Sarah and Hagar
UniversityPressScholarshipOnline
OxfordScholarshipOnline
SharedStories,RivalTellings:EarlyEncountersofJews,
Christians,andMuslims
RobertC.Gregg
Printpublicationdate:2015
PrintISBN-13:9780190231491
PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:August2015
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231491.001.0001
SarahandHagar
JewishPortrayals
RobertC.Gregg
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231491.003.0007
AbstractandKeywords
ThestoryofAbraham’stwowomenandtheirsonsisthebasisforIsrael’sselfunderstandingasGod’scovenantpeopleinthelineagefromIsaac.Strifeandcompetition
betweenSarahandHagar,leadingtotheexpulsionofHagarandIshmaeltothe
wilderness,drewtheattentionofrabbinicexegetes,storytellers,andofmosaicartistsin
theGalileancityofSepphoris.Howweretheattitudesandbehaviorsofthetwowomen
andtheirsonstobeassessed?VoicesinGenesisRabbahdebatecausesoftheinfertility
ofSarahandtheeasypregnancyofHagar,thecharacterandattributesofbothwomen,
andalsowhatkindof“play”byIshmaelcausedSarahtoforceAbrahamtosendtheboy
andhismotheraway.Thechapterconcludeswithconsiderationofthedamagedmosaic
flooroftheSepphorissynagogueandtherelationofitsimagestobothJewishand
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Sarah and Hagar
Christianiconographyoftheera.
Keywords:heir,harshtreatment,wilderness,GenesisRabbah,Sepphorissynagogue
Figure4.1 AbrahamcastingoutHagarandIshmael.Rembrandtvan
Rijn,1637.Etching:15.7cm×13.3cm.
©TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork.ArtResource,NY.
(p.121)
Inadrawingmadeafterthemid-1630sRembrandtfocusedonthefigureofHagar
whenshewassentbyAbrahamintothedesert.Thethemeofthetworivalwomen
wasawidelydepictedsubject....YetonlyRembrandt’setchingTheExpulsionof
HagarreallyshowsthecontrastbetweenthetriumphantSarah,gleefullypeeping
throughthedoorwaywithasatisfiedsmileonherface,andthedesolatefigureof
theweepingHagar.
AnatGilboa,ImagesoftheFeminineinRembrandt’sWork1
CommandedbyGodtoleavehisnativelandandtraveltothelandofCanaan,Abram(to
berenamedAbraham),obeyed,andonceathisdestinationtheLordappearedtohim
anddeclared“Iwillassignthislandtoyouroffspring”(Genesis12:7).Sometimelater,
whenAbramwastoldbyGodthat“[his]rewardwouldbeverygreat,”heresponded,
“OLordGod,whatcanyougivetome,seeingthatIamchildless,andtheoneincharge
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Sarah and Hagar
ofmyhouseholdisDammesekEliezer?”GodreassuredAbramthatEliezer,hissteward,
wouldnotbehisheir.Nonewouldbebut“yourveryownissue”(15:1–4).
15:5Hetookhimoutsideandsaid,“Looktowardheavenandcountthestars,if
youareabletocountthem.”Andheadded,“Soshallyouroffspringbe.”
6AndbecauseheputhistrustintheLord,Hereckonedittohismerit.
ThedeclarationinPsalm11:5that“theLordteststherighteous”oftenevokesthe
memoryofGod’scommandthatAbrahamofferhissonasaburntsacrifice,buttheverse
couldstandovertheentirebiblicalhistoryofthepatriarch.Itcertainlyappliestothe
narrativetellingofthebirthoftwosonstoAbraham,firstbySarah’smaidservant,Hagar,
andthenbySarahherself.Thedramainvolvinghistwowomenandtheirsonsisoneof
conflict,uponwhichhingesthecharacterofGod’sdifferentrelationshipswithAbraham’s
offspring.
Inthischapter,afterreviewingtheHebrewBible’spresentationoftheevents,weturnto
Jewishinterpretationsofthestorybyrabbisandbyartists.Thecommunity’sscripture
interpreterswillbeobservedworkingtoensurethatthissacredstorypresentsthe
originsofIsrael’scovenantrelationshipwithGodinthemostpowerfulwordsandimages
possible.Weshallalsobecomeawareoftheirawarenessofacounterinterpretationby
Christians.
(p.122) SarahandHagarinGenesis
16:1Sarai,Abram’swife,hadbornehimnochildren.ShehadanEgyptian
maidservantwhosenamewasHagar.2AndSaraisaidtoAbram,“Look,theLord
haskeptmefrombearing.Consortwithmymaid,perhapsIshallhaveason
throughher.”AndAbramheededSarai’srequest.3SoSarai,Abram’swife,took
hermaid,HagartheEgyptian—afterAbramhaddweltinthelandofCanaanten
years—andgavehertoherhusbandAbramasconcubine.4Hecohabitedwith
Hagarandsheconceived;andwhenshesawthatshehadconceived,hermistress
wasloweredinheresteem.5AndSaraisaidtoAbram,“Thewrongdonemeis
yourfault!Imyselfputmymaidinyourbosom;nowthatsheseesthatsheis
pregnant,Iamloweredinheresteem.TheLorddecidebetweenyouandme!”
6AbramsaidtoSarai,“Yourmaidisinyourhands.Dealwithherasyouthink
right.”ThenSaraitreatedherharshly,andsheranawayfromher.
7AnangeloftheLordfoundherbyaspringofwaterinthewilderness,thespring
ontheroadtoShur,8andsaid,“Hagar,slaveofSarai,wherehaveyoucomefrom
andwhereareyougoing?”Andshesaid,“Iamrunningawayfrommymistress
Sarai.”
9AndtheangeloftheLordsaidtoher,“Gobacktoyourmistress,andsubmitto
herharshtreatment.”10AndtheangeloftheLordsaidtoher,
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Sarah and Hagar
“Iwillgreatlyincreaseyouroffspring,
Andtheyshallbetoomanytocount.”
11TheangeloftheLordsaidtoherfurther,
“Behold,youarewithchild
Andshallbearason;
YoushallcallhimIshmael,
FortheLordhaspaidheedtoyoursuffering.
12Heshallbeawildassofaman;
Hishandagainsteveryone,
Andeveryone’shandagainsthim;
Heshalldwellalongsideofallhiskinsmen.”
13AndshecalledtheLordwhospoketoher,“YouareEl-Roi,”
bywhichshemeant,“HaveInotgoneonseeingafterHesawme!”
14ThereforethewellwascalledBeer-lahai-roi;itisbetweenKadeshandBered.—
15HagarboreasontoAbram,andAbramgavethesonthatHagarborehimthe
nameIshmael.16Abramwaseighty-sixyearsoldwhenHagarboreIshmaelto
Abram.(p.123)
17:1WhenAbramwasninety-nineyearsold,theLordappearedtoAbramandsaid
tohim,“IamElShaddai.WalkinMywaysandbeblameless.2Iwillestablishmy
covenantbetweenMeandyou,andIwillmakeyouexceedinglynumerous.”3
Abrahamthrewhimselfonhisface;andGodspoketohimfurther,4“AsforMe,
thisisMycovenantwithyou:Youshallbethefatherofamultitudeofnations.5
AndyoushallnolongerbecalledAbram,butyournameshallbeAbraham,forI
makeyouthefatherofamultitudeofnations.
6Iwillmakeyouexceedinglyfertile,andmakenationsofyou,andkingswillcome
forthfromyou.7IwillmaintainmycovenantbetweenMeandyou,andyour
offspringtocome,asaneverlastingcovenantthroughouttheages,tobeGodto
youandyouroffspringtocome.8Iassignthelandyousojournintoyouandyour
offspringtocome,allthelandofCanaan,asaneverlastingholding.Iwillbetheir
God.”...15AndGodsaidtoAbraham,“AsforyourwifeSarai,youshallnotcall
herSarai,buthernameshallbeSarah.16Iwillblessher;indeedIwillgiveyoua
sonbyher.Iwillblesshersothatsheshallgiverisetonations;rulersofpeoples
shallissuefromher.”17Abrahamthrewhimselfonhisfaceandlaughed,ashesaid
tohimself,“Canachildbeborntoamanahundredyearsold,orcanSarahbeara
childatninety?”18AndAbrahamsaidtoGod,“OthatIshmaelmaylivebyYour
favor!”19Godsaid,“Nevertheless,Sarahyourwifewillbearyouason,andyou
shallnamehimIsaac;andIwillmaintainmyconvenantwithhimasaneverlasting
covenantforhisoffspringtocome.20AsforIshmael,Ihaveheededyou.Ihereby
blesshim.Iwillmakehimfertileandexceedinglynumerous.Heshallbethefather
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Sarah and Hagar
oftwelvechieftans,andIwillmakeofhimagreatnation.
21ButmycovenantIwillmaintainwithIsaac,whomSarahshallbeartoyouatthis
seasonnextyear.”22AndwhenHewasdonespeakingwithhim,Godwasgone
fromAbraham.
18:9They[thethreemenwhovisitedAbrahaminMamre]saidtohim,“Whereis
yourwifeSarah?”Andhereplied,“There,inthetent.”10Thenonesaid,“Iwill
returntoyounextyear,andyourwifeSarahshallhaveason!”Sarahwaslistening
attheentranceofthetent,whichwasbehindhim.11NowAbrahamandSarah
wereold,advancedinyears;Sarahhadstoppedhavingtheperiodsofwomen.12
AndSarahlaughedtoherself,saying,“NowthatIamwithered,amItohave
enjoyment—withmyhusbandsoold?”
13ThentheLordsaidtoAbraham,“WhydidSarahlaugh,saying,‘ShallIintruth
bearachild,oldasIam?’14IsanythingtoowondrousfortheLord?Ishallreturn
toyouatthetimenextyear,andSarahshallhaveason.”15Sarahlied,saying,“I
didnotlaugh,”forshewasfrightened.ButHereplied,“Youdidlaugh.”
21.1TheLordtooknoteofSarahasHehadpromised,andtheLorddidforSarah
asHehadspoken.2SarahconceivedandboreasontoAbrahaminhisold(p.124)
age,atthesettimeofwhichGodhadspoken.3Abrahamgavehisnewbornson,
whomSarahhadbornehim,thenameofIsaac.4AndwhenhissonIsaacwaseight
daysold,Abrahamcircumcisedhim,asGodhadcommandedhim.
5NowAbrahamwasahundredyearsoldwhenhissonIsaacwasborntohim.
6Sarahsaid,“Godhasbroughtmelaughter;everyonewhohearswilllaughwith
me.”7Andsheadded,
“WhowouldhavesaidtoAbraham
ThatSarahwouldsucklechildren!
YetIhaveborneasoninhisoldage.”
8Thechildgrewupandwasweaned,andAbrahamheldagreatfeastontheday
thatIsaacwasweaned.
9SarahsawthesonwhomHagartheEgyptianhadbornetoAbrahamplaying.10
ShesaidtoAbraham,“Castoutthatslave-womanandherson,forthesonofthat
slaveshallnotshareintheinheritancewithmysonIsaac.”11Thematter
distressedAbrahamgreatly,foritconcernedasonofhis.12ButGodsaidto
Abraham,“Donotbedistressedovertheboyoryourslave;whateverSarahtells
you,doasshesays,foritisthroughIsaacthatoffspringshallbecontinuedforyou.
13Asforthesonoftheslave-woman,Iwillmakeanationofhim,too,forheisyour
seed.”
14EarlynextmorningAbrahamtooksomebreadandaskinofwater,andgave
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Sarah and Hagar
themtoHagar.Heplacedthemoverhershoulder,togetherwiththechild,and
sentheraway.AndshewanderedaboutinthewildernessofBeer-sheba.15When
thewaterwasgonefromtheskin,sheleftthechildunderoneofthebushes,16
andwentandsatdownatadistance,abowshotaway;forshethought,“Letmenot
lookonasthechilddies.”Andsittingthusafar,sheburstintotears.
17Godheardthecryoftheboy,andanangelofGodcalledtoHagarfromheaven
andsaidtoher,“Whattroublesyou,Hagar?Fearnot,forGodhasheededthecry
oftheboywhereheis.
18Come,liftuptheboyandholdhimbythehand,forIwillmakeagreatnationof
him.”19ThenGodopenedhereyesandshesawawellofwater.Shewentand
filledtheskinwithwater,andlettheboydrink.20Godwaswiththeboyandhe
grewup;hedweltinthewildernessandbecameabowman.21Helivedinthe
wildernessofParan;andhismothergotawifeforhimfromthelandofEgypt.
