas“Christians”(Acts11:26).
Romans4:11–12,18–21;9:2–13
Bynomeansadiatribe,PaulwroteRomans(ca.58CE)withobjectivesdifferentfrom
thoseinhislettertotheGalatians,andinanothermode—oneappropriatetothe
addresseesandtopresentcircumstances.
Abrahamisthemodelfor“aperson[who]isjustifiedbyfaithapartfromtheworksofthe
law”(Romans3:28),butPaul’sinterpretationofhimisaltered.Adifferentaudience
requiresadifferentandparticularapproach.Here,whenPaulturnstoAbraham’sstory,
hisemphasisisshapedbyhisknowledgethatbothJewsandpolytheists/Gentilesmakeup
thechosencommunitythatwillgreethiminRome.Weseethisinatopichetakesupwith
care:thebiblical(p.162) testimonythatAbrahamwascircumcised—butcircumcised
afterhishavingbeenfoundrighteousonthebasisofhisbeliefinGod:
4:11Hereceivedthesignofcircumcisionasasealoftherighteousnessthathehad
byfaithwhilehewasstilluncircumcised.Thepurposewastomakehimthe
ancestorofallwhobelievewithoutbeingcircumcisedandwhothushave
righteousnessreckonedtothem,12andlikewisetheancestorofthecircumcised
whoarenotonlycircumcisedbutwhoalsofollowtheexampleofthefaiththatour
ancestorhadbeforehewascircumcised.
InthislineofargumentPauldoesnotatallhaveinmindthecircumcision-tempted
GentileconvertsinGalatianchurches.Rather,inhis“longingtosee”membersofthe
Romanchurches,heaspiresto“share…somespiritualgifttostrengthen[them]”(1:11).
Oneofhischiefgoalsinwritinghisletteristocreateroomandcomplementarity,on
biblicalandtheologicalgrounds,forGentileandJewishbelieversinJesus’smessiahship.
InpursuitofthisgoalheamplifieshisteachingaboutwhatAbraham’scircumcision
signifies.Paulspellsoutthemeaningofthepatriarch’scircumcisionintermsdirectly
pertinenttothoseheaddresses:JewswhonowcallJesus“lord,”andcountthemselves
membersof“thebodyofChrist”—thatis,congregationmembers—mustcountas
secondarytheircircumcisionsandtheiradherencetoJewishlaw,eventhoughthose
covenantloyaltiespredatetheiradoptionofnewbeliefandfunctionasholy“tradition”for
them.Whatisprimaryandessential—namely,“therighteousnessofGodthroughfaithin
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
JesusChristforallwhobelieve”(3:22)—standsasthekeyandsavingdatum.Theirloyalty
to,andobservanceof,thelaw,followsuponthisand,ineffect,servesonlytoconfirmit:
“[Abraham]receivedthesignofcircumcisionasasealoftherighteousnessthathehad
byfaithwhilehewasstilluncircumcised”(4:11).
OnlytworeferencestoSarahoccurinRomans.Hagargoesunmentioned—anintriguing
omissiontobeexaminedabitlater.In4:19Sarah’snameappearsaspartofPaul’s
testimonytothesteadfasttrustAbrahamhadinGod’spledgetohimthatheandhis
offspringwould“inherittheworld”(4:13).PaulrecapitulatesapartoftheGenesissaga
thathethinksveryhelpfultohisletter’spurposes:
4:18Hopingagainsthope,hebelievedthathewouldbecome“thefatherofmany
nations,”accordingtowhatwassaid,“Sonumerousshallyourdescendantsbe”
[seeGenesis17:5and15:5].19Hedidnotweakeninfaithwhenheconsideredhis
ownbody,whichwasalreadyasgoodasdead(forhewasaboutahundredyears
old),orwhenheconsideredthebarrennessofSarah’swomb.20Nodistrustmade
himwaverconcerningthepromiseofGod,buthegrewstronginhisfaith(p.163)
ashegaveglorytoGod,21beingfullyconvincedthatGodwasabletodowhathe
hadpromised.Thereforehisfaith“wasreckonedtohimasrighteousness.”
PaulpresentsSarah’sbarrennessasadescriptive“fact”which,takenalongside
Abraham’soldageandimpotency,onlymakesherhusband’shopemoreadmirable.The
Greekregularlyrendered“barrenness”is,moreliterally,aphraseaboutthenekrosis
(thedeadnessorthenecroticstate)ofherwomb,anditismeanttoechoPaul’suseof
thesameword-rootincallingAbraham’sbody“asgoodasdead.”Inthis“note”about
SarahwesurmisethatPaulwasawareofthediscussionsinrabbiniccirclesabout
whetherSarahwasinfertile(e.g.,GenesisRabbahXLV,above,pp.129-131)andhad
takenapositiononthequestion.GenesisitselfreportsonlythatatthetimeofGod’s
promiseofasontobenamedIsaac,Abrahamwondered(havingfallentotheground,
laughing)whetherthiscouldhappenwhenhewasahundredyearsold,andSarahwas
ninety(17:17).ThoughPaulisworkingimaginativelyandwiththeologicalintent,his
mentionofSarahin4:19doesnotinterpretherinthesymbolicorallegoricalmode.
DrawinguponatraditionstemmingfromexegesisoftheTorah,andusingitasa
“historical”datum,hepresentsSarahsimplyasawomanincapableofpregnancyand
childbirth,importantinsofarasherconditionunderlinesthestrengthofAbraham’sfaith,
andthewondrousnatureofGod’spowerinmakingtheonehecalledforthfromUr“the
fatherofmanynations.”
ThoughSarahappearsinRomans9:9onlyinaquotationofGenesis,sheistheremore
richlyinterpreted(thanin4:19)simplybyvirtueofthepassage’splaceinthemidstof
PaulineruminationsaboutGod’spromise.Thesurroundingideasarequitefamiliarfrom
whatwemetintheallegory(oratleastinhalfofit)inGalatians4.The“promise”is
associatedwiththe(new)covenant,withSarah’sson,andwiththe“Zion”tobeentered
whenthe“day”ofjudgmentarrives,usheringinthatsalvationthatPaulclaimsis“nearer
tousnowthanwhenwebecamebelievers”(13:11).
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
ThehardandpainfulquestionatissueforPaul:WillIsrael,theelectofGod,beamongthe
redeemed?
9:2Ihavegreatsorrowandunceasinganguishinmyheart.
3ForIwishthatImyselfwereaccursedandcutofffromChristforthesakeofmy
ownpeople,mykindredaccordingtotheflesh.
4TheyareIsraelites,andtothembelongtheadoption,theglory,thecovenants,
thegivingofthelaw,theworship,andthepromises;
5tothembelongthepatriarchs,andfromthem,accordingtotheflesh,comesthe
Messiah,whoisoverall,Godblessedforever.Amen.6Itisnotasthoughtheword
ofGodhasfailed.FornotallIsraelitestrulybelongtoIsrael,7andnot(p.164) all
ofAbraham’schildrenarehistruedescendants;but“ItisthroughIsaacthat
descendantsshallbenamedforyou”(Genesis21:12).8Thismeansthatitisnot
thechildrenofthefleshwhoarechildrenofGod,butthechildrenofthepromise
arecountedasdescendants.9Forthisiswhatthepromisesaid,“AboutthistimeI
willreturnandSarahshallhaveason”(Genesis18:10,14).10Noristhatall;
somethingsimilarhappenedtoRebeccawhenshehadconceivedchildrenbyone
husband,ourancestorIsaac.11Evenbeforetheyhadbeenbornorhaddone
anythinggoodorbad(sothatGod’spurposeofelectionmightcontinue,12notby
worksbutbyhiscall)shewastold,“Theeldershallservetheyounger”(Genesis
25:23).13Asitiswritten,“IhavelovedJacob,butIhavehatedEsau”(Malachi
1:2b–3a).
Theselines,deployingpassagesofscriptureas“prooftexts”andargument-builders,are
movingtowardPaul’suncompromisingdeclarationin9:31–32that“Israel,whodidstrive
for[righteousness]thatisbasedonthelaw,didnotsucceedinfulfillingthatlaw,”and
therebytrippedonthestoneGodplacedinZionto“makepeoplestumble,”andtheyfell
—thatis,erred.Buthere,in9:2–13,PaulputshiswishfortheJews’conversiontobelief
indramaticpersonalterms,andacknowledgesthehallowedgloriesconstitutiveofIsrael’s
sacredhistory.Thereisareserveclauseeveninthisrecital,however,forbyrepeating
thephrase“accordingtotheflesh,”hemaintains(thoughlessabrasivelythanhis
formulationintheGalatiansallegorydid)thestatus,overagainsttheethnicandgenetic
realityofbeingIsraelites,ofthosewhoarenow,sinceChrist’scoming,God’struesons
anddaughters“accordingtothespirit”or“thepromise.”
SarahdoesherdutyinthecitationofGenesis18:10,14–15;sheisthemotherofthe
childwhofulfillsGod’spromise,aninstrumentintheplanofsalvationforallofAbraham’s
sonsanddaughtersinthegenerationsstemmingfromIsaac.Theotherchildrenof
Abrahamarenotincluded;IshmaelandhisposteritymustbemostprominentlyinPaul’s
mind.ButthatisnotthedistinctionPaulismostanxioustomakeatthispointinhis
messagetoRomanbelievers.Rather,heiskeentocommunicatehisinsight,thefruitof
therevelationhereceived,thatthoseareofIsaac’sseedwhoarechildrenofthe
promise.“Childrenoftheflesh,”ontheotherhand,arenot“countedasdescendants”
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
andarenot“childrenofGod”(v.8).God’sfavorandparenthoodhingenotongenetics,
butonGod’spromiseasitisgivenandreceived.Paul’schosenterm,“promise”
(eppangelia),isastand-infor“covenant”(diatheke),whichhedoesnotwanttoemploy;
heisintentuponmaintainingthedifference,centraltohisunderstandingofGodand
salvation,betweenGod’scompactwithAbrahamandhislatercovenantwithMoses,
articulatedinthelaw.11 OnlythosebelongtotheseedofAbrahamand“countas
descendants”whohavecometoknowGod’spromise,and(p.165) haveresponded—
thatis,respondedbyfaithandinbelieving,notbyundertakingdeedsmeanttocomply
withandsatisfythelaw’sdemands.ByPaulnowredefinedandreconfiguredaspeople
“born”accordingtothepromise,orspiritually,thedescendantsandheirsofIsaachave
incommonnotsimplytheiractofbelieving(asopposedtoeffortsatlaw-obedience),buta
necessarilycontent-specificconviction:thattheJewaccordingtotheflesh,Jesus,whowas
crucifiedandraisedup,isnoneotherthanGod’s“messiah,whoisoverall.”
CounterposingtheelectionofIsrael“accordingtotheflesh,”withwhichhebeganthe
passage,totheelectionofthosewho,inacceptingJesusasGod’smessiah,arechildrenof
“thepromise,”PaulinterpretsSarahashehadintheallegoryofhisearlierletter:sheand
hersonIsaac,withAbraham,arethetrue—thatis,thespiritual—forebearsofJewsand
Gentileswhohearandbelieveinthegospelthathe,theapostle,preaches.
Paulinsertsanadditionalinterpretivetwistin9:10–13byseekingenforcementforhis
claimsintheprocreativehistoryofIsaac.God’s“promise”orelectionwasatworkinthe
caseofthesonsRebeccaborehim,forGod’sworddeclaredthatthefirstofthetwinsto
bebornwouldservethesecond-born.FromthepropheticbookMalachiPaulprovides
anothersupportivedivinedeclaration,thisoneaboutGod’slove(orfavor,orchoice)of
Jacob,andhishatred(ordisfavor,orpassingover)ofEsau.PaulischampioningGod’s
freedomtoact,andtopreferandelectparticularpersonsandpeoplesforhiscareand
protection,“evenbeforetheyhadbeenbornorhaddoneanythinggoodorbad”(9:11).
Covenantsaregiven,orenacted,Paulagaininsists,bydivineinitiative,anddonot
originatein,norcontinueby,the“logic”ormechanicsofhumandeeds—thatis,by
“works”thatareassumedtoearnGod’sattentionandeffectreconciliationwithhim.
ApieceofunfinishedbusinesslingersattheendofourtreatmentofPaulonAbraham’s
women.WhyisHagar,soserviceableinhislettertotheGalatianchurches,absentfrom
hisEpistletotheRomans?Whydidhechoosetoexcludefromthepresentationofthe
gospelmessagehewasforecastingtotheRomanChristianshischaracterizationofHagar
inGalatians4as“fromMountSinai,bearingchildrenforslavery….correspond[ing]to
thepresentJerusalem”?Wehaveseenthattheheatofhisearlierassaulton“Judaizers”
ofGentileconvertsinspiredhisstrained,evenbizarre,connectionofthewomanandson
expelledbyAbrahamwithJudaismandtheLaw.Thisallegoricalassociationmadenoreal
senseintermsofthehistoricallegendssurroundingher,andthereforesignaledthe
exegete’sreachforaforcefulinterpretation,howevernovel.PaulworkedinGalatiansto
distinguishthroughoppositionalimagesthefreedomwonforpeopleofthe“nations”from
whathedepictsasthe“slavery”ofJudaism.
(p.166) IntheRomancommunityofbelievers,hehasamuchdifferentappealtomake.
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
TheassociationoffollowersofJesuswhounderstandthemselvesashavingbeencalled
intoexistencebeforetheeschaton’sarrivalismadeupofJewsandGentiles.Dissension
orconfusionisnotthepresentedreasonforPaul’swriting,asithadbeeninhis
correspondencewiththechurchesinGalatia,Thessalonica,andCorinth.Together,andby
virtueoftheircommonfaithinGod-sentJesustheChrist,thebelieversinRome,asPaul
seems(orhopes)toseethem,makeupthenewpeopleofGod,enjoyingunity.Theyare
onepeople“sinceGodisone;andhewilljustifythecircumcisedonthegroundoffaith
andtheuncircumcisedthroughthatsamefaith”(3:31).Inlanguagehewouldnothave
usedinaddressingturmoilafflictingtheGalatianchurches,headds:“Dowethen
overthrowthelawbythisfaith?Bynomeans,onthecontrary,weupholdthelaw.”Paul
meansthatheupholdsthelawforJewsasaconfirmation,asealing,ofthatrighteousness
grantedtothem,onthebasisoftheirfaith,byGod.
ThisdifferenceinPaul’saudienceandthusinhisviewpoint,withitsemphasisonan
inclusivegospel,dictatedthatPaulnotemploytheHagarhalfofhisSarah-Hagarallegory,
forthoughhismakingherintoametaphorforJudaiclawwhichenslavesandfor
JerusaleminbondagespoketothecontroversyinGalatia,thatargumentcouldonly
underminehisefforttoassureRomanChristiansof“thecontinuingvalidityofIsraelin
God’spurpose.” 12
Paul’sinsistencethatbelieversinJesusenjoyedaconvenantwithGodthatsuperseded
theformerwasdestinedtostirdeepcontentionandanimosityinallsubsequenthistorical
seasonsofinteractionsbetweenJewsandChristians.Tobehistoricallyconsciousand
conscientious,weareobligedtoseethislineofreasoning—thatis,thatmembersof
churcheswerethecovenantpeople,havingtakentheplaceoftheJewswhorejected
God’smessiah—inthecontextwhichpromptedhimtowritehislettertotheJesusfollowersinRome.HisconfidentvisionofGod’smostrecentactionsisthatofafirstcenturyJewwhowascompelled(miraculously,byhisownaccount)tobelieveinJesusas
God’sagentofsalvation—theredeemerofPaulhimself,ofallthenations,andofthose
JewswhowouldhonorJesusastheir“lord.”
PaultheapostleofChristdidinfactuseSarahandHagar“tothinkwith,”presentingboth
womenasrepresentativeofsomethingotherthan“femalecharactersintheirownright,”
asGenesismightbesaidtoportraythem.Paul’sallusions—andadjustments—to
Abraham’swomen,especiallyinhisaggravatedlettertothechurchesinGalatia,
symbolizethemasfiguresforspiritualpromise,inthecaseofSarah,andofenslavement
andexclusionfromGod’ssavingcovenant,inthecaseofHagar.
(p.167) WillwefindsignificantdifferencesinthewayoneofearlyChristianity’smost
stellarscripturescholars(andadeepadmirerofPaul)retellsthestoryofAbraham’s
household,andtheconflictbetweenhistwowives?
Origen’sGenesisHomilyVII:OntheBirthofIsaacandtheFactthatHeIs
Weaned
Bythetime,around240,thatOrigen(ca.185–254)wasregularlypreachingtoa
congregationintheportcityHerodhadbuilt,CaesareaMaritima,hewasamanof
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
significantandwidespreadreputation.13Reportsofhislifecirculatedandgrewafterhis
death,asweknowfromabiographicalsketchinEusebius’sEcclesiasticalHistory,written
beforethemid-fourthcentury,andfromnoticespennedbyotherChristianwriters.He
wasrememberedasaboyinAlexandriawhosefather’smartyrdominspiredinhima
desireforthesamefate.HiszealfortheChristianlife(increasinglyimaginedbysomein
hiscirclesinasceticterms)ledtohischoiceasayoungmantobecome,through
castration,a“eunuchforthekingdomofheaven”—thatis,apersonendeavoringtoguard
againsttheluresanddistractionsofsexualappetites.Theadmirationandauthorityhe
gainedasaChristianrhetor-philosopherandcatechistinAlexandriawasafactorina
wranglewithhisbishop,Demetrius,andeventuallyledtohisrelocationfromEgyptto
CaesareaMaritimainPalestine.Therehewasordainedapresbyterandspentthelast
twodecadesofhiscareer,havingamonghisdutiesregularpreachingtoaChristian
congregationinthe“liturgyoftheword”whichprecededthecommunionmeal.
Fortunatelyforus,afteratimeheallowedstenographerstorecordhissermons.
Whatfollowsisanexperiment—acasestudyinOrigen’sapproachtoreadingscriptureas
observedinasinglebriefsermon,onedevotedtoourstory.Inthetracking,point-bypoint,ofhishomily’slineofreasoningandthestrategiesitemploys,wehaveinterests
thathavealreadybeenidentified.HowdohisexegeticalinterestsinSarahandHagar
comparewiththoseofPaul?InwhatwaysdoesOrigendistinguishbetweenand
manipulatethekindsofmeaningthatcenterontheGenesistext’sstorylineinitsliteral
sense,ontheonehand,andthosethataresymbolicormetaphorical,ontheother?In
whatcomestoexpressionaspreachedscripturalcommentarymadeaccessiblefora
groupoflisteners,doeshisconcernforthesymbolicmeaningsoverwhelmorabandon
thetext’shistoricallevelofmeaning?Andwehavethelargerquestionofthischapterin
view:isitthecasethatOrigen’spenchantforunderliningspiritualmeaningsinasacred
storyresultsinadistinguishableearlyChristianretellingofthe(p.168) story—when
comparedwiththeinterpretivestrategiesofrabbinicandMuslimcommentators?