Questionsthatariseforusaswereadthesepassages—especiallythoseconcentratedon
thechiefcharacters’motivationsandactions—wereunderdiscussionamongJewsfrom
thetimeoftheTorah’screationandcirculation.ReadersoftheHebrewunderstood
easilytheetymological(p.125) senseofthenamesgiven:theconnectionofIsaacwith
laughter;ofIshmaelwithheedingorhearingofthechangefromAbramtoAbraham,with
itsconnotationofhispaternityofmany;thesuggestionofseeingandbeingseenin
Hagar’snamingoftheLordasElRoi(withitsimplication:Iseeyou,andIamstillalive)
andElShaddai,takentomean“GodAlmighty.”Morecomplexquestionsconcerningthe
story,however,demandeddeeperexploration.
OmittedfromthepassagesabovearetwopartsofthestoryofAbraham,Sarah,and
Hagarthatareworthpausingover.Twicewhiletravelinginthelandsofpowerfulrulers,
AbrahamfearsdeathbecauseofSarah’sbeauty—thathewillbekilledbythosewhoare
attractedtoSarah,andwishtoobtainherforthemselves.Abrahamurgeshertolieabout
heridentity,callingherselfhissister.InGenesis12:10–20,theregentdesirousofSarah
wasEgypt’sPharaoh,whosetakingofherintothepalacebenefitedAbraham(hegained
manyanimals),butbroughtplaguesuponthePharaohandhishousehold“onaccountof
Sarai,thewifeofAbram”(12:17).Oncescolded,Abrahamwassentaway,withSarahand
“allthathepossessed.”Thoughitisnotmentioned,arereaderstosupposethatitwasat
thistimethatSarahcameintopossessionofHagar,herEgyptianmaidservant?
WhatoccurswhenAbrahamandSarahsojourninGerar(Genesis20)isanearreplayof
whatAbraham’slieearliercausedtohappen.KingAbimelechlearnsofSarah’spresence
inhisrealm,andacquiresher.Inadreamvisitation,GodcorrectsAbimelech’s
misunderstandingofwhoSarahis,warningthekingthatsheisnothistopossessand
enjoy.Sarah’shusband,Godinformstheking,isaprophetofsuchpowerthathecan
makesuccessfulintercessionforhim.Further,Abimelechwilldie,withallhishousehold,
unlessherestoresSarahtoAbraham.WhenAbimelechberatesAbrahamforhis
deceptionconcerningSarah,Abrahamhasatwo-partrejoinder,orrationalization:
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Sarah and Hagar
Ithought,surelythereisnofearofGodinthisplace,andtheywillkillmebecause
ofmywife.Andbesides,sheisintruthmysister,myfather’sdaughter,thoughnot
mymother’s;andshebecamemywife(20:11–12).
Theking’spromptpeace-makingentailsthegiftofcattleandslavestoAbraham,followed
bytherestorationofSarahtoherhusband.Anadditionalgiftorpaymentismade:a
thousandpiecesofsilverpaidtoAbraham—agestureAbimelechconstruesand
describestoSarahasanexonerationandpublicvindicationofher.
(p.126) Inthefinaltwoverses(17–18)welearnhowdangerousthesituationhad
becomefortheroyalhouseofGerar:
AbrahamthenprayedtoGod,andGodhealedAbimelechandhiswifeandhisslave
girls,sothattheyborechildren;fortheLordhadclosedfasteverywombofthe
householdofAbimelechbecauseofSarah,thewifeofAbraham.2
SincethislatterepisodefallsinAbraham’sstoryjustpriortothenoticeofSarah’s
pregnancy,laterinterpreters,therabbisinparticular,werepromptedtodiscusswhat
mighthavetranspiredbetweenAbimelechandAbraham’s“sister”whileshewasinthe
king’scompany.Theeventimpinged,asweshallsee,uponimportantquestionsnotonlyof
morality,butalsoofgenetics—thatis,mattersofpaternityandmotherhood.
DrivingtheAbrahamnarrativeistheinsistentclaimthatGod’scovenantwithAbraham
and“hisoffspring”iswithandthroughIsaac.TheLord’sblessingofIshmaelandthose
whomhewillfatherisofadifferentorder.Nonetheless,chapter17’sconcludingverses
reportAbraham’scovenant-prescribedcircumcisionofthirteen-year-oldIshmael,aswell
ashisowncircumcisionandthatoftheothermales(home-bornandpurchasedslaves)of
hishousehold.Ishmael,onaccountofhiscircumcision,anddespitethedistinctionGod
makesinvv.19–20,wouldseemtobeincludedinthecovenant,aparticipantinits
obligationsandbenefits,butthisdoesnotprovetobeso.
Genesis21:1–21is,fortheBible,theclimaxofthestoryofSarahandHagarandtheir
rivalry.Strongemotions—heightsanddepthsofthecharacters’lives—areondisplay.
Verses1–8celebratetheLord’sfulfillmentofthepromiseconcerningSarah.Agreatfeast
marksIsaac’sweaning,theendofhisinfancy.
Thedramathatfollowsinvv.9–21growsoutofSarah’sfearfulorhostileattitudetoward
Hagarandherson.Thetwo-mother,two-sonhouseholdhascometoacrisis.Sarahis
reportedtohaveseenHagar’ssonplaying(thetextdisclosesneitherthemannerof
Ishmael’splay,norwhetherhishalf-brotherIsaacmighthavebeeninvolved,asmany
laterinterpreterswillpresume),andapparentlywhatsheseesstirshertoastrong
action.Abraham,onherorders,sendsHagarandhersonawaythenextday,supplying
themwithbreadandwater.
WanderinginthewildernessnearBeer-sheba,theirprovisionsrunoutandHagar
foreseestheirdoom.AnangelapproachesHagaranddirectsheractions;Godthenopens
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Sarah and Hagar
Hagar’seyestothesightofwater,andsheandhersonaresaved.
(p.127) Fromthispointon,IshmaelandHagararevirtuallyabsentasactorsinthe
Abrahamsaga.Interestingly,Ishmaelsurfacesoncemoreinthestory,joininghishalfbrotherinburyingtheirfather(nearSarah)inthecaveofMacpelah(25:9).Thelistof
Ishmael’stwelvesonsandtheirregionofsettlementisprecededbyareferencetohis
mother,“HagartheEgyptian,”at25:12.Thatchapterbeginswithmentionofanotherof
Abraham’swives,Keturah,whosesixsonsarenamed,asarethedescendantsofthefirst
twoofthese,JokshanandMidian(vv.1–4).ThelesserimportanceforAbrahamichistory
ofthesesonsandofotherswhomhe“begat”byconcubinesisclearlyindicated:
“AbrahamwilledallthatheownedtoIsaac”(v.5).Hisothermaleoffspringweregiven
giftsbyAbrahamandsent“awayfromhissonIsaaceastward,tothelandoftheEast”(v.
6).Ishmael’sstatusisatoncesimilaranddifferent.HetoowasdistancedfromIsaac,yet
hereceivedfromGodtheblessingofnumerousoffspring,andofnationhood(16:20,
21:13,18).
ItisnecessaryatthispointtovisitthenarrativefollowingtheexpulsionofHagarand
Ishmaelandtheirtrialinthewilderness.Genesis21:14–21resumesthemainstoryof
Abraham’sdealingswithGodandhis“favored”offspringintellingoftheakedah—the
bindingofIsaac.ThistestofAbraham—takingIsaac,whomheloves,toMoriahtooffer
himasasacrificetoGod—endsintheboy’s(andthefather’s)deliverancefromthis
obligation,andarestatementandelaborationofGod’scovenantpromise:
22:15TheangeloftheLordcalledtoAbrahamasecondtimefromheaven,16and
said,“BymyselfIswear,theLorddeclares:Becauseyouhavedonethisandhave
notwithheldyourson,yourfavoredone,17IwillbestowMyblessinguponyou
andmakeyourdescendantsasnumerousasthestarsofheavenandthesandson
theseashore;andyourdescendantsshallseizethegatesoftheirfoes.18Allthe
nationsoftheearthshallblessthemselvesbyyourdescendants,becauseyouhave
obeyedmycommand.”
JonLevenson,inhisTheDeathandResurrectionoftheBelovedSon,eloquentlyspelled
outthesignificanceofthisdivinepledge,initsnowrevisedform:
ItconvertsthestandingpromiseofAbrahamofinnumerableprogenyintoa
consequenceofthenear-sacrificeofIsaac....Thisisatransformationofenormous
import.ItrenderstheveryexistenceofAbrahamicpeoplesdependent(p.128)
upontheirancestor’sobediencetothefearsomedirectivetomakeofhisbeloved
sonaburntofferingtohisGod.Theaqedah,inshort,hasbecomeafoundational
act,anditsconsequencesextendtoeverygenerationofthosewhosefatheris
Abraham.Ourpeopleexistsandperdures,theIsraelitenarratorseemstobe
saying,onlybecauseoftheincomparableactofobedienceandfaiththatthe
patriarch-to-becarriedoutonanunnamedmountaininthelandofMoriah.Inlight
oftheinterpretivemovethatthesecondangelicaddressevidences,itishardlya
sourceofwondermentthat,atleastsincebiblicaltimes,Jewishthinkershave
continuallyponderedthetroublingstoryofthebindingofIsaac.Norisitsurprising
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Sarah and Hagar
thattheponderingisusuallymostintensewhentheexistenceofJewsis
threatened,andtheirsurvival,toallappearances,miraculous.3
Sarah’snamedoesnotappearinthestoryofthenear-sacrificeofIsaac,thoughlater
interpreterswillfindaplaceforherintheevent’sretelling.Herdeathatage127in
Kiriath-arba(Hebron)isrecountedinchapter23,alongwithAbraham’spurchaseofa
burialsite,thecaveofMachpelah.ThefortunesofIsaacandhissuccessorsarethe
subjectofthecontinuingchaptersofGenesis,andsowereadinchapter24thecolorful
storyofthemissionofAbraham’sservanttofindafittingwifeforIsaac—someonefrom
thepatriarch’shomeland,not“fromthedaughtersoftheCanaanites”(v.3).Thehappy
(anddestined)resultoftheservant’ssearchisthebeautifulvirgin,Rebekah,whohails
fromthefamilyofAbraham’sbrother,Nahor.ThenextstageofthehistoryofAbraham’s
seedhasahappybeginning:
IsaacthenbroughtherintothetentofhismotherSarah,andhetookRebekahas
hiswife.Isaaclovedher,andthusfoundcomfortafterhismother’sdeath(24:67).
Sarah,throughwhosesonthepeopleofthecovenantwillcomeintobeingandultimately
possessthelandpromisedtothem,becomes,fromtheTanakh’s(andlater,Judaism’s)
viewpoint,themateandpartnerofAbraham.Therealityofherprominenceinthe
traditionsurfacesinreferencestothegraveofthe“fathers”andtheirwomenat
Machpelah(inGenesis49:29–33,Jacob,dyinginEgypt,requeststhathiscorpsebetaken
tothelandofCanaanforburialinthecompanyofAbrahamandSarah,andofIsaacand
Rebekah,hisparents.)
Weshouldtakenote,here,oftheappearanceofIsaac’snameintherecurringformula
whichidentifiesthetriadofAbraham,Isaac,andJacob.4TheunfoldinghistoryofIsrael
cannotberecordedwithoutallusionsbacktotheAbrahamicconvenant,and,
simultaneouslytoIsaac,theguarantorofitspromiseandpower.
(p.129) GenesisRabbahonSarahandHagar
GenesisRabbah(GR),ananthologyofteachingscompiledinthelatefourthtoearlyfifth
centuriesCE,containsatreasuretroveofrabbis’ruminationsonthescripturalaccount
ofAbraham’stwowomen.SarahandHagarenjoytheirprominencebyvirtueofbeing
meanstoadivineend:theyarechildproducersintheserviceofGod’spromisesthat
fromAbraham’sloinsnationswillcome,withfutureoffspringasnumerousasparticlesof
dust,grainsofsand,starsintheheavens.5GenesisRabbahrevealsclearlytherabbis’
familiarmethodsforuntanglingproblemsandforfillingingapsperceivedinthebiblical
text:apassageunderconsiderationsuggestsanother,inwhoselightthefirstmaybe
consideredanew.Individualwordslikewisegainfreshconnotationsfromtheir
appearanceselsewhereinscripture.Wehavealreadymetrabbis’regularemploymentof
examplesandparablesfromoutsidethescripturetoaddstrengthtotheirarguments.