Origen’sthree-yearcycleofsermonsdevotedtotextsoftheOldTestamentincludedhis
homilydevotedtoGenesis21:1–21,thescriptureportionrecountingtheeventsfrom
Isaac’sbirthtothetrialinthewildernesssufferedbyHagarandherson.Itsmost
accurateandsuccincttitlewouldbe,asabiblicalscholarlabeledthisportionofGenesis,
“Isaac’sbirth,Ishmael’sExpulsion.” 14
AboutOrigen’spresuppositionsinapproachingbiblicalinterpretationweneedstillmore
introduction.God’swisdomfillsscriptureandsupportsbelieversinaccordancewiththeir
currentcapacitiestounderstand.Thereisguidance—andsalvation—forthosewhoread
orhearthetext“plainly,”initsexplicitlanguage.MoreprofoundcomprehensionofGod’s
wisdomawaitsthosewhogrowintheirabilitiestoconsidertheBible’srevelationswith
increasingcareanddiscernment.Thosemessageswhichinvitestudentsofscripture
closesttothemysteryofGod’sgoodnessandhelparenotobvious.Eventhesilencesin
scripturearepregnant.WhenwaxingtheoreticalaboutthisinhisOnFirstPrinciples,he
wrote:
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Onemustportraythemeaningofthesacredwritingsinathreefoldwayuponone’s
ownsoul,sothatthesimplemanmaybeedifiedbywhatwemaycallthefleshofthe
scripture,thisnamebeinggiventotheobviousinterpretation;whilethemanwho
hasmadesomeprogressmaybeedifiedbyitssoul,asitwere;andthemanwhois
perfectandlikethosementionedbytheapostle:“Wespeakwisdomamongthe
perfect....”—thismanmaybeedifiedbythespirituallaw,whichhas“ashadowof
thegoodthingstocome.”Forjustasmanconsistsofbody,soul,andspirit,soin
thesamewaydoesthescripture,whichhasbeenpreparedbyGodtobegivenfor
man’ssalvation.15
SucharesomeofthekeyassumptionsinformingOrigen’swritingsandthoseofhisoral
teachingsthatsurvive.Hisadviceisplain:ifyouintendtobeaChristian,bepreparedto
followJesus’sprecept,“Searchthescriptures”(John5:39).Bepreparedalsotobe
changedfromachildtoanadult,fromapersonwhosemodeofperceptioniscarnalto
onewhothinksandseesinawaythatisspiritual—whoprayerfullyreadswitheyes
openedandupturned.
Inthissermon,Origenregularlyandfirmlydeclarestherulesofthegamein
encounteringscripture.Hewarns.Heteases.Hegoadsthecongregation:Areyou
contentwiththescripture’smostobviousandliteralsense?Areyouuptothechallenge
ofdiggingforsignificantmeaningswhenyouencounterinthebiblicalnarrativeelements
thatstrikeyouasunedifyingorillogical?
(p.169) YouwillnothearwhatGodistellingyouinthisstoryofAbraham’sfamily,
Origenregularlyasserts,unlessyoupressforitsdeepestmeanings,whichcontaintruths
relatingtoyouinyourownexistence.AbiblicalnarrativedoesnotrevealGodinits
ancientstorynessalone,saysthepreacher:inandthroughscriptureyouarebeing
addressed—summonedintoyourfull,maturefaithandbeckonedtowardyourLord.
Origen’shomilycommencesnotwithareferencetoanopeningverseintheday’stext,
Genesis21,butwithaprayerthatalludestoPaul’steachingabouthowbelieversare
(andarenot)toreadandhearscripture:
Mosesisreadtousinchurch.Letuspray[to]theLordlest,inaccordancewith
theApostle’sword,evenwithus,“whenMosesisreadtheveilbeupon”our
“heart.” 16
Origennodoubthopedthatsomeinthecongregation,hearinghisinvocation,would
recallthecontentof2Corinthians3:12–18,inwhichPaulmakestheveilthatMoses
wearsinExodus34intoametaphorforIsrael’scurrentblindnessto“theLord.”
ImploringboththeLordandthemembersofhischurchthatthisJewishveilor
misunderstandingnotobscure“eventous”thetextandthesermon,thepreacheris
askingforaparticularlyChristianencounterwithMoses—thatis,withthisday’sscriptural
messagefromGod.Origen’sprefatoryprayerbaldlyidentifiesawrongwaytohearand
comprehendscripture,andwarnsagainstthatmisguidedwayofinterpreting,andthe
peoplewhopracticeit.Itremindshiscongregantsimmediatelyofwhotheyareasan
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
assembledgroup(incontradistinctionto“Israel”).
Significantalsoinhisopeningprayerandadmonitionisthatitrevealswhathebelieves
aboutlevelsortiersthatareinvolvedinpursuitofmeaning—levelspresentbothinthe
sacredstoryitselfandinthoseinhisflockwhomightlearnandbeaffectedbyit.
TurningtoGenesis21,Origensummarizesitsopeningverses:Abraham,atahundred
yearsold,conceivedIsaac;SarahwondersaloudwhowillinformAbrahamthatshe
nursesachild.Inapresumed“dialogue”withhisaudience,thepreacherpausesfirstto
considerwhatisstrikingin21:4:“AndthenAbrahamcircumcisedthechildontheeighth
day.”OrigencommentsonthefactthatitisnotIsaac’sbirthdaythatiscelebratedwith“a
greatfeast”(21:8),butthedayofhisweaning.
Why?DowethinkthatitistheHolySpirit’sintentiontowritestoriesandtonarrate
howachildwasweanedandafeastwasmade,howheplayedanddidother
childishthings?Orshouldweunderstandbythesethingsthathewishestoteach
ussomethingdivineandworthythatthehumanracemightlearnfromthewordsof
God?17
(p.170) Origencontinueshisexhortativetheme:letuslookandlistenforthenobler
meaningswhichtheHolySpirithasplacedinourscripture;todootherwiseistoremain
child-like,tobeawarechieflyofourbodilysenses,tolanguishinourcarnalstates,and
worstofall,tomissthefeastawaitingtheweaned,thespiritual.
ProceedingtotheGenesispassage’snextcomment-worthyitem,Origenrecapitulates
thefewversesrecountingthe“play”ofIshmaelwithIsaac,Sarah’sanger(thisplayisa
“disaster”(pernicium)toher)inspiresherdemandthat“thebondwoman”becastout,
sothatIshmaelnotbecoinheritorwithIsaac.Thepreacherpostponesconsiderationof
theseverses(21:8–10)untilhecanconsultPaul,forhewantstoprobehismentor’s
allegoryofthetwomothersandtheirsons.How,hewondersaloud,shouldwetakethe
apostle’swordsinGalatians4:21–24,wherePaulgivescontrastingcharacterizationsof
thetwosons—Ishmael“bornoftheflesh”andIsaacborn“bythepromise”?
Isitliterallytrue,Origenasks,thatIsaacwasnotbornnaturally—“accordingtothe
flesh”?Wasn’thebornfromSarah,circumcisedintheflesh,anddidhenotplaywith
Ishmael“humanly”?WhatisPauldrivingat?Origenobservedthat“Hecalledthings
‘allegorical’whichwerequiteobviouslydoneintheflesh.”
Hispurposeisthatwemightlearnhowtotreatotherpassages,andespecially
theseinwhichthehistoricalnarrativeappearstorevealnothingworthyofthe
divinelaw.18
SimultaneouslyendorsingandinterrogatingPaul’ssymbolicinterpretationofthepassage,
Origenseizesthemomenttostateoneofhisinterpretiveprinciples:somebiblical
narrativescontainnoimportantor“worthy”sense,whenreadintheliteral-historical
registerofmeaning,andthese,therefore,begfurtherexamination.AsOrigenhad
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
writtensomefifteentotwentyyearsearlierabout“theinspirationofdivinescripture”:
Ourcontentionwithregardtothewholeofdivinescriptureisthatitallhasa
spiritualmeaning,butnotallhasabodilymeaning....Consequentlytheperson
whoreadsthedivinebooksreverently,believingthemtobedivinewritings,must
exercisegreatcare.19
SensenexthastobemadeofPaul’sremarkthatasIshmael“persecutedhimwhowas
accordingtothespirit,soalsoitisnow”(Galatians4:17).Origenarguesthatthe
apostle’spointwas“thatinallthingsthefleshisopposedtothespirit.”Hewantstomove
hishearerstoconsidertheseveralformsthisoppositionmighttake,andhowcloseto
theirown(p.171) life-situationspersecutioncomes“now.”Itispossible,hedeclares,to
imaginepersecutionsincasesinvolvingtwoquitedifferentpeoplesornations,onecarnal
andtheotherspiritual.(Tothistypeofconflicthewillreturn.)Butwithinourown
community,hesays,onefindsoppositionbetweenmembers—somewhoareflesh-bound
againstsomewhoarespiritual.Persecutionandhostilitybetweenthebrothers,
Abraham’ssons,is,uponmorethoughtfulscrutiny,notsimplyinthepastbutinour
presentand,indeed,amongandwithinus:
Forevenyou,ifyoulive“accordingtotheflesh,”areasonofHagarandforthis
reasonareopposedtothesewholive“accordingtothespirit.”Orevenifwe
inquireinourselves,wefindthat“thefleshlustsagainstthespiritandthespirit
againstthefleshandthesearecontrarytooneanother”(cf.Galatians5:17)....Do
youseehowgreatthebattlesofthefleshagainstthespiritare?20
InsuggestingthathishearerscanbeIshmael,Origenisnotspeaking,likePaul,tofirstcenturyGalatianJesus-followersconflictedovertheplaceofJewishobservanceintheir
personalandcommunallife.Rather,hisaudienceconsistsofthird-centuryChristians
consciousofwhotheyare—onegroupwithinareligiouslydiversepopulaceinaseaport
city.HehasbeentransposingPaul’s“Jewish”Ishmael—carnalandthusenslaved—intoa
categoryapplicabletohisChristianhearersandthetestsandtemptationsmetintheir
moralandspirituallives.