Genesis16
InGenesisRabbahXLVwefindasetofspeculationsaboutSarah’sbarrenness,andalso
thepossibilityofAbraham’sinfertility.Reading“NowSaraiAbram’swifeborehimno
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Sarah and Hagar
children”inthelightofProverbs31:10(“Awomanofvalorwhocanfind,forherprice
(mikrah)isfaraboverubies”),6andrecallinginEzekiel16:3theterm“origin”(mekuroth)
connotatingpregnancy,alineofargumentreconstructsthereproductivehistoriesof
Abraham’sbrothers.CalculatingthatHaran(Abraham’sbrother)fatheredhisfirstchild
whenhewassixyearsold,therabbisponderedhow,withthisprodigiousprocreativityat
workamonghismalekin,itwaspossiblethatAbrahamcouldnotbegetachild.The
infertilitymusthavebeenSarah’s.ButthisinferenceischallengedbyRabbiJudah,who
remindshisfellowsagesthatthetextstatesthatSarahborenochildrentohim
(Abraham),notrulingoutthepossibilitythatshemighthaveproducedchildrenwitha
differentmate.R.Nehemiahinsiststhatthetextcannotbeconstruedinthatway:Sarah
washerselfinfertile.TheversedrawscommentherebecauseGenesisRabbah’sformatis
averse-by-versemidrashonscripture,andGenesis16:1initsvocabularyallowsvarious
interpretiveoptions.Buttherearealsootherconcerns,lessgrammaticallyinspired,
attachingtothistopic.Theymightbeputundertherubricofdivinepurpose,or
providence.How,asktherabbis,doesGod’scommitmenttothecovenantmadewith
Abrahamcometohingeonthepregnancyofalong-barrenwoman?Isit(p.130) the
casethatGod’smostimportantactions—likethepromiseoflandandnationhood—are
manifestthroughwondersandmiracles?Sarah’sconceivingofIsaacrequirescareful
attention,standingasitdoesincloserelationshiptothepregnancyofHagar,andthe
biblicalrecordofAbraham’sotherwomenandtheirchildren.
Scripturalcross-referencingdoneinconnectionwiththeverse,“Andshehada
handmaid,anEgyptian”alsoledtodiverseopinions—namely,(1)thatHagarwasSarah’s
property,andthuswasapersonwhomAbrahamwasobligedtosupport,butwasnot
freetosell;that(2)HagarwasthePharaoh’sdaughter,giventoSarahintheaftermathof
thatruler’sattempttowedorbedtheonehebelievedtobeAbraham’ssister—an
explanationattributedtoR.Simeonb.Yohai;andthat(3)thenameHagarderivesfrom
theHebrewwordagar,meaning“reward”(Genesis12:7).7
SimilarexegeticalstrategiesproduceavarietyofmeaningsattachingtoSarah’s
declaration,“Look,theLordhaskeptmefrombearing,”andalsotoherremarkthatshe
toomightbe“builtup”inAbraham’shavingason“through”Hagar.Sarahspeaksasshe
doesbecausesheunderstandsthecauseofthings,anddoesnot(likemany,apparently,
inthesocialworldoftherabbis)seekapregnancy-inducingamuletorcharm.Sarah’s
beingbuiltup,arabbiasserted,referredtosurvivalortorestorationtolife.Hisidea
wasconfirmed(orgenerated)byRachel’spleatoherhusbandJacobinGenesis30:1,
“Givemechildren,orIshalldie.”Sarah,childless,isasgoodasdead,andherbuildingup
dependsonherbecomingamother—ofhersurrogate’schild.
TherabbisruminateaboutHagar’squickconceptionofasontoAbraham—arguablyasa
resultoftheir“firstintimacy.” 8ToRabbiEleazar’sclaimthatthisneverhappens,a
rejoindermarshalsasevidencethepregnanciesofLot’sdaughters(Genesis19:36),who
presumablyhadsexwiththeirfatheronlyonce.RabbiTanhumaexplainsthatunusual
casewithunusualimagery:“Byaneffortofwillpowertheybroughtforththeirvirginity,
andthusconceivedatthefirstactofintercourse.” 9AcomparisonofHagar’sandSarah’s
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Sarah and Hagar
procreativecapabilities(andofthequalitiesoftheirrespectivesons)istheyieldofa
botanicalmetaphorvolunteeredbyR.Haninab.Pazzi:“Thornsareneitherweedednor
sown,yetoftheirownaccordtheygrowandspringup,whereashowmuchpainandtoil
isrequiredbeforewheatcanbemadetogrow!”Thatis,Ishmaeliseasy,spontaneous,
andworthless;Isaacistheproductof“labor,”is“worthyfruit,”andthusofgreat
value.10
Therabbiscangiveexplanationsforthefactthatnotablewomenweresometimesbarren:
Godlovedtoheartheirprayerfulrequests(SongofSongs2:14iscitedinsupport),or
theirinfertilitycausedthemtodependontheir(p.131) husbands’support,whentheir
greatbeautymighthavemadethemself-reliant,orthatbeingbarrentheymightpass
theirliveswithouttheburdensofhavingandraisingchildren.Theselinesofmalethinking
arecappedwithoneofferedbyatrioofrabbis:Thematriarchswereforalongtime
barren“sothattheirhusbandsmightderivepleasurefromthem,forwhenawomanis
withchildsheisdisfiguredandlacksgrace.ThusthewholeninetyyearsthatSarahdid
notbear[achild]shewaslikeabrideinhercanopy.” 11
AverydifferentopinionandvaluationofSarah’sbarrennessisputonthelipsofHagarin
apieceofnarrativemeanttoillustratehow,afterHagarbecamepregnant,“hermistress
wasloweredinheresteem”(16:4b).ApassageinGenesisRabbahreports:
Ladiesusedtocometoinquirehow[Sarah]was,and[Sarah]wouldsaytothem,
“Goandaskaboutthewelfareofthepoorwoman[Hagar].”Hagarwouldtellthem:
“MymistressSaraiisnotinwardlywhatsheisoutwardly:sheappearstobea
righteouswoman,butsheisnot.Forhadshebeenarighteouswoman,seehow
manyyearshavepassedwithoutherconceiving,whereasIconceivedinone
night!”SaidSarah:“ShallIpayheedtothiswomanandarguewithher!No;Iwill
arguethematterwithhermaster!” 12
Sarah’scomplainttoAbrahamaboutHagar’sdisrespectisintheformofcurse-like
challenge.Shewantsthewrongdonetohertofallonhim(16:5).Thetext,revealingasit
doesrancorbetweenhusbandandwife,producescontrastingcommentsbythesages.
Ontheonehand,Sarahisunderstoodtohavemadeavalidcomplaint.Herclaimthat
Abrahamshouldhimselfbearthewrongsufferedbyhergainscredencewhenitis
recalledthatAbrahamsaidtoGodin15:2(“seeingthatIshalldiechildless”).Ifhehad
said“Wegochildless,”Sarahwouldnotbesufferinghumiliation,forachildwouldhave
beenborntothemboth.
Ontheotherhand,“thewrongdonetome”(hamasi)thatSarahspeaksofsuggeststhe
ideathatshescratched(himmes,toscratch)Abraham,andthisobservationtriggersa
briefcataloguingofbadcharacteristicsofwomeningeneral.Sarahistheexemplarofhalf
ofthese:
Therabbissaid:Womenaresaidtopossessfourtraits:theyaregreedy,
eavesdroppers,slothful,andenvious.Greedy,asitsays,“Andshetookthefruit
thereofanddideatit”(Genesis3:6);eavesdroppers:“AndSarahheardinthetent
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Sarah and Hagar
door”(Genesis18:10)[whenthevisitingangelpredictedthebirthofIsaacinthe
nextyear];slothful:“Makeready[quickly]threemeasuresoffinemeal”(Genesis
18:6)[understoodtoimplythatSarahdidnoteagerlybestirherselftoprepare
(p.132) themealfortheLord/theangelicvisitors];envious:“Rachelenviedher
sister”(Genesis30:1).13
ThesharpexchangebetweenSarahandAbrahamthatgrowsoutofSarah’sresentment
ofHagarrequires,therabbisthink,criticalassessment.Sarah’stoospeedymoveto
litigation(“LettheLorddecidebetweenyouandme”)wasitselfblameworthy,andwon
herthepunishmentofashortenedlife.Shewouldotherwisehavelivedaslongasher
spouse.
Abraham’srefusaltotakeactionagainstHagar(“Yourmaidisinyourhands”)andthe
subsequentharshtreatmentofherbySarahalsorequiredexplanation.Supportedbya
prohibitioninExodus21:8againstsellingaservantwithwhomonehasbecome
displeased,thepatriarch’slineofreasoningisthis:“afterwemadeheramistress[i.e.,
gaveherthestatusofawife],shallwemakeherabondmaidagain?” 14Finally,thereare
speculationsaboutthekindofharshnessSarahvisiteduponHagar:shekeptHagarfrom
Abraham’sbed;“sheslappedherfacewithaslipper,”shemadeherdoslavetasksin
connectionwiththebaths.15
Hagar’sflightisclearlytheresultofSarah’smaltreatment,butwhethersheleaves
Abraham’shouseholdinfear,indefiance,orinsorrowisnotindicatedinGenesis16:6,
nortakenupbytheteachersofGR.Whatdoesdrawtheinterpreters’attentionisthefact
thatHagaristhreetimesidentifiedinthetextnotasSarah’sequal(i.e.,aswifeor
mistressinherownright),butasmaidservant—byAbrahamwhenhespeakstoSarah
(“yourmaid”),bytheangeloftheLordwhofindsHagaratthespringinthewilderness
(“Hagar,slaveofSarai,wherehaveyoucomefrom?”),andinherownresponse(“Iam
runningawayfrommymistressSarai”).ThepointbeingregisteredaboutHagar’splace
intheschemeofthingsisbluntlyandcomicallyput:“Sorunstheproverb:‘Ifoneman
tellsyouthatyouhaveanass’sears,donotbelievehim;iftwotellittoyou,ordera
halter.’” 16
WhenGod’sangeldiscoversHagarinflight,heurgeshertoreturntoSarah“andsubmit
toherharshtreatment”(16:9),andwelearnlaterinthepassagethatHagarhasobeyed
theangeliccounsel.SheisbackinthehouseholdofAbrahamwhenshegivesbirthto
Ishmael.
Ishmaelisnextinlineforscrutiny.Therabbis’discourseisevokedbyscripture’sreport
thattheangeloftheLordsaidtoHagarthathe“willgreatlyincrease[her]offspring,”and
thatshewillbearasontobenamedIshmael(Genesis10–11).RabbiIsaacnotesthatonly
threefiguresinthetraditionwerecalledbytheirnamesbeforebirth—Isaac,Solomon,
andJosiah(inGenesis17:16,1Chronicles22:9,and1Kings13:2,resp.).Anunattributed
opinionfollows:“SomeaddIshmaelamongthenations.”The(p.133) distinctionbeing
madepresumesthatalthoughIshmaelshareswithIsaac,Solomon,andJosiahthe
apparenthonorofbeinggivenhisnamepriortohisbirthbytheLordortheLord’s
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Sarah and Hagar
angel,hedoesnotbelongintheircategory.Ishmael,sonofAbraham,iscountedanonJew—oneamongthenations.
NegativeestimatesofIshmaelfillthesucceedingpassagesinGenesisRabbah,which
addressphrasesbywhichtheangeldescribedhimtoHagarinGenesis16:11–12.The
rabbisponderwhatitmeansthatIshmaelwillbea“wildassofaman.”R.Johanantakes
theviewthatitsignifiesonlythathewillberaisedinthewild,ratherthanincivilization,
whileReshLakishasserts,“Itmeansasavageamongmeninitsliteralsense,forwhereas
allothersplunderwealth,heplunderslives.” 17Andwhatsenseistobedrawnfromthe
predictionthatIshmael’shandwouldbe“againsteveryone,andeveryone’shandagainst
him”(16:12)?Thekolbo(“againsthim”)ofthetextsuggestshisdoglike(kalboequals
dog)tasteforcarrion.18
ItisworthaskingwhatassociationsthenameIshmaelcarriesfortherabbisasthey
considerthistextinGenesis.Theirmidrashimfromtheearlycenturiesofthecommon
erainevitablylinktheangel’spronouncementthatIshmaelwouldbeaperpetualwarrior
inconflictwith“everyone”toIsrael’spasthistory.TheprogenyofIshmaelhadlongsince
heldaplaceinthebiblicalrollofenemies.InPsalm83,aprayerforGodtospeakandact
inatimewhen“foesassertthemselvesagainst[His]people”andthreatentoeradicate
Israel’snamefrommentionandmemory,theclanoftheIshmaelites,andalsoofthe
Hagarites,areidentifiedalongwithsuchtraditionaladversariesastheEdomites,
Ammonites,Amalekites,Philistines,andtheAssyrians.19
WemayseethisrepresentationofbellicoseIshmaelandhisoffspringalsoinPirkede
RabbiEliezer(PRE),acompilationofrabbinicteachingandloreeditedintheearly
centuriesaftertheriseofIslam.20Herewereadof“six(people)[who]werecalledby
theirnamesbeforetheywerecreated:Isaac,Ishmael,Moses,Solomon,Josiah,andKing
Messiah.” 21 Ishmael’spresenceinthegroupisexplainedsimplybyreferringtoGenesis
16:11,andgivingthemeaningofhisnameanewturn:
WhywashisnamecalledIshmael?Becauseinthefuture,theHolyOne,blessedbe
He,willhearkentothecryofthepeoplearisingfrom(theoppression)whichthe
childrenofIshmaelwillbringaboutinthelandinthelast(days).22
Thehostileinversionisclever:Ishmael,theboycalledintoexistencebecauseGod
“hearkened”tohisandhismother’smisery,isnowanoppressorwhosevictimsGodwill
hearandheed.Elsewhereinthetext(p.134) RabbiIshmaelspeaksoffifteentravesties
thatthechildrenofIshmaelwillaccomplishinIsrael—inthefutureand“inthelatter
days.”Amongtheseterribleactionsaremeasuringsoftheland,desecrationofa
cemetery,falsehood’striumphovertruth,theremovalofstatutes“farfromIsrael,”the
destructionofwritings,thedespoilingofthetombsofthekingsofJudah,andthis:
Theywill…fenceinthebrokenwallsoftheTemple;andtheywillbuildabuildingin
theHolyPlace;andtwobrotherswillariseoverthem,princesattheend.23
ThesepropheciesattributedtoRabbiIshmaelareofcourseretrospective,pointingas
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Sarah and Hagar
theydototheclaimingoftheTemplemountasharam(asacredplace)andthebuildingin
thelateseventhcenturyofwhatcametobeknownal-Masjidaal-Aqsa(theal-Aqsa
mosque,ormoreliterally,“thefurthestmosque”fromMeccaandMedina),andtothe
sonsoftheAbbasidCaliphHarunal-Rashid,al-Aminandal-Mamun,whosequentiallyheld
powerfrom809to833CE.
Future-looking,however,isPRE’sexpressedmessianichopepositionedattheendofthe
listofwoesbroughtupontheJewsbysonsofIshmael:
AndintheirdaystheBranch,theSonofDavid,willarise,asitissaid,“Andinthe
daysofthosekingsshalltheGodofheavensetupakingdom,whichshallneverbe
destroyed”(Daniel2:44).
ThischaracterizationofthesonsofIshmaelastheMuslimfoesofIsraelispartofa
traceabledevelopment.HavingitsoriginsintheSarah-Hagarstory,theopposition
betweenIsaacandIshmaelalreadyinlaterportionsofGenesisbecameastoryofdivided
andhostilefamiliesandnations.Esau(likeIshmael,afirstbornsondeniedhisinheritance)
tookoneofIshmael’sdaughters,Mahalath,asawife(Genesis28:6–9).TheIshmaelites
whopurchasedJacob’sson,Joseph,andtookhimtoEgypt(Genesis37:25ff.)are
portrayedasapeoplequiteotherthantheHebrews.Needlesstosay,athoroughly
differentperceptionandvaluationofIshmaeltookshapeinMuslimtraditionand
commentary,aschapter6willdemonstrate.
ReturningtotheexegetesofGenesisRabbah,andtotheirconcernsintheirera,wefind
themponderingwhatoccursneartheconclusionofGenesis16,whenHagarcalledoutto
“theLordwhospoketoher.”Therabbisconsideredthisunusualencounterand
exchangerichinpossibilities.Again,thestandingofHagarwithGodisatissue—amatter
seenspecificallyinrelationto,orincomparisonwith,thedivinefavorshonetoAbraham’s
otherwife:(p.135)
R.Judahb.R.SimonandR.JohananinthenameofR.Eleazarb.R.Simeonsaid:The
HolyOne,blessedbeHe,nevercondescendedtoholdconversewithawoman
savewiththatrighteouswoman[viz.Sarah],andthattoowasthroughaparticular
cause(GRXLV.10).
ThecauseseemstohavebeenGod’sneedtoconfrontSarahaboutherlaughter,
whereastheLordsimplyaddressedHagarbywayofanannouncementtoherabouther
futureasamother.Butquestionspressthemselvesuponthecommentators:wasitGod,
oranangel,whospoketoHagar?TheprevailingopinionisthatGodcommunicatedwith
her“throughanangel,”thoughthegreatprivilegewhichcametoHagarviathedivine
visitoratthespringraisesanotherissue.Whatdidshemeaninsaying(16:13)“Youarea
Godofseeing”?AccordingtoRabbiAibu,shemeant“Thouseestthesufferingsofthe
persecuted.”
Thereis,however,moretobeconsideredinthelatterpartofverse13,whichcanbe
translated,“HaveIevenhere(halom)seenhimthatseethme?” 24Averypositive
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Sarah and Hagar
estimateofHagarderivesfromnotingtheoccurrenceofthissameword,halom,in2
Samuel7:18.UponhearingfromtheprophetNathanthatGodwillestablishhishouseand
kingship,Davidresponds:“WhatamI,OLordGod,andwhatismyfamily,thatYouhave
broughtmethusfar[or:evenhere—halom]?”—thatis,toroyalstatus.25GenesisRabbah
advancedtheviewthatHagar’ssituationwaslikethatofDavid.Fromherwillissue
rulers,astheangelpromised—theangelappearingtoher,notinthecompanyofher
mistress,but“evennow”whenshe,arunaway,wasaloneatthespring.
Therabbis’interpretationsbothconfirmanddestabilizewhatmightseemtobeGenesis
16’sobviouspresentationsofAbrahamandhistwowomen.NuancesattachtoSarahand
herambitiousdesireforasonforAbraham,herangeratbeingdeprecated,her
aggressivechallengestoAbrahamaboutwhichsonwillbehisheir,andherdesirefor
revengeagainstHagar.Atthesametime,theinterpretersteaseoutreasonswhyHagar
gloatsinherpregnancy,demeansSarah,andattemptstofleeherdifficulties.Boldinher
interrogationoftheLord’sangel,whobringshergoodtidings,Hagarnevertheless
accedestohisinjunctiontoreturntoherhouseholdandsubmittoSarah’scruel
treatmentofher.WenoticethatevenwhiledisparagingHagar,thecommentatorscredit
herinteractionswithGod,andhonortheprivilegeswithwhichsheisblessed.Abraham,in
themidstoftherivalrybetweenthetwowomen,seemstodeflectSarah’schargeagainst
him,whileatthesametimetoleratinghermaltreatmentofHagar,whohasconceivedand
deliveredhisfirstborn.
(p.136) Genesis21:1–21
WeturnnowtoGenesisRabbah’streatmentoftheearlierversesofchapter21,those
whichprecedethefinalriftbetweenAbraham’stwowomen,andHagar’sbeingcastout.
Atconsiderablelength,andwithanarrayofsupportingbiblicaltexts,therabbiscelebrate
God’sfaithfulnessinkeepinghispromiseconcerningSarah.ForGodtorememberortake
noteofthepledgeofthebirthofIsaactoherandtoAbraham,astherabbisreflectonthe
passage,signifiesanumberofthings.Godaccomplisheswhathedecreeswhenthisisfor
theworld’sgood(thoughhesometimespostponesorrelentsfromactionwhenhehas
promisedtobringevil—i.e.,judgment).Sarah’sconfidenceinthepromiseispraised.No
longeronewholaughs,sheisimaginedexclaiming:“What!amItolosefaithinmy
Creator!Heaven[forbid]!IwillnotlosefaithinmyCreator,‘ForIwillrejoiceinthe
Lord,IwillexaltintheGodofmysalvation’”(Habbakuk3:18).26
Considerable(andamusing)interestcentersonthemeansbywhichthecapacityto
produceachildcametoAbrahamandSarah.Therabbisspeakofyouthrestored,sexual
potencyreturnedtoAbraham,theLord’screationofanovaryforSarah,theonsetofher
menses,andtheprovisionofmilkforhernursingofIsaac.ConcernforSarah’svirtueis
great,inorderthatitnotbesuspectedthatshewasimpregnatedbyAbimelech,from
whosesexualaspirationsshehadonlyrecentlyescaped,withGod’shelp(Genesis20).A
moralclaimisadvanced.Sarah,havingemergedfromthehousesofthePharaohand
Abimelechundefiled,deservedtoberememberedbyGodandmadeamotherto
Abraham’sson.Thefactthatthetext(21:2)states“boretoAbraham”rulesout
suspicion;“Thisteachesthatshedidnotstealseedfromelsewhere.”Furthermore,Isaac
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Sarah and Hagar
too,likehisfather,bore“asoninhisoldage.”Therabbisargueinseveralwaysthat
Sarah’spregnancywassufficientlylengthy“thatitmightnotbesaidthathe[Isaac]wasa
scionofAbimelech’shouse.” 27
AstrikinglegendisinspiredbySarah’sversifiedexclamationinv.7:
WhowouldhavesaidtoAbraham
ThatSarahwouldsucklechildren!
YetIhaveborneasoninhisoldage.
Thecommentatorspauseandpuzzleover“children,”intheplural,andthensetabout
theirwork.AbrahamimportunesSarahtoputmodestyaside,andtobareherbreastsso
thathermiraculousflowofmilkcanbepubliclyobserved.Themilkisthenofferedtothe
offspringofmanynoble(p.137) ladieswhocome(whiledoubtingtheirworthiness)in
order“that[their]childrenmightbesuckledwiththemilkofthatrighteouswoman.” 28
Sarah’sdeclarationinGenesis21:6thatherGod-givenhappinesswillbeenjoyedbyall
whohearofit,becomesaprophecyfulfilledwhenmoremiraclesoccur.Thematriarch’s
beingrememberedbyGod—thatis,hergivingbirthtoIsaac—releasedtheseadditional
wonders:“manyotherbarrenwomenwererememberedwithher;manydeafgained
theirhearing;manyblindhadtheireyesopened,manyinsanebecamesane.” 29Verbal
connectionswithotherscripturesallowtherabbistoelaborateonthewaysthatGod’s
fulfillmentofthepromiseofIsaac’sbirthtoSarahwas“agiftgrantedtotheworld.” 30
ThecelebratorytoneofGR’streatmentofthebirthofIsaacandSarah’shappiness
echoesGenesis21:1–8.Butimmediatelyafterthe“greatfeast”markingtheboy’s
weaning,accordingtovv.10ff.,threateningcloudscomeoverthehouseholdofthe
patriarch.31 Thischangebeginswiththeprotectivemothersensingdanger(Genesis
21:10–11):
SarahsawthesonwhomHagartheEgyptianhadbornetoAbrahamplaying.She
saidtoAbraham,“Castoutthatslave-womanandherson,forthesonofthatslave
shallnotshareintheinheritancewithmysonIsaac.”
Whatwasthe“playing”ofIshmaelthatsoaggravatedSarah?RabbiAkiba’sinterpretation
leadsoffaseriesofopinions.Theverbthatunderlies“playing,”or“making
sport”—tsahak—isthesamethatappearsinthestoryofJosephandPotiphar’swife.
FailinginherattempttoseduceJoseph,shetellsPotipharthathis“Hebrewservant…
cameintometomakesportofme”(Genesis39:17).Akibadeducesthat“thisteachesthat
SarahsawIshmaelravishmaidens,seducemarriedwomen,anddishonorthem.” 32Rabbi
Ishmaelrecallstheuseoftheterm“sport”or“play”inExodus32:6,whichtellsofthe
Hebrews’actionsaroundthegoldencalfontheplainbelowSinai.Sarah,then,spied
Ishmaelcommittingidolatry.Heisimaginedbuildingaltarsandtheresacrificinglocusts,
theentertainmentofawicked,cruelyouth.No,othersargue;shesawaviolentact.Rabbi
Eleazar(drawingontheappearanceof“sport”in2Samuel.2:14,whereabattleby
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Sarah and Hagar
swordanddaggerisdescribed),assertsthatIshmaelcommittedbloodshed.Awareof
thenoticethatIshmaelbecameanarcher(Genesis21:20),R.Levirecallsimagesfrom
Proverbs.22:18ff.inwhichthe“play”ofapersonwhodeceiveshisneighboriscompared
tothebehaviorof“amadmanwhocastsfirebrands,arrows,anddeath.”