However,whenhenextreferstoastillmoredifficultbattlethantheoneshehasjust
identified—namelyagainstthose“whounderstandthelaw‘accordingtotheflesh’”—his
audienceknowsthatheistargetingtheJewishcommunityanditsleaders—peoplefor
whom,asOrigenseesthings,“spiritualdiscernment”isoutofreach.Hisanti-Jewish
criticism,Pauline,butnowOrigen’sown,surfacesagainatthispoint,butnotforthelast
timeinhissermon.
Thepreachertrainshiseyeonceagainonhisownlisteners,andpreparesthemtotakeon
anothernameandabetteridentity.Inaseriesofconditionalphrases(“ifyouhavein
yourself,”“Ifonlyyoucansay,”“ifyoucanbesuch”)hereiteratesthechallengethatthe
day’sreadingposes:asinyourcarnalityyoucanbeIshmael,being“jointheirswithhim
whowas‘bornaccordingtotheflesh,’sotooyoucanbeIsaac”—“heirsindeedofGod,
andjointheirswithChrist”(Romans8:17).TowhichofAbraham’ssonsdoyouwishtobe
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
related?Ifitistothesonof“thepromise,”willyouactresolutelyuponthischoiceof
yours?IsaacandIshmael,spokenofasdifferently“born,”havebeenmadesubjectsfor
tropological,ormoral,exegesis.Thehearersaretochoosebetweenthetwolivesthat
Abraham’ssonsrepresent.
(p.172) Anotherunexpectedandunexplaineditemintheday’sreadingcatchesthe
preacher’sattention.Asilenceinthetextraisesquestions.Whatcouldpossiblyhavebeen
involvedinthe“playing”ofthetwoboysthatsoangeredSarah,causinghertodemand
expulsionofthe“sonofthebondwoman”?“CertainlynopersecutionofIshmaelagainst
Isaacisrelatedtohavebeenundertaken,exceptthisplayoftheinfantalone.” 21 Origen
attributestoPaulanexplanationthatrecastsandidealizesSarah,andaccordinglyframes
theimaginedinteractionsoftheboysatplay.Iftheflesh,orcarnality,whichIshmael
standsfor,“attractsthespirit,whichisIsaac,anddealswithhimwithenticing
deceitfulness,[and]ifitallureshimwithdelights....thiskindofplayofthefleshwiththe
spiritoffendsSarahespecially,whoisvirtue.” 22
HavingmadethecauseofSarah’sangerattheboys’playingintoalessonmeanttogive
ethicalguidance,OrigencannowaskhishearerstoconsiderIshmael-likepersecutions
theythemselveshavesuffered—orcommitted.Heisprovocativelyconversational.
You,therefore,Ohearerofthesewords,donotsupposethatthataloneispersecution
wheneveryouarecompelledbythemadnessofthepaganstosacrificetoidols.Butif
perhapsthepleasureofthefleshalluresyou,iftheallurementoflustsportswithyou,
fleethesethingsasthegreatestpersecutionifyouareasonofvirtue.Indeed,forthis
reasontheApostlealsosays:“Fleefornication[1Corinthians6:18].”Butalsoifinjustice
shouldattractyou,sothat,accepting“thecountenanceofthemighty[Cf.Leviticus
19:15],”andbecauseofhisartfultwistingyourenderanunjustjudgment,yououghtto
understandthatundertheguiseofplayyousufferaseductivepersecutionininjustice.
Butyoushallalsoconsideritapersecutionofthespiritbyindividualguisesofevil,evenif
theyarepleasantanddelightfulandsimilartoplay,becauseinallthesevirtueis
offended.23
Genesis21:11–21describesthefortunesofIshmaelandHagar,andOrigen’s
interpretationmakesroomforanewsetofinsights—onestriggeredbydetailsand
imagesinthestoryofthebanishedpair.WhilecontinuingtousePaul’sallegorizingto
developmoreofhisown,Origenintroducesathematiccounterpoint,onethat,asJohn
ThompsonobservedinhisWritingtheWrongs,renders“Hagartrulyenigmatic”—and
nottheobjectofscornthattheApostlemadeherouttobe.24
AhintofthisispresentinOrigen’streatmentofGenesis11–13,whereAbraham
requestsGod’sconsiderationforhisolderson,andreceivesdivinereassurance.Origen
atthispointthinksaboutAbraham’ssonsinawaythatqualifiesthestrictoppositionposed
inGalatians4:22–29.HeispayingheedtowhattheGenesistextliterallyreports.Ishmael
doesnotbecomehisfather’sheir,yet“hereceivesgiftsandisnotsentawayempty.”
(p.173) WhileIsaacmayobtain“thepromise,”Ishmaelisgranteda“blessing.”Isaac
“becomesthepeopleofadoption,”butIshmaelbecomes“agreatnation.”Thereis
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
spiritualsensetobemadeofthedifferentboonsgrantedtothesons,andthepreacher
proceedstoidentifytwogroupswithintheChristianchurchwhohavebecomesonsof
“Abraham”:thereare“some[who]clingtoGodonthebasisoflove,othersonthebasis
ofdreadandfearoffuturejudgment.” 25TheformerwerebornofAbrahamand“the
freewoman,”whilethelatter(thetypesofthesonofthebondwoman)arelikeone“who
keepsthecommandmentsnotinperfectlove,but…infearofpunishment.”Dramatic,
consistentwarningsaboutthefierytormentawaitingunbelievershadpromptedthe
paganphilosopherCelsustoteasetheChristiansforthinkingoftheirGodasaperiodic
“cook”(Origen,AgainstCelsus5:14)—andyearslaterOrigengivesevidencethatthe
convictionofadreadfuljudgmentdayisoneinwhichmanyChristiansaredeeply
invested.Herehecomparestwoformsoffaithfulness—oneenjoyedinthefreedomof
love,andtheother,aninferiortype,characterizedby“slavishfear.”Thecontrastis
sharp.Nevertheless,thoughIshmaelandtheIshmael-likearepresentedasimperfect,
thatis,cheerlessandjudgment-warysonsofAbraham,theyare(inhisexegesishere)
incorporatedinthefamilyofGod(those“whocometotherecognitionofGodbyfaith”).
Origen’sapplicationofhisreadingrecalibratesIshmaelthe“blessed”andthose
Christianslikehim,eveniftheyhavenotbeenfullyliberatedintothecovenantpromise.
ThecombinationofcloseattentiontowhatGenesistellsaboutIshmael’sgiftfromGodand
hisdesiretoexposetwoexpressionsoffaithfoundamongpeopleinhiscongregation
movesOrigenatleastmomentarilytoanestimateofIshmaelthatisnotnearlyso
uncompromisinglynegativeasPaul’s.
Origentheninviteshiscongregationtopondertheexpulsionscene:
LetusseewhatAbrahamdoesmeanwhileafterSarahisdispleased.Hecastsout
thebondwomanandherson,butneverthelessgiveshimabottleofwater.Forhis
motherdoesnothaveawelloflivingwater,norcouldtheboydrawwaterfroma
well.IsaachaswellsforwhichhealsosuffersstrifeagainstthePhilistines;but
Ishmaeldrinkswaterfromabottle,butthisbottle,asitisabottle,fails,and
therefore,heisthirstyanddoesnotfindawell.26
Liketherabbiswithwhomhesometimesdiscussedscripture,Origenconsidershis
Genesispassagewithaneyeandeartootherbiblicaltexts.Hehasmentallyscanned
them,evaluatingtheirhomileticutility.Atthisjunctureinhissermon,scriptural
referencestobottle,water,andwellssuggestcreativepossibilities.ThesayingofJesusto
theSamaritanwomanatthewellabout“livingwater”hasbecomepartofthe
interpretationhewilloffer,(p.174) ashastheGenesisnarrative’sstoryinchapter26of
thewellsthatIsaacreclaimed(theyhadoncebelongedtoAbraham)andprotected.
Becauseitwillservetheargumenthewantstoadvance,Origenaltersadetailinthe
biblicaltext,havingAbrahamgivethewaterbottletoIshmaelratherthantohismother
(whereasGenesis21:14relatesthatthePatriarch“tookbreadandaskinofwater,and
gaveittoHagar”).LiteralandfiguralmeaningsareoperatinginparallelasOrigen
describesHagarasonenotpossessing“awelloflivingwater”andashenotesthather
sonwasunabletodrawwaterfromawell.Thesemotifsarerecognizablefromthe
accountofHagar’sandIshmael’sdirecircumstanceinthewilderness(Genesis21:15–
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
16).Atthestory’sliterallevel,thereisthatplighttoberegistered,butanothercrisis
existsatthespirituallevel,foritis“living”waterthatOrigensaysHagardoesnothave
accessto,whileIshmaelisequippedonlywiththebottle,nowempty.ThecontrastOrigen
makeswithIsaac’swellsisatonce“factual”andspiritual—evenideological.Abraham’s
sonbySarahisof“thepromise,”theprimarybeneficiaryofGod’sprovidentialcare,the
begetterof“thepeopleofadoption.”Hehasrightstohisfather’swells.Ontheother
hand,blessedanddestinedtobefatherof“agreatnation”thoughhemaybe,Ishmaelis
hereagainpicturedasbeing,incomparisonwithhisyoungerbrother,inferiorinstatus
andsignificance.Indeed,thewaterbottlehereceives,soontobeempty,putshislife(and
thatofHagar)atrisk,endangeringGod’sclaimabouthisfuture.TheGenesisnarrative
andelementsfromPaul’sallegoryareinterwovenbutdistinct.