Perhapsbecausehefindsthesevariedopinionstoospeculative,orbecausehehas
reservationsaboutimputingsuchshamefulbehaviorstoasonof(p.138) thegreat
patriarchAbraham,RabbiSimeonb.Yohaitakesadifferenttack,readingvv.9–10
together.“Playing”suggeststohimmockery—specifically,Ishmael’sattitudetowardthe
festivecommotionsurroundingthebirthandchildhoodofhishalf-brother,“forwhenour
fatherIsaacwasbornallrejoiced,whereuponIshmaelsaidtothem,‘Youarefools,forI
amthefirstbornandIreceiveadoubleportion.’” 33HereitisnotIshmael’swarlike
characterthatarrestedSarah’sattention,butratherhisassertionofhisrightsof
primogeniture,expressedinaspiritofdisdainandgreed.Onthisreading,Sarah’s
protectivenessofhersonhastodowithIsaac’spatrimony—sheisforcefullyreminding
herhusbandofthepromisemadeandnowfulfilledbyGod,andofAbraham’s
commitmentstothecovenant.
WerecallthatSarah’sdemandthatthe“slavewomanandherson”bedismissedcaused
Abrahamgreatpain,“foritconcernedasonofhis”(21:11).Asinglescripturaltextis
broughtforthinGRbywayofcomment:“Thusitiswritten,‘Andshuthiseyesfrom
lookinguponevil’”(Isaiah33:15).Thegistofthismidrashentailsacriticismofthe
patriarch,who“shuthiseyesfromIshmael’sevilways,andwasreluctanttosendhim
away.” 34Onewonders,however,ifanothermeaningmaybeintendedbythecitationof
thetext—acommentmoresympathetictoAbraham.ThephraseinquestioninIsaiah33
fallsinanumberofdescriptionsofarighteousperson“whospurnsprofitfrom
fraudulentdealings,wavesawayabribeinsteadofgraspingit,stopshisearsagainst
listeningtoinfamy,shutshiseyesagainstlookingatevil”(v.15).Isitpossiblethatthe
rabbisacknowledgeAbraham’sdistress,imaginingthathemighthaveconsideredthe
banningofhissonanunrighteousact,andthatforthisreasonheavertedhiseyes,and
recoiledfromit?
ThecontinuingnarrativeinGenesishasGodaddresswordstoAbrahamthatseem,while
upholdingSarah’sadmonitiontosendawaythethreateningmotherandson,consolatory
ratherthanaccusatory.CertainlyGodreinforcesSarah’swish,tellingAbraham,
“whateverSarahtellsyou,doasshesays,foritisthroughIsaacthatoffspringwillbe
continuedforyou”(v.12).Nonetheless,Goddoesreassurethepatriarchabouthisfirst
son,saying“Iwillmakeanationofhim,too,forheisyourseed”(v.13).
ThebiblicalnarrativeoftheexpulsionofHagarandIshmaelpresentedpuzzlestothe
commentatorsinGenesisRabbahthatmayormaynothaveheldforthemthekindof
pathosseeninRembrandt’srendering.TheywonderedhowAbraham’sactionofplacing
thewaterskinonHagar’sshoulderwastobeconstrued—positively,inthatheshowed
generosityinprovidingherwithanabundanceofwater,ornegatively,showingHagarto
beawater-bearingservant?Wasthefatherdiscouraginganyimpressionthattheboy
withherwashisfreebornsonwithaclaimonhisinheritance?Why(p.139) didthe
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Sarah and Hagar
biblicaltextstatethatAbrahamputprovisionsforthejourney,plusthechild,onHagar’s
shoulderashesentheraway?Therabbiswereconsciousoftheproblemofseeing
Ishmaelasayoungchild(theGRcommentsthathewastwenty-sevenyearsoldatthe
time),35buttheirexplanationsaredifferentlyframed.Ishmaelhadtobecarriedbecause
hehadbeenmadeillbySarah,who“castanevileyeonhim,whereuponhewasseized
withfeverishpains.” 36WanderinginthewildernessnearBeer-Sheba,Ishmaelconsumed
thewaterinthewayafeverishpersondrinks,andso,withnoneleft,wasonthevergeof
death.
Anotherquestionarisesfromthestory.HavingputIshmaelunderabush,Hagar
separatedherselftothedistanceofabowshot,“forshethought,‘Letmenotlookonas
thechilddies.’Andsittingthusafar,sheburstintotears”(21:16).Isherthought
prayerful?Isitsomethingelse—anaccusation?TheHebrewwordforbowshotcallsto
mindasimilartermthatconnoteshurlingwords,or“onewhocriticizes”(ke-mateheth).
So,itisproposed,hurlinghercomplaintsonhigh,Hagarspoke
asawomanwhoimpugnedGod’sjustice,saying,“YesterdayThoudidstpromise
me,‘Iwillgreatlymultiplythyseed,etc.’(Genesis16:10),andnowheisdyingof
thirst!” 37
Hagarisnotaloneinraisingquestionsofjustice.AccordingtoR.Simon,ministeringangels
accostedGodandputtohimachallengestarklydifferentfromHagar’s.“Lordofallages,
toamanwhoisdestinedtokillyourchildrenwiththirstwillyouprovideawell?”The
ministeringangels,therabbissuppose,arepresumingthatapassageinIsaiah(21:13ff)
tellsofatimewhenArabs,Ishmael’sdescendants,murderouslyignoredtheIsraelitesin
theirdesperatepleaforwater.
WhatfollowsisastatementregardingthebasisuponwhichGodjudges,oractsonbehalf
of,humanbeings.Abouttheperson(Ishmael)whomtheangelsforeknowwillsomedaybe
injurioustohischildren(ofthelineofIsaac),Godasks:“Whatishenow?”Theyanswer,
“Righteous.”Goddeclaresthathejudgesthehumanasheorsheisinthepresent,“at
themoment,”notonthebasisofthatperson’sfuturecharacteranddeeds.Thehookon
whichthisargumenthangsisanelementinverse17,“whereheis,”whichistakento
mean“asheisatpresent.”SoGodhearsthecryoftheboyandoneofhisangelscallsto
Hagarfromabove:
Whattroublesyou,Hagar?Fearnot,forGodhasheededthecryoftheboywhere
heis.Come,liftuptheboyandholdhimbythehand,forIwillmakeagreatnation
ofhim(Genesis21.17b–18).
(p.140) ThetheologicalargumentaboutGod’swaysofjudgingseemsatfirsttostandat
someremovefromtheagonizingofIshmaelandhismother,butofcourseasascene
depictingtheplightofthosewhoaresuffering,itnaturallyraisesquestionsaboutGod—
hissilenceandhisinaction,orhispurposeandpowerinrelationtotheevent.Thenext
verserevealsthemodeofdivinerescue.“Godopenedhereyesandshesawawellof
water.Shewentandfilledtheskinwithwater,andlettheboydrink”(v.19).Tworabbis
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Sarah and Hagar
commentthatallpeopleareblinduntilGodopenstheireyes.Theimplicationthatthe
problemlaywithHagarisfollowedbytheobservationthatshelackedfaithevenafter
havingbeenenlightened—shefilledthewaterskinbecauseofdoubtaboutthewell,being
anxiousthatitmightvanishasquicklyasitappeared.38(WeshallseethatMuslim
interpreterssimilarlycriticizedtheactionoftherescuedHagar,whowassaidtohave
attemptedtodam,andpreserve,thewatersofthespring.)
EventhoughthepreviouscommentaryonthisincidentregardedGod’sdecisionto
interveneandsaveIshmael“wherehe[was]”(i.e.,forwhathewasthen)asevidencethat
theyouthwasapersonofrighteousnessandmerit,concludingremarksabouthisfuture
lifetakeanegativeturn.ThetwoHebrewwordsfor“becameanarcher”(robehkashoth)
pointtotwoothers(rabbah,kashiuth)suggestingthatIshmaelgrewincruelty.This
narrativesection’sfinalversetellingofHagar’sfindinganEgyptianwifeforherson(v.21)
promptsR.Isaac,notwithoutprejudice,toremark,recallingGenesis16:1(“She[Sarah]
hadanEgyptianmaidservant”),thatasticktossedintheairwillfallbacktoitspointof
origin.39
InthebiblicaldramaofAbraham’sfamily,thecast-outmotherandsonleavethestage,
Hagarnottoappearagain,andIshmaelreturningonlytojoinIsaacinburyingtheir
father.GenesispursuesthestoryofAbrahamandSarahthroughtotheeventsoftheir
deathsandburialsinchs.23through25,andthenturnstothestoriesconcerningthe
patriarch’s“seed”—Isaac,Jacob,Joseph.
RevealedonceagaininthesepagesofGenesisRabbahwasthetypicalmodeofrabbinical
scripturalanalysis—theproductionofmidrashthatexplored,ratherthanattemptedto
achieveconsensuson,theactionsofAbraham,Sarah,Hagar,andIsaacandIshmael—and
theirLord.Rather,holdingscriptureandallofitspartstobeGod-giventreasure,the
rabbiswereinsearchofitsrichprizes—itsmultiplelessonsandtruths.
Abraham’sFamilyinEarlyJewishArt:MosaicsintheSepphorisSynagogue
The1923discoveryofmultiplebiblicalscenesinathird-century“housesynagogue”in
DuraEuropas(ontheEuphrates)fullydispelledthenotion(p.141) thatadherenceto
thecommandmentagainstidolatrypreventedJewsfromproducingfiguralart.40Further
excavationsinPalestinebroughttolightanumberofsplendidlydecoratedsynagogues,
oneofwhichhasaroletoplayinoursearchforJewishartisticinterpretationsof
Abraham’swomenandtheirsons.
WeshouldbeginbyacknowledgingthatnowhereinearlyJewishartdoesadepictionof
Hagarsurvive.DoweseeIshmael?Veryprobably,butacaseneedstobemadeforthis.
Isaacdoesappear,andnotinfrequently,becauseofthepopularityofdepictionsofthe
aqedatYitzhak,the“bindingofIsaac”atthetimehisfatherpreparedtosacrificehimto
God.
Sarahistheonetobesearchedout,andsheisbelievedtobeshowninaportionofthe
mosaicflooruncoveredin1993byarchaeologistsZe’evWeissandEhudNetzer.41 A
smallbutelegantlydecoratedsynagoguedatingfromthefifthcenturywasbuiltinthe
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Sarah and Hagar
lowerGalileancityofSepphoris.Inthaterathecity,whichhadlongbeenregardedasan
importantcenterforJewishlife,preservedmanyfeaturesofitshavingbeenatypical
Greco-Romanmunicipality.ItalsoshowedsignsofthegrowingstrengthofChristianity;
severalchurches(constructeduponthefoundationsofwhathadbeenpagantemples)
stoodnearthecardo,Sepphoris’smainstreet—closetothecity’sadministrative
center.42Itishardtoknowtheextenttowhichpagansightsandsoundsmighthave
continuedinthecityinthefifthtosixthcenturies,buttheproximityofJewish(aTalmudic
reporttellsofeighteensynagogues)andChristianbuildingsinSepphorisallowsusto
presumesomemeasureofsocialinteractionbetweenJewsandChristians.Abitlater,we
shallexplorehowmuchtheyknewabouteachothers’beliefs,andinterpretationsof
biblicalnarratives.
Inasummarydescriptionoftheirdiscovery,WeissandNetzerwrote:
Themostsignificantremnantofthesynagogueisitsmosaicfloorwhichwas
designedasasinglelongcarpetmeasuring16.0×6.6m[eters]….Thecarpetinthe
naveisdividedinto7horizontalbandsofunequalheight,withazodiacinthe
center.Someofthebandshaveinternalsubdivisions.Thefloorismadeupof14
panelscontainingavarietyofdecorations,someofwhichmaketheirfirst
appearanceinJewisharthere.Dedicatoryinscriptions,mostlyinGreek,adornthe
panelsbutbearnorelationshiptothescenesinthem.Allofthedepictionsthat
comprisethemainmosaiccarpetfaceinonedirection,perpendiculartothenave’s
longitudinalaxis,thusemphasizingthebema,thefocusofreligiousactivityinthe
synagogue.Althougheachpanelfeaturesadifferentscene,theyareallthematically
connected.43
Theproposalbytheexcavatorsthattheartprogramofthemosaiccarpetcenteredinthe
themesof“promiseandredemption”generatedlively(p.142) scholarlydiscussion,with
diverseopinionsaboutwhatoverallsensecanbedrawnfromthemultiplepanels,which
depictimagesofthearkandtwomenorahs,scenesoftemplesacrifices(thenameAaron
appearingnexttoaneffacedfigurestandingatanaltar),alargeZodiacimagesimilarto
thosefoundinothersynagoguesoftheperiod),andtwosceneshavingtodowith
Abraham.44
Bypassingherethediscussionofthemosaicfloorinitsentirety,wecloseinuponissues
ofinterpretationpertainingtothelattermosaics,whichbeardirectlyonthischapter’s
topic.Thefirstofthese(Figure4.2),largelydamaged,showedthehead-coveringand
foreheadofawomanstandinginadoorway—Sarah,itsexcavatorsdetermined.
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Sarah and Hagar
Figure4.2 SarahdepictedinamosaicpaneloftheSepphoris
synagogue.FifthtosixthcenturyCE.CourtesyofProf.ZeevWeiss,
TheSepphorisExcavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.
Figure4.3isadrawinginwhichWeissreconstructedwhatthismosaicshowedand
suggested.
Figure4.3 Drawing,courtesyofProf.ZeevWeiss,TheSepphoris
Excavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.
(p.143) Weissdescribedthesceneinthisway:
Onlysmallfragmentsoftheoriginalpanelarepreserved.Onefigure,standingina
rectangularstructure,canbeseenontheleftofthepanel.Tracesoftwoother
figurescanbeidentifiedbesideit.Oneisstandingtotherightoftherectangular
structure,andtheotherisdepictedinarecliningpositionfarthertotherightand
belowthepreviousone.Tracesofaclothwithafringedhem,whichprobably
coveredatablethatstoodinthepicture’sforeground,arevisiblebelowthe
recliningfigure.Althoughthissceneispoorlypreserved,analysisofitsremainsin
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Sarah and Hagar
lightofacloseparallelinthepresbyteryinSt.Vitale,Ravenna(mid-sixthcentury
CE),makesitpossibletoreconstructwhatwasoncedepictedhere.Thethree
angelsreclinedintheforegroundofthepanelnexttoalowtable.Abraham,their
host,islocatedtotheirleft,andbehindhim,Sarahstandsinthetentlisteningtohis
conversationwithhisguests.ThepresentationofthestoryoftheBindingofIsaac
asadirectcontinuationofthesceneoftheangels’visittoAbrahamisalsofoundin
Ravenna(iftheidentificationsuggestedhereisaccepted).InJewishart,thistheme
makesitsfirstappearanceintheSepphorissynagogue.45
(p.144) Themosaic(Figure4.4)onthenorthwallofthechurchofSanVitaletowhich
WeissreferspostdatestheSepphorissynagoguebyapproximatelyacentury(SanVitale
wasconstructedintheperiod528–547),butitdoesprovidethesimilarconfigurationof
theSarahimagethatgaveWeissandNetzerexternalsupportforidentificationofthis
mosaic’ssubject.Thetwobiblicalstoriesinthemosaicpavementinitiallyvisibletothose
enteringthesynagogue—first,theangels’visitationtoAbrahamandSarahatMamreand
second,thedepictionofthenear-sacrificeofIsaac—appearintheSanVitalewallmosaic
alignedonahorizontalplane,andappear,notsurprisinglyinthisChristiancontext,
beneathacrossheldaloftbyangels.
Figure4.4 Abrahamwelcomesstrangers,preparestosacrifice
Isaac.Mid-sixthcenturyCE.MosaicinSanVitale,Ravenna.
©ArtHistoryImages.
Inthechurchdecorationbothpartsofthesinglemosaicscenestandnotonlyaspictorial
Abrahamichistorybutalsoassymbolsunderstoodtoprefiguretheannunciationofthe
birthofJesusandhissacrificialdeath.Asiftoholdthetwoimagestogetherandmake
manifesttheirconnectedmeaningforChristians,theangelsatthecenterhaveinfrontof
themastheysitatthetablewhat,inthissetting,canonlybeeucharisticbread.46
IntheSepphorissynagogue,thetwosceneswillofcourseonlyconveyJewishmeanings,
butinthesocial-religiouscontextofPalestine’s—andSepphoris’—fifthandsixthcenturies,
itwouldbesurprisingiftheirpresentationswerenotcognizantof,andresistantto,
Christianizedappropriationsofthesetwoimportantscripturalstories.Wewanttoweigh
howtheakedahsceneintheSepphorismosaic(Figure4.5)reveals—orgivesstrong
intimationsof—theideasandperspectiveofitsartists.
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Sarah and Hagar
Figure4.5 Abraham’sattendantsandtheaqedah.Afloorpanelin
theSepphorissynagogue.CourtesyofProf.ZeevWeiss,The
SepphorisExcavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.
Again,adrawingbyWeiss(Figure4.6)clarifieswhatcanbeseeninthedamagedmosaic.
Figure4.6 Drawing,courtesyofZeevWeiss,TheSepphoris
Excavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.
Weissdescribesthetwopanelsonthisbandofthemosaicfloor:
ThetwoyouthswhomAbrahamhasleft,togetherwithanass,atthefootofthemountain,
aredepictedintheleftpanel.Theass,whichhasacoloredpack-saddleonitsback,stands
intheforegroundofthescene;behindhimisoneoftheyouthswhoisextendingone
handforwardandholdingaspearintheother.Thesecondyouthisseatedontheleft
beneathatreeandgripsthereinsoftheassinonehand.Thecontinuationofthestoryin
thepanelontherighthasbeenlargelydestroyed.Onitsleftsideonecandiscerna
sparselybranchedtreetowhicharamistetheredbymeansofareddishcord;onlythe
headoftheramremainsintact.Belowit,twopairsofshoesremovedbyAbrahamand
Isaacastheyapproachedthesiteofthesacrificearevisible,adetailabsentinother
depictionsofthisepisode.Inanothersurvivingpartofthemosaicinthecenterofthe
panel,onecanpossiblyidentifythebladeofaknife,andtoitsrightthe(p.145) (p.146)
remainsofacloak.InthelightofthenumerousparallelsinByzantineart,itappearsthat
Abrahamwasdepictedintheforegroundoftheoriginalpanel,hisbodybeingfarlarger
thantheotherfiguresbesidehim.Inhisraisedrighthandheheldtheknife,whilehis
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Sarah and Hagar
otherhandgrabbedIsaac,perhapsonlybyhisforelock.Isaac,probablyportrayedona
smallerscale,appearednexttoAbraham,(p.147) ontheright,besideanaltarthatwas
locatedonthepanel’srightside.Theramontheleftsideofthepanelcompletesthe
portrayalofthebiblicalnarrative.47
ThecontentandarrangementconformtoanothermosaicdepictionoftheaqedatYitzhak
foundinthesixth-centuryBethAlphasynagogue(Figure4.7).
Figure4.7 AqedahscenefromtheBethAlphasynagogue.Sixth
centuryCE.PhotocourtesyoftheCenterforJewishArtatthe
HebrewUniversityofJerusalem.
DistinctiveherearethetituliinHebrew,whichread(fromtheright):“Isaac,”
“Abraham,”“Donotraise[yourhand]”(theangeloftheLord’swordsfromheavento
AbrahaminGenesis22:12),andthedeclarativestatement,“Hereistheram”(22:13).
IntheSepphorismosaic’saqedahscene(andalsoinBethAlpha’s)theramistiedtothe
treeorbush,ratherthancaughtinitbyitshorns(asGenesis22:13relates).Themotifof
theramtetheredwitharopeisregardedasapieceof“artisticmidrash”meanttoclarify
andexpandwhattheram’sappearanceinGenesis22:13signifies:tiedupandawaiting
thisevent,theram’spresencewasprovidential,notaccidental.48Thetetheredanimalto
besacrificedinIsaac’ssteadwasinthematickeepingwiththisandotherartists’
interpretiveadditionsfocusedondivineoversightoftheevent—namely,thehandofGod
shownatopthepaintingoftheaqedahinDuraEuropas’ssynagogue,representingthe
voicefromheaven(batqol),orthehandpicturedinconjunctionwiththedivinecommand
giveninletters,observableabovetheramintheBethAlphaimage.49
(p.148) Significanceattachestoanotherdetailconcerningtheropethattetherstheram.
Theartistsknewtherabbinicteachingwhich,expandinguponthedescriptionofthe
scapegoatsacrificedonYomKippur(Leviticus16:10),heldthattheropewascrimson—
itssymbolismfoundinIsaiah1:18—“Beyoursinslikecrimson,theycanturnsnow
white.”Bythismotif,therecouldbeputinplaceathoroughlyJewishcommentaryon
whattheramwasandsignified.TheanimalavailabletoAbrahamwasthebearerand
removerofIsrael’ssins.PassagesinboththeMishnahandtheBabylonianTalmudrefer
tothecrimsonthreadtiedbetweentheram’shorns—theformertextnotingthatthe
otherendofthewoolenropewasattachedtoarockasthescapegoatwaspushedover
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Sarah and Hagar
theprecipice.50
RabbinicdiscoursespertainingtotheaqedahspendconsiderabletimeonIsaac’sattitude
(willingorquestioning)aboutwhatistobefallhim;bycontrasttheartistsdonotportray
Isaacasanadult,withtheresultthatgreaterinterestandcentralitybelongstothefigure
oftheram.51 Forexample,GenesisRabbah’sextensivecommentaryonthe“bindingof
Isaac”oftentakesintoconsiderationthoughtsandemotionsofIsaacandAbrahamasthey
speaktoeachother,orofAbrahamwhenhe“pickeduptheknifetoslayhisson”(Genesis
22:10).Theangels,incloseattendance,areimaginedasweepingatthesight.52
Further,apassageinGRdisclosessharpconsciousnessofIsrael’shistoricalsituation,
andtheplaceoftheaqedahinJudaism’srituallife.TheramspiedbyAbrahamahar
(“behindhim”)isgivenatemporaltwist,sothatR.Judancansay,“Afterallthathappened
[i.e.,ourredemptionfromslaveryinEgypt,thegiftoftheTorah,etc.],Israelstillfall[s]
intotheclutchesofsinand[inconsequence]become[s]thevictimofpersecution;yet
[Israel]willbeultimatelyredeemedbytheram’shorn,asitsays,‘AndtheLordGodwill
blowthehorn,etc.’”(Zechariah9:14).53R.Haninab.R.Isaacadds,“Throughoutthe
yearIsrael[is]insin’sclutchesandledawayby[her]troubles,butonNewYearthey
shalltaketheshofarandblowonit,andeventuallytheywillberedeemedbytheram’s
horn.” 54RabbiHanina’sremarkletsusknowthatthestoryofthebindingofIsaacwas
readatRoshHashana,eventhoughithadearlierbeenassociatedwithPassover.55
ChristianpreachingatEaster,whichtransformedtheboundIsaacintoChristcrucified,
wouldhavebeenoneofthemotivationsformovingthereadingoftheaqedahtoanother
feastintheJewishcalendar.Asnotedearlier,Melito,asecond-centurybishopinthecity
ofSardis,had,withstrongpolemicalforce,taughthiscongregationatEasterwhatthe
“sacrificeofIsaac”signifiedforhimandhisfellow-believers.
Thesynagoguemosaicemphasizedtheanimal’sroleinthedramanotonlybyputtingthe
scapegoat’sredleashonhim,butalsobydepictingin(p.149) theupperregistersthe
menoroth-surroundingark,Aaron’spriesthood,andthecentralimportanceofsacrificial
animals,includingbirds,intheculticlifeoftheTemple.TheritualconsciousnessofJews
wasbeingevokedinthisimagery,andtherelationoftheserealitiestotheramthattook
Isaac’splaceastheofferingatMoriahwasobvious.
IntheTanhumaYelammedenu,acollectionofexegesesmanyofwhichstemfromthefifth
throughseventhcenturies,wefindavariationontheinterpretationsalreadymet:
Aramcaughtinthethicketbyhishorns.TheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,saidto
Abraham:“letthemblowupontheram’shorntoMe,andIwillsavethemand
redeemthemfromtheirsins.”ThisiswhatDavidmeantwhenhesang:Myshield
andmyhornofsalvation,myhightower(Psalm18:3).56
Andofcourseourmosaicpanelisartinaplaceofworship,notinabook.Theliturgical
hearingandseeingoftheaqedahrecalledandconfirmedthecongregation’ssenseof
identityasGod’sbeloved—tested,protected,andredeemed.