Origenturnsthelessonshespiesinthisportionofthetextinthedirectionofhis
sermon’smainthemes.YouarenotlikedesperateIshmael,unabletofindawell,hetells
peopleinhiscongregation.Youareason(ordaughter)“ofpromise,asIsaac.”Origen
ringsinProverbs5:15–16,withitsurgingthatthosewhoaspiretowisdomshoulddrink
fromtheirownabundantwells,andbenefitfromthewatersthatflowintheirstreets.27
Heisgearingthisimageofabundantwellstohispresentemphasis,whichreiterates
Paul’suseofthetwosonsofAbrahamtodrawboundariesbetweenopposingreligious
beliefsandbehaviors.Now,inOrigen’seraandsetting,thesonsrepresentJudaismand
Christianity.
He“whoisbornaccordingtotheflesh”drinkswaterfromabottleandthewater
itselffailshimandhelacksinmanythings.ThebottleoftheLawistheletterfrom
whichthatcarnalpeopledrinks,andthencereceivesunderstanding.Thisletter
frequentlyfailsthem.Itcannotextricateitself;forthehistoricalunderstanding
(historialisintelligentia)isdefectiveinmanythings.ButtheChurchdrinksfromthe
evangelicandapostolicfountainswhichneverfail,but“runinthestreets,”because
theyalwaysaboundandflowinthebreadthofspiritual(p.175) interpretation
(spiritalisinterpretationis).TheChurchdrinksalso“fromwells”whenitdrawsand
examinescertaindeeperthingsoftheLaw.28
HavingregisteredhisclaimaboutJudaism’slackof“evangelicandapostolicfountains,”—
thatis,thatithasnotbelievedintheonewhopromises“livingwater”—thepreacher
turnstowardhisconcludingassertions,whichexpounduponwater,wells,andwomen.
Themysteryofthe“deeperthings”thatChristiansfindinspiritualinterpretationsheds
lightonanepisodeOrigenisanxioustoinsertinhistreatmentofwhatbefallHagarinthe
wilderness.AsaLogos-theologianinthetraditionofJustinMartyr,ClementofAlexandria
(hispredecessorasacatechistthere),andothers,OrigenpresumesthatwhenGod
appearsandisheardinJewishscripture,thisisnotthehighGodhimself,whoinhis
transcendenceisbynatureinvisibleandincomprehensible,butratherGod’s
“Word”/Logoswhospeaks,appearsinangelicform,andwho,asGodtheSon,will“inthe
fullnessoftime”beenfleshedasJesus.ThereisforOrigennorealtheologicaldistance
betweentheappearanceoftheangel-agentwhospeakswithdespairingHagar,
reassuringherthatGodhas“heard”or“heeded”thevoiceof“theboywhereheis,”
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
andJesus’sappearancetotheSamaritanwoman.Godvisibleandaudibleis,forhimand
othersinhisfaithcommunity,theWord,whobecameincarnateinJesusChrist.The
preacher’sdominantinteresthereisinjuxtaposingtheonedialoguewiththeangelin
Genesis21:17–19thatleadstoHagar’seyesbeingopenedtoseeasavingwellofwater
(preservingthehopeofIshmaelbecoming“agreatnation”)withtheepisodeinJohn4:7–
15inwhichaSamaritanwomandrawingwaterfromJacob’swellisengagedbyJesusina
discussionaboutthe“livingwater”heprovides—thequickeningwatersheaskshimto
givetoher.
HowfarwillthepreachertakethisconnectionbetweentheSamaritanwoman,who
recognizesJesusasaprophet,receivinghistestimonythatheisthepromisedmessiahof
God,withdesperateHagar?Thetwostorieshaveepiphaniesofwaterandawellin
common.HagarleavesIshmaeltohimselfinordernottoseehisdying,andwhileshe
weepsatadistanceanangelappears,tellingher:“Godhasheededthecryoftheboy
whereheis.Come,liftuptheboyandholdhimbythehand,forIwillmakeagreatnation
ofhim”(Genesis21:17–18).Inthenextversewereadthat“Godopenedhereyesand
shesawawellofwater.”Origen’slicenseaspreacherandexegeteenableshimto
insinuateandapplytheJohanninephrase(concerningthewaterthatrescuesand
preserveslife)toIshmaelandHagar.This,Jesusdeclares,willbecome,inthosewho
drinkit,“aspringofwatergushinguptoeternallife”(John4:14).29
(p.176) OrigenassertsthatJesusdeclaredtotheSamaritanwoman“asifhewere
speakingwithHagarherself,”thattheone“whoshalldrinkofthewaterwhichIgive…
shallnotthirstforever.”ToreadtheHagarstoryinthelightofJesus’spromiseof“living
water,”thepreacherinsists,istobeinthecommunitythat“drawsandexaminesdeeper
thingsfromtheLaw.” 30
Whatmayhaveseemedtohishearers(andtomoderns)anunexpected,evenarbitrary
connectionoftwowomenandtwowellsandtworescuesflowseasilyfromOrigen’s
repertoireastheologian-exegete-preacher.Hecapitalizesonobviousbutusefuland
suggestivecorrespondences.WenoticethatOrigen,renownedforhisspiritualizing
strategiesinexegesis,payscloseattentiontoHagar’s“historical”actionsandattitudes,
asbiblicallynarrated,andthattheseobservationsplayastrongroleinhisrepresentation
ofher.Herwailingandtearsareseen,asthetextmakesclear,asworthyofdivine
attention.WhatJohnThompsonreferstoas“literalHagar”isinthepreacher’smind,and
hedepartssharplyfromthenegativecaricatureofherinPaul’sallegory,obligedtodoso
bythecontentoftheGenesistextread“historically,”forittellsofthegoodoutcomefor
HagarandIshmaelintheirwildernessordeal.OrigenisusingHagar“tothinkwith,”but
hisinterpretationofHagarisnotstrictlynorexclusivelymetaphoricalandspiritual.His
closeattentiontoheractionsintheGenesistextallowshimtokeepinsightthewoman’s
“history”—herdescriptioninscriptureasacharacter“in[her]ownright.” 31
“Allegorical”Hagardoesnotfarenearlysowell,however,asOrigenemploysherinwhat
hemusthopewillbearousingconclusiontohishomily.Hewondersaloudwhat
significanceliesinthebiblicalclaimthattheLord“openedHagar’seyes”:
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Howcanthesewordsberelatedtohistory?Forwhendowefind[inthetext]that
Hagarhasclosedeyesandtheyarelateropened?Isnotthespiritualandmystical
meaningofthesewordsclearerthanlight,thatthatpeoplewhichis“accordingto
theflesh”isabandonedandliesinhungerandthirst,suffering“notafamineof
breadnorathirstforwater,butathirstforthewordofGod”[seeAmos8:11]
untiltheeyesofthesynagogueareopened?32
OncemoreadetailintheGenesistext—here,somethingunexplained—sparksan
interpretivemove.ThereisnomentionofHagar’sblindnessorclosedeyespreceding
theiropening,andthusonlyametaphoricalmeaningwillsuffice.OrigenrevertstoPaul’s
associationofHagarwiththelawthatenslaves,butthewordthatmobilizeshisargument
derivesfromRomans11:25,wheretheApostleseekstoexplainwhya“blindness”(or,
“hardeningofheart”)hascomeuponpartofIsrael.Thislackofvision,Paulasserts,
(p.177) abidesuntilalltheGentilesareincorporatedinGod’splan,andthen“allIsrael
willbesaved.”Untiltheblindness,whichisthe“veiloftheletter,”istakenawaybyGod’s
angel,she—Israel(Hagar’snonliteral,allegoricalsignifier)—cannot,orwillnot,seethe
“livingwater”offeredtoher.Thefinaldenunciationisstark:“FornowtheJewsliearound
thewellitself,buttheireyesareclosedandtheycannotdrinkfromthewelloftheLaw
andtheprophets.” 33
Intheend,asinthebeginningofhishomily,Origen’scriticism,judgment,andwarning
againstJudaismisalsobroughtclosertohome—replayed—inanadmonitiondirectedto
Christians.WeChristianstoo,hesays,liearoundthewell.Weholdandreadthedivine
scriptures,“butwedonottouchuponthespiritualsense.”The“literal”Hagarisenlisted
asamodelandinspiration.Origensuggests:Maybethereisaneedamongus,the
faithful,for“tearsandincessantprayerthattheLordmayopenoureyes.” 34
Yetanothercouplingofapassageintheday’sreadingfromMoseswithanincidentina
Gospelservesthepreacher’spurpose:eventheblindmeninJericho(Matthew20:30)
wouldnothavereceivedtheirsighthadtheynotcriedouttotheLord,likeHagarinher
desperateneed.Whilequicktoreassurehislistenersthatheisnotclaimingthattheir
eyeshavenotbeenopened,Origennonethelessstateshisfearthatawakenedmembers
ofhischurchmayclosetheireyesagain,fallingintoaslumbersodeepthattheycannot
be“watchfulinthespiritualmeaning.”Or,thoughawareofdangeroustemptations,these
maynotstirthemtolabor,toavoidsleepandto“contemplatethingswhicharespiritual.”
Ortheymightfallintotheerrorsthatbeset“thecarnalpeoplesetaroundthewater
itself.”AwordfromtheprophetDavid(Psalms131:4–5)canonlybeheardasan
exhortation:Untilabeliever“findsaplacefortheLord,atabernaclefortheGodof
Jacob,”hewillnot,orshouldnot,sleepnorslumber.Origenproclaimsthatthis
tabernacleistobefashionedandfoundwithintheindividualChristian,enlightenedand
encouragedbythings“divineandworthythatthehumanracemightlearnfromthe
wordsofGod.”Throughouthishomily,andemphaticallyhereatitsconclusion,Origen
promoteshisbeliefthatspiritualmaturationandtheadvancetowardallthatGod
promisestohispeopleiseffectedprimarilythroughdeepenedinsightintodivinewritings.
TolearnhowtohearandtoheedGod’swordsinthesacredtextsistobecomespiritual
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
andfree—tobesaved.
OrigenhasreiteratedtheassertionvitaltoearlyChristiansthattheyareheirsofGod’s
covenantpromisesmadetoAbraham,continuedthroughIsaacandJacob.Andyet,more
thansomeChristianexegetesandtheologianswereinclinedtodo,Origen’ssermon
revealedhisconcerntohonortheblessinggiventoIshmael,ensuringthatfromhim
wouldcomeastrong(p.178) nation.Thismotif,whichunderlinesdivinefavorshared
(thoughdifferentiatedasgreaterandlesser),isbornofOrigen’sloyaltytowhatGenesis
relates,anditresists(atleastinthatmomentinthesermon)thestarkcontrastthatin
Paul’sallegoryinGalatianspitsthesonsagainsteachother—theonefreeandsaved,the
otherenslavedandcondemned.OfcourseOrigenacceptsandenunciatesthealready
entrenchedandnecessaryclaimofthechurchthatbelieversinChristhavebeen
“adopted”aschildrenofAbrahamandareheirsofthedivineboonsgiventothem.Inthe
imageryofhissermon,theJewshavefailedtodrinkfromthewellofscripture,andhave
putthemselvesatadistancefromGod—theGodnowunderstoodastheonewhoin
JesusChristprovidesthe“livingwater”guaranteeingeternallife.BecauseinOrigen’s
daytheChristiansenjoystrongerself-definitionasarecognizedanddistinctreligion,he
spendsasmuchtimeapplyingthesekindsofargumentstotensionswithinthechurches
ashedoestotensionsbetweenJewsandChristians.Yes,themembersofchurchesare
nowexclusivelythechildrenofAbrahamandSarah,throughIsaacandJacob,yetOrigen
insiststhatitiswithinChristiancommunities,intheethicalpracticesofindividual
Christians,andeveninthewaysbelieversclingtoGod(in“slavishfear”orin“the
freedomoflove”)thatpeopleworkoutwhichson—IshmaelorIsaac—theymost
resemble.Origen’sscripturalinterpretationbynomeansignoresthezoneofreligious
competitioninwhichhelivesandworks.However,hewritesandspeakstoChristians,
andturnsthebiblicalwisdomthathefindsinward—directingittothemultifaceted
churchesandthemultifacetedindividualsmakinguptheirnumber.
ThewomenofAbraham,inOrigen’sretelling,areoften,itistrue,recognizableintheir
similaritytootheridealizedandallegorizedrepresentationsbyotherauthors.Andyet,
becauseOrigenisobligedtoreadcompletelyandtoworkthroughtheday’slectionfrom
Genesis,hebreaksfromPaul’sone-dimensionalcaricatureofHagar,includingheramong
thosewhoseeyesopenedtosee(andtodrinkfrom)thewellthatgivessalvation.
Likewise,the“blessing”thatinscriptureGodgivestoIshmaelisnotbypassed,andthe
eldersonisatleastbriefly,orqualifiedly,presented(contraPaul)asoneamongthose
whoenjoyGod’sfavor.
TheframeforourexplorationofOrigen’ssermonanditsinterpretivestrategyisa
comparativeanalysisofhowsacredstorieswereretoldinantiquityinthreedifferent
religiouscommunities.WehaveseenOrigenandhisthinking,especiallyaboutJudaism,in
thehistoricalcontextofthe“partingoftheways”betweenJewsandChristiansasthat
separationhadadvancedinthethirdcentury.35Origen’streatmentofAbraham’swomen
displaysnotonlyhisdexterousimagination,butalsothevibrantmultireligious(p.179)
worldinwhichhemadesenseforhimselfandforhisfellowbelieversbypursuingJesus’s
admonitionto“searchthescriptures.”
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
ChristianArtists’InterpretationsofAbraham’sWomen
TheAshburnhamPentateuch
UniqueinearlyChristianiconographyisthefollowingdepiction(Figure5.1)oftheconflict
betweenSarahandHagar:
Figure5.1 SarahmakeshercasetoAbraham.Ashburnham
Pentateuch.
©BibliothéquenationaledeFrance,Paris.Ms.lat.nouv.acq.2334,
folio18r.
AcompressionoftheactionsfamiliartousfromGenesis21:8–13(andfromOrigen’s
sermon),thepaintedimagehasbothHagarandSarahpresent,standingbeforethe
seatedAbraham.IshmaelandIsaacalsofaintlyappearinthedamagedpainting,depicted
asyoungboys,onesmallerthantheother,“playing”—thatis,tussling—infrontoftheir
mothers.“HereisHagar,”theLatinsuperscriptaboveherheadtellsus.Sarah,the
scene’scentralfigure,gesturesinAbraham’sdirection.TheLatin(paraphrasingGenesis
21:1)thatsurroundsherrelatesherspeech:“SarahsaystoAbraham,‘Behold,(the)son
ofmyservantwillnotbe(an)heir!’”Abrahamisgivennowords,buthisextendedhand
isinterpretableasarequestforthewomen’stestimonies,ormorelikely,hisresponseto
Sarah’sdeclaration.Initscontent,theimagefreezesthatpartofthenarrativeinGenesis
21:1–14theartistwishestopresent.Itmaybesimplyareport,graphicallydisplayed.Yet
theviewerissupposedtounderstandwhatthistension-filledmomentresolved,andwhat
it“states.”Sarahistheactor.Inthiscontest,sheisalsothevictor.Herdemand,
approvedbyGod(Genesis21:12),securesIsaac’sinheritance.Ishmaelandhismother
Hagararetobesentaway.
Thesceneisonlyoneofseventhatfillfolio18aintheAshburnhamPentateuch.The
illuminationsdepictepisodesfromchapters19through21inGenesis,anarrativesection
thatbeginswiththestoryofLotandthedestructionofSodomandGommorahandends
withtheejectionofHagarandIshmaelfromAbraham’shousehold.Atthebottomoffolio
18aanothercriticalincidentinSarah’slifeisshown(Figure5.2)intwoscenesabutting
theonejustdescribed.
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Figure5.2 Sarah’sencounterwithAbimelech.Detail.Ashburnham
Pentateuch.
©BibliothéquenationaledeFrance,Paris.Ms.lat.nouv.acq.2334,
folio18r.
InapicturetotheleftsideofthepageweareshownAbimelechsleepingonhisbed,with
hisqueenandSarahidentifiedasthetwowomenseatednearby.(Abimelech’squeen
doesnotappearintheGenesisnarrative;perhapstheartistbelievedthather
appearanceintheking’sbedroomwouldheightenthedramaandimplicationsofhis
having“taken”Sarah.)SomeofthewordsspokentoAbimelechinhisdream-state
dialoguewithGodarerelatedintheLatin.“HeretheLordtellsKingAbimelechthatSarah
isthe(p.180) (p.181) (p.182) wifeofAbraham”—hiswife,nothissister.Abimelech,
soinformed,heedsGod’swarningandissparedthedeaththatwouldhavecometohim
hadhehadintercoursewithSarahandhadhenotreturnedhertoherhusband.
Theadjoininglowerscenedepictsthisdangerousepisode’sconclusion.Abimelechonhis
thronedispatchesAbrahamandSarahtosafesettlementsomewherewithinhisterritory.
“KingAbimelech,whereherestoresSarahtoAbrahamandgivestohimsheepandoxen
andmaleandfemaleslaves”(seeGenesis20:14).OscarvonGebhardtdescribedthe
body-languageofthescenes’characters:Abimelech“holdshisrighthandaloft,asifforan
oath;withthelefthandhesurrendersSarahtoAbraham,whoseizesherlefthandwith
bothhandsandinclineshisheadtowardsher.” 36
ItisworthaskingwhetherthethreepanelsfeaturingSarah—inAbimelech’schamber,
departingfromGerarafterhercloseencounterwiththeking,andbeforeAbraham,
makinghercaseagainstIshmaelandhismother—aresimplygraphicrepetitionsofthe
text.Hasthepaintersimplyrenderedtheliteral/historicalaccountinimagesandwith
identifyingLatintags?Orisitmorelikelythattheartistintendedinthesescenesmore
thansheerchronicling?Theincidentsselectedforportrayalhaveincommonan
occupationwithdecisions,choices,ethicalquandaries,andtheactionsofGodinsuch
humandramas.IntheiralienresidenceinGerar,therewasAbraham’sfearofhisown
death,shouldhiswifeSarahbedesired,Abimelech’sthreatened“integrityofheart”as
hesoughtto“approach”thewomanhebelievedtobeunmarried,andGod’sintervention
whichprotectedandrescuedSarah.Abimelech’sreturnofSarahtoAbrahamfollowed
uponatruth-tellingencounterbetweenthetwomen(Genesis20:9–13),andwas
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
accompaniedbythegiftsdepictedinthepainting.Endangeredvirtuesarepreserved.
OthermomentsinSarah’slife,andintheinteractionsbetweenthepatriarch’swives,
couldhaveclaimedspace,buttheseimagesrepresentwhattheartistwishedtosetforth
asthecentrallyimportantoutcomeofthescripturalnarrative:thecovenantpromiseof
GodtoAbrahamrestswiththechildpromisedto,andbornof,Sarah—Isaac.Without
havingahandofGodpointingtowardSarahasshespeakstoherhusband,theperson
viewingthepaintedscenerecallsthatthiswasGod’sdecree.SarahisdefendingtheGodpreferredheir,andthepeopleofhislineage.Inwhatseemtobestraightforward
renditionsofbiblicalhappeningsconcerningSarahandHagar,thereresidediscernible
lessonsandteachings.