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Sarah and Hagar
OnlyintheSepphorissynagogue’saqedahiconographyisfoundthefeatureoftwopairs
ofupturnedshoes,shedbythesmallerIsaacandbyhisfather.Weissnotesthatin
GenesisRabbah56.2onemeetsthetraditionthatcloudsand“theShekhinah(Divine
Presence)…dweltintheplacechosenforIsaac’ssacrifice.” 57OnerecallsGod’s
commandinExodus3:5thatMosesremovehissandalsatMt.Horeb,sinceitis“holy
ground.”AplaceofGod’spowerfulpresenceandspeechrequiresthosewhoascenditto
proceedwithfeetunshod.58Inthisdetailofthepairsofshoesresidestheclaimthatthis
mountaininMoriah,likeHoreb,isa“mountainofGod”andthattheaqedahranksin
importancewiththegivingoftheLawatSinai.Buttheimageoftheshoesleftoffatthe
placeofthebindingofIsaacmaybeunderstoodtosignifymorethanproperrespectfor
hallowedspace.OveragainstChristianinterpretationsofthebindingofIsaacin
Christologicalterms,theshoessay:thiseventofGod’spardontookplaceinourholy
place,andwasrevealedtoourancestors.
StudyingtheSepphorisaqedahsceneinthelightofChristianusesoftheimage,art
historianHerbertKesslersuggestedthatanotherdetail—abarelynoticedomissionfrom
theJewishimagery—canalsobethoughttoservethecauseofadistinctiveJewishclaim
adversusChristianorum.Genesis21:6’sreportthat“Abrahamtookthewoodforthe
burntofferingandputitonhissonIsaac”failstoappearintheSepphorisaqedahimage,
andinotherJewishrepresentationsofthescene.Christianexegetesandtheologiansas
earlyasthesecondcenturyassertedthatthisbiblicaldetailheldthecluethatIsaac’s
sacrificeanticipatedandpointedtoJesus’sbearinghis(p.150) owncrosstotheplaceof
hisdeath,andChristianartistsdidshowIsaacwiththewoodinhisarms.59Kessler’s
studyofminiaturepaintingsofthesceneintheChristiantopographymanuscripts(dating
fromtheelevenththroughthetwelfthcenturies,but“surelycopiedfroma6th-or7thc.
Syrianmodelandhence…ratherclosetotheSepphorismosaicinplaceandtimeof
origin”)promptedhimtospeculate:
TheubiquitousnessofthedepictionofIsaacbearingthewoodinEarlyChristian
art,andhenceofthetypologicalinterpretation,mayhaveinducedthemosaicist[at
theSepphorissynagogue]toomitit.60
InhisBoundbytheBibleEdwardKessler,ahistorianofJewish-Christianrelations,
pursuedconcernsakintothoseofHerbertKesslerbysearchingforevidenceof
“exegeticalencounters”betweenJewsandChristianswhointerpretedthesacrificeof
Isaac.61 Earlyinhisstudyheremarkedaboutrabbis’responses“toChristianclaims
aboutownershipofScripture,”andquotedapassagefromtheTanhuma:
WhentheHolyOne,BlessedbeHe,saidtoMoses“write”(Ex.34:27),Moses
wantedtowritetheMishnahaswell.HowevertheHolyOne,BlessedbeHe,
foresawthatultimatelythenationsoftheworldwouldtranslatetheTorahinto
Greekandwouldclaim,“WeareIsrael.” 62
Kesslerobservedthatthechurchfathers,whilenotabandoningthenarrative’sstrong
interestinAbraham’sfaithfulnesstoGod’scommand,gaveconcentratedattentionto
IsaacastheprototypeofJesus.Kesslerarguesthattherabbisknewandusedconcepts
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Sarah and Hagar
fromthisChristiantrajectoryofideas,turningthemtotheirownpurposes.Examininga
pieceofcommentaryinGenesisRabbah56.3whichlikensAbraham’splacingofthewood
onIsaacto“amanwhocarrieshiscrossonhisshoulder”—aphrasewhichwas
“undoubtedlydeliberate”—Kesslernotedthatthis“isasneartoanexplicitreferenceto
Christianityasweshallfindinrabbinicinterpretations”ofthistimeperiod.63He
continued:
RatherthanassociatingIsaacwithdeathandmartyrdom,the[rabbis’]purposewas
toemphasizeIsaac’swillingnesstogiveuphislifeandsuffertorture.Thisiswhy
therabbisdeliberatelyfailedtoassociateIsaacwithsuchmartyrsasAkiva….Itis
Isaac’swillingnesstogiveuphislifethatprovidesthebasisforthose
interpretations[i.e.,thosethatspokeofhisfearoftheknife]andappearstobea
responsetotheChristianteachingthatChristwaswillingtogiveuphislifefor
Israel.Therabbisarguedthatthereexistednumerousbiblicalfigures,(p.151)
suchasIsaacattheAkedah,whowerewillingtogiveuptheirlivesonbehalfof
Israel.Theseexamplesshowedthatnospecialsignificanceshouldbegiventothe
willingnessofChristtogiveuphislife.Inthewordsoftherabbis,‘youfind
everywherethatthepatriarchsandtheprophetsofferedtheirlivesonbehalfof
Israel.’Inotherwords,thesacrificeofJesuswasnotauniqueevent.Isaacwas
usedtocounterChristologicalclaimsofuniqueness.64
WecannotleaveunexaminedtheSepphorismosaic’srepresentationoftheotherhalfof
thebandshowingtheaqedah.Abraham’sservantsmayberegardedasbiblically
required,butthemosaicportrayalofthemisprovocative.Thetwomenareturned
towardeachother,withthelarger,spear-bearingmanontherightspeakingand
gesturingintheother’sdirection.Istheviewerofthispanelthatadjoinsthesacrificial
scenemeanttorecognizethesetwoattendants,andtohavesomeideaofwhatis
transpiringbetweenthem?Familiar,presumably,wereaqedahtraditionsliketheone
foundinPirkedeRabbiEliezer31,whichgivesthenamesofthosewhoaccompanied
AbrahamandIsaactotheplaceofsacrifice:Eliezer,theservant,andIshmael,the
patriarch’sotherson.Howdidthesetwo,toldtostaybehindwiththeass,occupy
themselvesduringthetimeAbrahamandIsaacwenttothemountaintopto“worship”(as
Abrahamsays)?
ContentionarosebetweenEliezerandIshmael.IshmaelsaidtoEliezer:Nowthat
AbrahamwillofferIsaachissonforaburntoffering,kindleduponthealtar,Iamhis
first-bornson,Iwillinherit(thepossessions)ofAbraham.Eliezerrepliedtohim,
saying:Hehasalreadydrivenyououtlikeawomandivorcedfromherhusband,
andhehassentyouawaytothewilderness,butIamhisservant,servinghimby
dayandbynight,andIshallbetheheirofAbraham.TheHolySpiritanswered
them,sayingtothem:Neitherthisonenorthatoneshallinherit.65
TheexchangeresonateswithoneofthefundamentalthemesandplotlinesofGenesis:
inheritancerightsandcompetitionbetweensonsforthese.Ishmaelseeshisopportunity
tolayclaimtotherightsofafirstbornson,whileEliezer,afterlikeningIshmael’sstatusto
thatofarejectedwife,baseshisownclaimuponalifeofdevotedservice.Thetwomen
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Sarah and Hagar
personifyvaluesworthyofcomparisonandjudgmentinthisrabbinictale,butinitstelling
theSpiritofGodsummarilyendsthedebate.Thedenialofbothmenandtheirclaimsby
theSpirit“points”thelistenertothewonderthatistranspiringonthemountain.Asimilar
redirectionoftheeyemusthavehappenedtoviewersofthemosaic.Butwepauseover
thebestpreservedpartofband6becauseheretheartists,nodoubtawareofsome
formofthemidrashwehaveinPRE,haveIshmaelre-enteringthe(p.152) Abrahamic
story(backfromthewildernessofParanwherehewasleftinGenesis21:20–21),armed
withaspear,ratherthanthebowwhichGodpredictshewillmaster.
Ishmael’spresenceinthesceneunderlines,withanonbiblicalimage,thisscripture
narrative’schieftheme:itistoAbraham’ssonborntoSarah(nottoHagar’sson)that
God’scovenantapplies.Thepatriarchhasdemonstratedhisfaithfulness,atwhichpoint
theangeloftheLordreiterates(andasJonLevensonemphasized,transforms)the
blessing:“Becauseyouhavedonethisandnotwithheldyourson,yourfavoredone,I
will…makeyourdescendantsasthestarsofheavenandthesandsontheseashore;and
yourdescendantsshallseizethegatesoftheirfoes.Allthenationsoftheearthshallbless
themselvesbyyourdescendants,becauseyouhaveobeyedMycommand”(Genesis
22:16–18).
WeconcludeourconsiderationofAbraham’sfamilyinthefiguralartofSepphorisby
turningoncemoretoSarah.ThoughtheartistsdidnotplaceSarahanywhereintheband
ofthesynagoguemosaicdepictingofthebindingofIsaac,shewouldhavebeenimagined
behindthatscenebythosewhoseeyesfellonthetwopanelstheymetastheyentered
thebuilding.AmainreasonforthiswasthatinGenesistheaccountofAbraham’snearsacrificeofIsaacinchapter22isfollowedonlyafewverseslaterbythereportofthe
matriarch’sdeath.Weknowthatinsomesynagoguesthetwostories,theaqedahandthe
deathofSarah,constitutedasingleTorahportiontobereadtothecongregation.66
Thejuxtapositionofthe“bindingofIsaac”andSarah’sdemisepromptedspeculationthat
therewasacause-effectrelationbetweenthetwohappenings.ApassageinPirkede
RabbiEliezertellsofavisittoSarahbySammael/Satan,whoknowsof,andisfrustrated
by,Abraham’sfidelitytoGodatthealtarhehaspreparedforIsaaconthemountain.
DuringthetimewhenAbrahamandhissonareatthemountaininMoriah,Sammael
falselyinformsSarahthatIsaachasbeenslainandgiventoGodasaburntofferingbyher
husband.Sarahweeps,thenwailsaloudwiththreelongandthreeshortcrieslikethoseof
theshofar,anddies.67Itisthestuffoftragedy—adangerousdeceiver,workingofftothe
sideofdrama’smainaction,turnstothewomanwhohadoncelaughedinincredulity,and
bringshertotearsofagonyandtoherdeath,evenwhiletheGodofAbrahamisrescuing
herson,theirson,atcenter-stage.SympathyforSarah,evenamongthosewhotakethe
moralpointabouthervulnerabilities,musthavebroughtanimageofhertomind.
ThelatterpartofthischapterhasbeenanexplorationofhowJewishmosaicartistsat
SepphorischosetorepresentAbraham,Sarah,andIsaacandIshmaelbothsimilarlyand
differentlyfromthosedescriptionswepossessinliterarytexts.Sharplyevidentinthe
workoftheartistsofthe(p.153) SepphorissynagogueareindicationsthattheJews
knewthemselvestobedebatingascripturalstoryheldincommonwiththeirrivals.
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Sarah and Hagar
HerbertKessler’scommentsabouttheimportanceofthesynagogueanditsartillumine
theinteractionsbetweenreligiouscommunitiesthatarethisstudy’sprincipalinterest.
WhatthisnewdiscoverytellsusabouttherelationshipofJewishtoChristianart
duringlateantiquity,then,isappropriatelycomplex.Itsupportsthehypothesisthat
ChristiansmaywellhavebasedsomeoftheirimageryonJewishmodels;butit
remindsus,aswell,thattheydidsoonlywithinthepolemicsofwhoaretheChosen
People.Moreover,itsuggeststhattheJews,inturn,deployedthesharedpictorial
repertorytostakeouttheirownclaims,particularlytheirfaiththattheircovenant
withGodhadnotbeenabrogatedbutwould,indeed,berenewed.AndwhileJews
maywellhavetakentheleadindeployingRomanartisticformstotheirown
religiouspurposes,bythe5thc.theyseemtobefollowingtheChristians,orat
least,tobeindialoguewiththem.ThefacelessHelios[intheZodiac],theomission
ofIsaaccarryingfaggots,andeventhespectacularrepresentationofAaron
consecratingtheTabernaclemightwellberesponses,notinitiatives,inadebate
overwhowasthetrueheirtoGod’sgrace,adebateconducted,inpartatleast,
throughpictures.Seenfromthisperspective,viewedthroughthelensofChristian
art,theSepphorismosaicappearsevenmoreclearlyanduniquelyJewish.” 68
InhowmanywaysandwithwhatintendedgoalsdidearlyChristianinterpretersexplore
thescripturalstoryofAbraham’stwowomenandtheirsons?Wehavealreadyhad
glimpsesoftheirviewpointandtactics,butthenextchaptertreatsmorefullythemanner
inwhichchurches’teachersandartistspressedtheassertionthatthestory’smeaning
becameclearonlywithandsubsequenttotheappearanceofJesusasGod’sannointed
one—andSon.Twoimportantfactorswereoperativeinthechurches’appropriationof
Abraham’snarrative.First,itwasAbraham,Sarah,andIsaac,andthecovenantofGod
madeavailablethroughthemandtheirposteritythatChristianslaidclaimto—not
Abraham’sotherfamily.Second,originatingasasectwithinJudaism,believersthatJesus
wasGod’spromisedmessiahassertedthattheyhadbecomeGod’sfavoredpeople,and
obviouslyfoundthemselvesimmediately(andalsopermanently)indebate,conflict,and
controversywiththeirparentreligion.Inthenextchapterweshallbecomeacquainted
withthechurches’determinedeffortstoChristianizeAbraham,Sarah,andIsaac.