Weareleft,however,withanintriguingquestion.Ifthesepaintingswerecreatedwith
moralinstructioninmind,howisSarahdepicted,andwhatishermessageinethical
terms?InthefirstofthescenesdepictingSarah’slife,shesitscomposedlyinAbimelech’s
chamber,butnoparticularindicationisgiveneitherofherstateofmindorheractions.
Indeed,theimagemay(p.183) haveitsfocusnotsomuchinSarah(andAbimelech’s
queen)asinthesleepingking.Forthebiblicallyinformedviewerthescenecallstomind
whattranspiredintheking’sdream:God’sdisclosureaboutthemarriedstatusofthe
womanhehasclaimedforhimself.Notholdingherresponsibleforcomplyingwith
Abraham’sfalsehood,wearefreetoseeSarahasaninnocentparticipant—evenapawn—
inaportentousstruggleornegotiationinvolvingtwomales(three,withtheLordcounted
in)—allofwhomhaveavitalinvestmentinwhatdecisionsaremadeandwhatactionsare
taken.Similarly,Sarah’spresenceinAbimelech’ssend-offofthepaircarriesnoobvious
andperceptiblemoralimportance—excepttothosewhoknowthatintheGenesistextshe
hasbeenexoneratedofanysuspicionbytheking,whotellsher,“youarecompletely
vindicated”(20:16b).Another,arguablygreater,significancebelongstoSarah,atleastin
themindsofthosewhoknowthenarrativewell,forinthesucceedinglineswelearnthat
Sarah,havingescapedbecomingAbimelech’sconcubine,conceivesandgivesbirthto
Abraham’schild,inaccordancewithwhatGodhadpromised(21:1–2).
Thecontentofthefinalscene,whichtakesustotheseparationofAbraham’stwosons
andwives,hasonlySarahasaspeaker.Veryprobablytheartistseesherasaparagonof
virtueintwoimportantsenses—sheisnotoneofthemorallycompromisedcharactersin
thisartisticcomposition(theartdoesnotpresentuswiththeSarahwhoscoffs,norwith
theSarahwhoisirate),andherworthinessexpressesitselfasresponsivenessandloyalty
towhatGodhasrevealedthathewilldowithher.Theclaimthatshemakesisbasedin
God’sownproclamationthattheheirofthecovenantwithAbrahamwouldbeIsaac.
Further,depictionoftheconflictbetweenthetwoboyswouldservetojustifySarah’s
fearthathersonisvulnerabletoIshmael’saggression,whichitselfchallengesthe
providentialplanofGod.HagarandIshmaelarepresentinthepaintingasantagonists,
butSarahisadamant.SheistheforemotherofthecovenantpeopleofGod,who,for
thosegatheringforworshipinachurchinthesixthcentury,arethemselvesandtheir
fellow-believersinChrist.
TheAshburnhamPentateuch’spaintingofAbraham’stwowomenandtwosonsinhis
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
presencemustfinallybedecipherednotsimplyasliteralorhistorical,butratherasa
componentpartinanartisticpresentationthat,mediatedthroughitsselectionofactions
tobeportrayed,strivestowardpictorialethicaleducation.Itsstrategyisnotallegorical—
rather,thepaintedscenes’persons,deeds,andtheirfates,forgoodorforill,serveas
moralexamples.
IntheRomanchurchdedicatedtotheVirginMaryandcreatedundertheauspicesof
SixtusIII,popefrom432–440,wefindthisbeautifullyexecutedtwo-tiereddepictionof
Abraham’shospitalitytospecialvisitors(Figure5.3).
Figure5.3 ThehospitalityofAbraham.Amid-fifth-centuryCE
mosaic.SantaMariaMaggiore,Rome
©ArtHistoryImages.
(p.184) Withbendedkneeandoutstretchedhand,thepatriarch,hisadvancedagewell
capturedinhiswhitehairandbeard,extendshiswelcometotheangels,oneofwhomis
distinguishedbythetranslucentmandorlasurroundinghim.(WerecallthatinGenesis18
Abrahamextendshishospitalityto“threemen,”butonedeliversthepromiseofthebirth
ofIsaacwithinayear,andtherepeatedannouncementisattributed,atGenesis18:13–
14,to“theLord.”)ThemosaicistisChristianizingthescripturalsceneinanunmistakable
way:inaccordancewithChristianLogos-theology,itistheWordofGod,theSon,whois
presenttoAbrahamandSarahastheLord—hewhowouldbecomeincarnateasJesus,
God’s(p.185) anointedone,theChrist.37(Theovalmandorla,inthisperiodand
afterward,mostfrequentlysurroundsimagesoftheresurrectedJesus,orofMary.)
Thelowersceneistwoinone,withAbrahamintheforegroundturnedtowardSarah(her
headcoveredandherdressahandsomecombinationofwhite,black,andbrightorange).
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
PresumablyheasksthatSarahprepareamealofcakes(Genesis18:6),buthis
countenancecouldbethoughttoregistersomethingbetweenanxietyandconsternation.
Atadeeperdimensionintheimage,Abrahamturnstothetable,abouttosetbeforehis
angel-messengerguests“thecalf,tenderandgood”(Genesis18:7).Twooftheangels
looktowardtheirhost,thecenteronereachingtowardtheplatterasiftoreceiveit.
Wehaveseenthisbasiciconographybefore,bothinthefloorpanelintheSepphoris
synagogueandinthemosaicwithintheRavenna’ssixth-centurychurchofSanVitale.The
visitationoftheangelstoAbraham,withtheevent’smainpurposeimplied—thepromise
concerningthebirthofasontoSarah—wasforbothJewsandChristiansasacredstory,
butonethatChristianartists,aswellastheologians,wereespeciallykeentoreimagine
andreimage.
Wetakenoteofasmalldetailinthismosaicartist’stransformationofthebiblicalnarrative
intoaChristianone.Abovethedoorlintelofthesmallbuilding(the“tent”)behindSarah
appearsacross.ThismarkingofthecampofAbrahamasChristianisinkeepingwitha
typologicalunderstandingoftheLord’s/angels’announcementthatSarahwillgivetothe
patriarchason.Highabovethissceneinthechurch’sgreatarchthereappearsthe
depictionoftheotherannunciationwhichitanticipates,Gabriel’svisittoMary(Figure
5.4).
Figure5.4 TheAnnunciation,amosaicdecorationinthetriumphal
archofSta.MariaMaggiore,Rome.Mid-fifthcenturyCE.
©ArtHistoryImages.
Forfifth-centuryChristianswhogatheredinthegreatchurchofSaintMary,theportrait
ofAbrahamandSarahwasavisuallyreadableforecastandcelebrationnotonlyofthe
parents-to-beofIsaac,butalso,andmoreprofoundly,oftheyoungvirginwhowould
become“themotherofGod.” 38
BiblicalinterpretationsofAbraham’stwowomenasweencountertheminthetwoquite
differentvisualcommentaries—thefoliointheAshburnhamPentateuchandSta.Maria
Maggiore’smosaic—reveal,especiallywhenconsideredalongsideNewTestament
passagesandOrigen’ssermon,thevarietywithwhichtheseChristiansthinkersre-told
andre-presentedtheirsacredstories.Takentogether,ourtextsandartinthischapter
demonstratethestrongtendencytowardseekingmoral,typological,andspiritual
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
meaningsthatemergedimmediatelyandgrewin(p.186) creativity(andcomplexity)in
Christianliteratureandartoftheearlycenturiesofthecommonera.
ThesemodesofinterpretationalsoappearedinJewishwritings—admittedlylesssointhe
midrashoftherabbinicperiodthaninPhilo’sreadingsofscripture—andalsoinMuslim
tafsirandart.WhileChristiansdidnotcometoignoretheliteralandhistoricalelementsin
thetexts,andJewsandMuslimsdidnotshyawayfrommoral,philosophical,and
theologicalorspiritualimplicationstheyfoundinthetextstheystudied,itisstillquite
noticeableinthecaseofinterpretationsofAbraham’swomenhowstronglyPauland
Origen,inparticular,pursued,andledotherstopursue,meaningsbeyondthe“letter.”
Qur’aninterpreters,whilehonoringSarahandcountinghersonIsaacaprophetofGod,
weremostoccupiedbythefortunesoftheotherhalfofAbraham’sfamily,Hagarand
Ishmael,whodwelledinthevicinityof“God’shouse”inMecca.ToMuslimvisionsand
understandingsofAbraham’swomen,comparedwiththoseoftheJewsandChristians,
wenowturn.
Notes:
(1.)ElizabethClark’sessay“InterpretiveFateamidtheChurchFathers”appearsin
PhyllisTribleandLettyRussell,eds.,Hagar,Sarah,andTheirChildren;thisquotationat
143.
(2.)ThemakingofSarahintoavirtueisakintoPhilo’streatmentofherinhisOnAbraham
42:“Everywhereandalwaysshewasathisside,noplaceoroccasionomitted,histrue
partnerinlifeandlife’sevents,resolvedtosharealikethegoodandtheill.Shedidnot,
likesomeotherwomen,runawayfrommishapsandliereadytopounceonpiecesof
goodluck,butacceptedherportionofbothwithallalacrityasthefitandpropertestofa
weddedwife.”IfindconvincingtheargumentadvancedinHughMontefiore,A
CommentaryontheEpistletotheHebrews,194,thatSarah,notAbraham,isthesubject
ofthesentenceinHebrews11:11,yielding:“ByfaithSarahherself,thoughbarren,
receivedpowertoconceive,evenwhenshewastooold,becausesheconsideredhim
faithfulwhohadpromised.”
(3.)Sanders,E.P.,PaulandPalestinianJudaism.SeetreatmentofSanders,andothersin
JohnG.Gager,ReinventingPaul.