Notes:
(1.)AnatGilboa,ImagesoftheFeminineinRembrandt’sWork,30–31.
(2.)Wenoticetheecho,orreplay,ofthethemein12:17:“ButtheLordafflictedPharaoh
andhishousewithgreatplaguesbecauseofSarai,Abram’swife,”causingthePharaohto
summonAbrahamandaskhimwhyhehasdeceived(andpunished)him.
(3.)JonD.Levenson,TheDeathandResurrectionoftheBelovedSon,173–174.
(4.)See,forexample,1Chronicles29:18andExodus33:1,whereGodspeaksoftheland
he“sworetoAbraham,Isaac,andJacob”;alsoLeviticus26:42,andJeremiah33:26.
(5.)H.FreedmanandM.Simon,eds.,MidrashRabbah:Genesis,volumes1–2.
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Sarah and Hagar
(6.)Reflectingonthechild-bearingofthematriarchs—SarahandRebekah,notably—we
readapassagefromtheJerusalemTalmudinH.FreedmanandM.Simon,Midrash
Rabbah,vol.1,p.378,n.1:“Y.T.:Righteouswomen,asinthecaseofSarah,find
pregnancymoredifficultofattainmentthanrubies.”
(7.)Inthisinstance,andintheoneinvolvingAbimelech,therulersgavetheirdaughters
toSarah.Thereasoning:“Betterletmydaughterbeahandmaidinthishouse[i.e.,the
houseofwomanofSarah’scharacterandGod-protectedpower]thanamistressin
anotherhouse.”SeeFreedman,Simon,MidrashRabbah:Genesis,GRXLV.1,380.
(8.)GRXLV.4,381.
(9.)Ibid.Freedman,at381,n.6,givestheliteraltranslationof“byaneffortofwillpower”
as“theymasteredthemselves.”
(10.)GRXLV.4,381.
(11.)GRXLV.4,382.
(12.)Ibid.
(13.)GRXLV.5,383.Explanatoryadditionsinbracketsaremyown.
(14.)GRXLV.6,384.
(15.)GRXLV.6,384.
(16.)GRXLV.7,385.
(17.)GRXLV.9,386.
(18.)Aninterpretationof16:12(NRSV:“Andheshallliveatoddswithallhiskin”)tendsin
thesamedirection,likeningIshmaeltoanenemyofIsraelwho“fell”(suggestedinplace
of“dwell”onthebasisoftheaccountofIshmael’sdeathinGenesis25:17)beforean
attemptto“stretchouthishandagainsttheTemple”(GRXLV.9).Butwhichenemyof
Israelisinview—Nabatea,andtheirking,Aretes?ThearmiesofRome?SeeFreedman,
Simon,MidrashRabbah:Genesis,387,n.1.
(19.)See1Chronicles5:19:“theywenttowarwiththeHagarites,”andalso1Chronicles
5:10,5:20.
(20.)GeraldFriedlander,PirkedeRabbiEliezer.Kugel,Traditions,933,writesofthe
work:“ItsallusionstoIslamiccultureandtoArabruleoverthelandofIsraelcertainly
suggestthatthisworkwasputintoitsfinalformaftertheArabconquest—accordingto
some,aslateastheeighthorninthcenturyCE.Atthesametime,thetextpreserves
manyancienttraditions,includingquiteafewknownonlyfromthebiblicalApocryphaand
Pseudepigrapha.”
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Sarah and Hagar
(21.)PRE32,231.
(22.)Ibid.
(23.)PRE30,221–221.
(24.)GRXLV.10,387.
(25.)Ibid.
(26.)GRLII.3,462–463.
(27.)GRLIII.6,466.
(28.)GRLIII.9,468.
(29.)GRLIII.8,467.
(30.)Ibid.
(31.)AtGRLII.10,468–69,weseetherabbiselaboratinguponthegreatfeastincolorful
terms.Theconquestelementisstronglyprojected.Ogisthere,dresseddownby“the
GreatOneoftheworld”forhisimpudenceincallingIsaacscrawny.Godproceedsto
warnhimthathewillseemyriadsofIsaac’sdescendants,andbedoneinbythem.
ReferenceismadetoNumbers21:34:“AndtheLordsaiduntoMoses:Fearhimnot;for
Ihavedeliveredhimintothyhand.”Thecelebratorymealwasominous.Thirty-one(or
more)ofthekingsslainbyJoshuawereallthere.Thepassage’smessageisclear:the
fatesofIsrael’s(later)foesweresealedalreadyinthedaysofthefirstpatriarch.
(32.)GRLIII.11,470.
(33.)Ibid.
(34.)GRLIII.12,471,n.1.
(35.)GRLIII.13,472.IshmaelwasbornfourteenyearsbeforeIsaac.SeeGenesis16:14
and21:5.
(36.)GRLIII.13,472.
(37.)GRLIII.13,473.
(38.)GRLIII.14,474.
(39.)GRLIII.15,474.
(40.)Manytomeshavebeendevotedtothetopic,butseethebriefessay,
“RepresentationalArt,”366–371.RachelHachlili’s“SynagoguesintheLandofIsrael,”
113,quotes“anAramaicparaphraseinTargumPseudo-JonathanofLeviticus26:1,which
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Sarah and Hagar
modifiestheBible’ssternprohibitionagainstmakingandbowingdownto‘carvedstone’:
...norshallyouplaceafiguredstoneinyourlandtobowdownuponit.Buta
pavementfiguredwithimagesandlikenessesyoumaymakeonthefloorofyour
synagogue[s].Anddonotbowdown[idolatrously]toit,forIamtheLordyour
God.
(41.)Ze’evWeissandEhudNetzer,PromiseandRedemption.SeealsoZe’evWeiss,The
SepphorisSynagogue,360pages+211illustrations.
(42.)SeeSethSchwartz,ImperialismandJewishSociety,142–145,[203]–206.Christian
buildingsinSepphorisaredescribedinZe’evWeissandEhudNetzer,“Sepphorisinthe
ByzantinePeriod,”81–89.Theauthorscomment(85):“Theproximityofprivateand
publicbuildings,bothontheacropolisandinlowerSepphorisisrathersurprising,asthis
phenomenonhasnotbeenencounteredelsewhereinPalestine.InbothRomanand
ByzantineSepphorislargeandornatemansionswerebuiltclosetosimplehomes,a
featurenotedthroughoutthecity.Moreover,aclearandrigiddivisioninto
neighborhoodsaccordingtosocial,religious,oreconomicstatuscannotbediscerned.”
(43.)ThequotationisfromZe’evWeiss,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaicandtheRole
ofTalmudicLiteratureinItsIconographicalStudy,”20–21.
(44.)EssaysinLevineandWeiss,eds.,FromDuratoSepphoris,engageinvariousways
theinterpretationadvancedbyWeissandNetzerinPromiseandRedemption.A
challengingcritiqueandre-evaluationappearsinSchartz,Imperialism,248–259.
(45.)Ze’evWeiss,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaic,”3–24.
(46.)RobinM.Jensen,FacetoFace,120:“Theequalityofthethree[visitors]andtheir
functionassymbolsofthethreedistinctpersons[ofGod]withonesharednaturemaybe
intentionallyexpressedbythecomposition.Here,however,theiconographyalsopoints
totheimportanceoftheeucharisticofferingmadedirectlybelow,atthealtarinthe
centerofthepresbyterium.”
(47.)Weiss,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaic,”23.
(48.)SeeEdwardKessler,“ArtLeadingtheStory,”67–68.
(49.)ThehandofGodfirstappearsinJewishartinjustthisscenepaintednexttothe
DuraEuropossynagogue’sTorahshrine,thoughinthatinstance,theram’shorns,
entangledinatree,holdhiminplace;thereisnoropetether.
(50.)MishnahYoma5.6.2–6,andTalmudYoma39a,b.
(51.)Seetheprovocativetreatmentofthisquestionoftheramtiedto,ratherthancaught
upinthetree’sbranches,inKessler,“ArtLeadingtheStory,”73–81,esp.78–81.
Kessler’sconcludingsentencesarethese:“Artistsalsoexpandedtheroleoftheram.The
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Sarah and Hagar
ramintheBiblicalstoryisonthemountaininthelandofMoriahbychanceandplaysa
minorroleinRabbinicliterature,whereasinartisticmidrashtheramisquitedifferent
throughitssignificantsizeandprominentplacement.”
(52.)GRLVI.5,495.
(53.)GRLVI.9,498.
(54.)GRLVI.9,499.
(55.)SeeLevenson,DeathandResurrection,[173]–199.
(56.)ThetranslationisfromSamuelA.Berman,MidrashTanhuma-Yelammedenu,148–
149.Forthehistoryofthetext,seeMarcBregman,TheTanhuma-Yelammedenu
Literature.
(57.)LevineandWeiss,FromDuratoSepphoris,27.
(58.)SeeJosephYahalom,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaicandItsStory,”84,forhis
commentsabout“barefootworshipandthesanctuary.”
(59.)SeeClementofAlexandria,TheInstructor(Paedagogus)1.5.23,andOrigen,Genesis
HomilyVIII.6.Origen,whileinterpretingthemesfromHebrews5–10forhisthirdcenturycongregation,proclaimed:“ThatIsaachimselfcarriesonhimself‘thewoodfor
theholocaust’isafigurebecauseChristalso‘himselfcarriedhisowncross,’[cf.John
19:17]andyettocarry‘thewoodfortheholocaust’isthedutyofapriest.Hehimself,
therefore,becomesbothvictimandpriest.”ThetranslationisfromRonaldE.Heine,
Origen,140–41.
(60.)HebertKessler,“TheSepphorisMosaicandChristianArt,”66,70.Kessleradds
(70):“thetextaccompanyingtheminiaturesdepictingthesacrificeofIsaacinthe
manuscriptsoftheChristiantopographyprovidesatypologicalreadingoftheHebrew
Bible;Isaaccarryingthefirewoodonhisshouldersonthewaytohissacrificialdeathis
takenasatypeofJesuscarryingthecrosstoGolgotha,‘Abrahamleadinghissonto
sacrificeononeofthemountainssymbolizesthemysteryofthepassionandresurrection
ofChrist’.Anysuchinterpretationis,ofcourse,precludedinasynagoguefloormosaic.”
(61.)EdwardKessler,BoundbytheBible.
(62.)EdwardKessler,BoundbytheBible,29.
(63.)Ibid.,113.
(64.)Ibid.,115,116.ItisbecauseofattentiontothequestionofIsaac’swillingnessthat
rabbinicaltexts(unlikeJewishartisticrepresentations)pointtohismaturity(thirty-seven
yearsofage,twiceinGR).Kessler,110–113,proposesthatthisemphasisservesasa
counteragainstsomeChristianarguments(likethatofMelitoofSardis)thatIsaac,as
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Sarah and Hagar
antetype,waspreparatoryand“young”inrelationtoChristcrucified,whoactualized
whatIsaachadonlytypified.Thiscompetitiveinterplaybetweeninterpretationsis,
Kesslerinsists,anothercaseof“exegeticalencounter”betweenJewishandChristian
interpretersofGenesis22:1–19.
(65.)PRE31,224,trans.slightlyaltered.JosephYahalom,“TheSepphorisSynagogue
Mosaicanditsstory,”inLevineandWeiss,eds.,FromDuratoSepphoris,87,calls
attentiontothisexchangebetweenEliezerandIshmaelinitsseveralversionsinPirke
d’RabbiEliezerandinthelaterMidrashHagadolandMidrashVaYosha,andoffershis
owncommentaryonthetwoastheyappearintheSepphorismosaic:“Thepictureinthe
mosaic…whichshowsEliezerholding,orwaving,theropethatistiedtotheass,seems
tosupporthisclaimtoAbraham’spossessions.(Hewas,inotherwords,aloyalservant.)
Ontheotherhand,Ishmael’sspear,theweaponofwarusedinthedesert,indicatesa
clearthreattothefaithfulservant.”
(66.)SeeAvigdorShinan,“SynagoguesintheLandofIsrael,”130–152.
(67.)PRE32,233–234.
(68.)Kessler,“TheSepphorisMosaicandChristianArt,”72.
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