(4.)Itremainsamatterofscholarlydebatewhetherthese“agitators”(5:12),withtheir
“Judaizing”agendawereJewswhohadbecomefollowersofJesus(“Jewish-Christians,”
astheyaresometimeslabeled),insistinguponamodeofbeliefandbehaviorthat
continuedinobservanceofJudaism’sprecepts,or,rather,thattheywereGentile
convertswhowereintentuponincorporatingintheirnewfaithoneofthecentral
“traditionsoftheancestors,”asPaulidentifiesJudaisminaphrase.
(5.)Sanders,Paul,[431]–556.
(6.)SeeGalatians3:6–29,andRomans4.Genesis15:6iscitedbyPaulinGalatians3:6
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
andRomans4:3.
(7.)HansDieterBetz’sanalysisofthispassage,towhichIammuchindebtedinwhat
follows,isfoundinhiscommentary,Galatians,238–252.OnthepassageinGalatians
4:21–31,Betzcomments:“Paul’smethodofinterpretationisstatedclearlyinv24a.What
hecalls‘allegory’isreallyamixtureofwhatwewouldcallallegoryandtypology.Itshould
beadmittedthatbothmethodsarecloselyrelated.Typologyinterpretshistoricalmaterial
commonlyusedinprimitiveChristianity.Persons,events,andinstitutionsofScripture
andtraditionaretakenasprototypesofpresentpersons,events,andinstitutions,which
areexplainedastheirfulfillment,repetition,orcompletionwithinaframeworkofsalvation
history.Indistinctiontotypology,allegorytakesconcretemattersmentionedinScripture
andtradition(mythology)tobethesurfaceappearanceorvestigeofunderlyingdeeper
truthswhichthemethodclaimstobringtolight.Therebyconcretemattersinthetextare
transportedintogeneralnotionsofphilosophicalortheologicaltruth.Paul’stextconsists
ofquotationsofLXXandJewishhaggadicmaterialinGreektranslation;hedoesnotmake
anydistinctionbetweenthetwo.InageneralsensePaul’sinterpretationoftheAbraham
traditionandofthefiguresofHagarandSarahispartofahistoryofsuchinterpretations.
Paul,however,doesnotsimplytakeoverthisinterpretation,butatthesametimehe
givesithisownimprint”(239).
(8.)JerusalemasaheavenlyplaceisspokenofonlyhereinPaul’sletters,butisimagined
invariouswaysinJewishapocalypticandearlyChristianwritingslike4Ezra7:26;10:40ff,
Jubilees4:26,2Apoc.Baruch4:207;32:2–3,1Enoch90:28ff.,Hebrews12:22–24,and
Revelation21:1–22:5.Seenotes81–85inBetz,Galatians.
(9.)ErnestDeWittBurton,Galatians,226.
(10.)Betz,Galatians,249.
(11.)SeeG.WalterHansen,AbrahaminGalatians,162.
(12.)LeanderKeck,inhisintroductiontoRomansinWayneMeeks,ed.,The
HarperCollinsStudyBible,2115,drewattentiontothefactthatthediscussioninRomans
isframedinasituationquiteunlikethatinwhichPauldefendedhis“gospeltothe
uncircumcised”whenmeetingwithJames,Peter,andJohninJerusalem(theeventPaul
recountsinGalatians1–2):“inRomeheneededtodefendthecontinuingvalidityof
IsraelinGod’spurpose.Hisletter,therefore,insiststhatthereisonegospelforall
humanity,albeit‘totheJewfirst’”(1:16).
(13.)RonaldE.Heine,Origen:HomiliesonGenesisandExodus,127–135.Inquotations
ofHeine’stranslation,slightchangesandadaptationsaremadeinspellingsofnames
(“Hagar”for“Agar,”forexample).ThesesermonsofOrigen,preachedinCaesarea
Maritimaca.238–244,surviveinLatintranslations—orbetter,paraphrases—bythe
scholar-monasticRufinusofAquileia(ca.340–410),asupporterofOrigen’swhen
controversyswirledaroundhisworkandthought,tendinginthedirectionofbranding
“Origenism”aheresy.Heine,Origen,1–43,providesaconciseandhelpfulintroduction
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
tothelifeofOrigenandtothehistoryofthesesermons,includingtreatmentofRufinusas
translator.
(14.)GerhardvonRad,Genesis,225.
(15.)Butterworth,OnFirstPrinciples,4.2.4.
(16.)Origen,HomilyVII,127.
(17.)Ibid.
(18.)Ibid.,128–129.
(19.)Origen,FirstPrinciples4.3.5,297.
(20.)Origen,HomilyVII,129.
(21.)Ibid.,130.
(22.)Ibid.,131.Here,Origen’sdebttoPaulissurpassedbyhisdebttoPhilo,whointhe
courseofworkingoutviaallegoryalessonaboutthetrainingofthemind(Abraham),and
itsneedfor“preliminarystudies”(Hagar)towhichknowledge,philosophy,thevirtues
(Sarah)givesassent,representsHagar’sflight“fromthefaceofSarah”(Genesis16:6–8)
intheseterms:“thesoulwasfoundfleeingfromvirtue,notbeingabletoreceive
discipline.”SeePhilo,QuestionsandAnswersonGenesis3:27,47.InThePosterityand
ExileofCain33:130,theideaisconnectedtoanothersegmentofthestoryofthetwo
women:“[God],[i.e.,scripture]showsusHagarfillingawater-skinandgivingthechild
drink.Hagarrepresentsimperfecttraining,beinghandmaidofSarahwhorepresents
perfectvirtue.”
(23.)Origen,HomilyVII,131.
(24.)JohnL.Thompson,WritingtheWrongs,31.
(25.)Origen,HomilyVII,131–132.
(26.)Origen,HomilyVII,133.
(27.)InitsowncontextintheHebrewtextofProverbstheadviceinvokesmetaphorsof
water/liquidsinrelationtomale-femalerelations,sexualenjoyment,andwarningsagainst
aman’sintoxicationwithanotherwoman,and“embrac[ing]thebosomofanadulteress”
(v.20).Further,itclearlywarnsagainstlettingwatersspilloutintothestreetsandflow
away.
(28.)Origen,HomilyVII,133.
(29.)RufinushasaddedvivaetotheoldLatintextoftheBiblethathequotes,which
referssimplytoputeumaquae(awellofwater),buthisadaptationnodoubtreflectsthe
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
GreekofOrigen,whohasdrawn“living”waterfromJohn4:10–11intohistreatmentof
Genesis21:19.
(30.)Origen,HomilyVII,133.
(31.)Thompson’sassessmentofOrigen’streatmentofHagarisincisive.InhisWritingthe
Wrongs,31,weread:“WhatmakesOrigen’simageofHagartrulyenigmatic…isthat,
havingdrawnsuchapotentiallytoxicconnectionbetweenHagarandtheunspiritual
‘letter,’heshowsnointerestinvilifyingHagar.PaulmaythinkthatHagarsymbolizesthe
oldcovenant,butOrigensidestepsanysuchconclusion.InsteadoffaultingHagar,
whetherthehistoricalconcubineortheallegoricalone,Origenallegoricallydisparagesthe
bottle(ofwater)thatAbrahamgavetoHagarassheleft.InthiswayOrigendoesnot
brandHagarwiththestigmaofthelawandtheletter,butactuallyfreesherfromboth:
‘ThebottleofLawistheletter,fromwhichthatcarnalpeopledrinks…Thisletter
frequentlyfailsthem,…forthehistoricalunderstandingisdefectiveinmanythings.’The
Churchontheotherhand,drinksfromthefountainofspiritualinterpretation—asdoes
Hagar,itwouldsuddenlyseem.Shethusemergesnotasascapegoatbutasanexemplar
ofsorts.LiketheSamaritanwoman…Hagarhashadhereyesopenedtoseethetrue
welloflivingwater,whichisJesusChrist.Apparently,sheisnolongertobecounted
amongthe‘carnal’Jews.”
(32.)Origen,HomilyVII,134.
(33.)Ibid.
(34.)Ibid.,134–135.
(35.)SeeinparticularDanielBoyarin,ARadicalJewandJohnDavidDawson,Christian
FiguralReading.
(36.)OscarvonGebhardt,TheMiniaturesoftheAshburnhamPentateuch,14.
(37.)InanotherSta.MariaMaggioremosaicscene,thehaloedChristoverseesthe
blessingthatMelchizedekbestowsuponAbrahamfromthecloudsabove,hishand
extendeddownwardtowardMelchizedekandthebasketofloavesheliftsuptowardthe
patriarch,whoisamountedwarriorattheheadofhisarmy.
(38.)SeeinRobinJensen,FacetoFace,191–194,ahelpfulsummarizationofthe
developmentofearlyiconographictraditionsofMary.Thetheologyandsupersessionist
ideologyofChristianpowerinthefifthcenturywasaggressive,withtypologyitsforceful
medium.ThestrongthemeofJas’Elsner’sImperialRomeandChristianTriumphis
summarizedinhiscomments,228,onSta.MariaMaggiore’sart:
ItcomprehensivelyreinterpretsadetailedOldTestamentcycle(onthenavewalls)
intermsofitsfulfillmentinthetriumphofChristianity.ItisnotjustthatspecificOld
TestamentthemesprefigurethelifeofChrist,butthatthewholenarrativeof
Jewishhistoryispresentedassubservientto,completedin,theIncarnation….
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Sarah and Hagar in Christian Retellings
Suchvisualprogrammesinthemajorchurchestransposedtherelativelysmallscaletypologicalimagesofcatacombsandsarcophagi,aswellasthestilltinier
Christianimageryofgems,glassware,andivorytoamonumentalgrandeur.In
doingso,theytransformedasectarianimageryofcultidentityintoacanonical
iconographyofstatereligionwheretheonlyplaceforpagans(suchastheMagi)or
Jews(thefiguresinOldTestamentcycles)wasasastagetobesurpassedin
Christianity’steleologyoftriumphalism.
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