Draft_10_1_2010
第八单元：生态学
UNIT 8: ECOLOGY
8.1 生态结构
8.1 Ecological Organization
主要目的：
Key Objectives:
理解 物种，种群，群落，生态系统，和生物圈的定
义。解释他们之间的关系。
Define the terms of species, population, community,
ecosystem, and biosphere. Explain the relationship
between them.
解释在生态系统中族群的多样化如何联系到生态系统
的稳定。
Explain how diversity of population within
ecosystems relates to the stability of ecosystems.
科学词汇：
Science Vocabulary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
生态学
物种
族群
群落
生态系统
生物圈
1.
2.
3.
4.
ecology
species
population
community
5. ecosystem
6. biosphere
内容：
Contents:
8.1.1 结构层次
8.1.1
为了解更多有关生态间的相互作用，生态学家们
已将这些复杂的相互作用分为更易懂的几个结构层
次。
To learn more about ecological interaction,
ecologists have subclassified the complexities of
these interactions in terms of more easily understood
levels or organization.
物种包括在自然界能繁殖的同一种生物的全部个
体。种群包括生活在某个区域的单一物种的所有的成
员。群落包括生活在某个区域的所有相互作用的种
群。生态系统包括群落（所有的生物）及其周边的物
理环境（空气、水、土壤等）。生物圈则是指地球上
有生命存在的地方（由很多生态系统组成）。
A species includes all organisms of one kind that can
interbreed in nature. A population includes all the
members of a single species living in a given area. A
community includes all the interacting populations
in a given area. An ecosystem includes a community
(all living things) and the physical environment (air,
water, soil, etc.) The biosphere is the portion of the
earth in which life exits.
州统考题目：
Questions in Regents:
[2003 年 6 月]
1、哪一生态词语包含了下图显示的全部内容？
[June 2003]
1. Which ecological term includes everything
represented in the illustration below?
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Levels of Organization
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(1) 生态系统
(2) 群落
(3) 种群
(4) 生物种类
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
(1) ecosystem
(2) community
(3) population
(4) species
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8.2 生态系统的特征
8.2 Characteristics of Ecosystems
主要目的：
Key Objectives:
1． 列举稳定生态系统所需要的条件。
2． 列举环境中最重要的非生物因素，并描述这些非
生物因素如何可能作用为限制因素。
1. List of requirements for stable ecosystems.
2. List the most important abiotic factors in the
environment, and describe how these abiotic
factors may act as limiting factors.
3. Identify herbivore, carnivore, omnivore, prey,
predator, scavenger, and saprophyte.
4. Describe the roles of producers, consumers, and
decomposers in an ecosystem.
5. Describe the nutritional relationship among the
biotic factors.
6. List the different types of symbiotic relationships
and describe each of them.
7. Describe the feeding relationship in an ecosystem
in terms of food chains and food webs.
8. Describe the flow of energy in an ecosystem in
terms of a pyramid of energy and a pyramid of
biomass.
9. Describe three major material cycles: carbonoxygen cycle, water cycle, and nitrogen cycle.
3． 区别食草动物，食肉动物，杂食动物，被掠食
者，掠食者，食腐动物，腐生生物。
4． 描述生产者，消费者，和分解者在一个生态系统
中的作用。
5． 描述生物因素之间的营养关系。
6． 列举不同类别的共生关系，并能描述各种共生关
系。
7． 用食物链和食物网的概念来阐述生态系统中的喂
养关系。
8． 用能量金字塔和生物量金字塔的概念来阐述生态
系统中的能量流。
9． 描述三种主要的物质循环：碳-氧循环，水循环，
和氮循环。
科学词汇：
Science Vocabulary:
1. 非生物因素
2. 生物因素
3. 限制因素
4. 自养生物
5. 异养生物
6. 生产者
7. 消费者，初级消费者
8. 分解者
9. 水藻，海藻
10. 真菌
11. 食草动物
12. 食肉动物
13. 杂食动物
14. 食屑动物
15. 被掠食者
16. 掠食者
17. 食腐动物
18. 腐生生物
1. abiotic factors
2. biotic factors
3. limiting factor
4. autotroph
5. heterotroph
6. producer
7. consumer, primary consumer
8. decomposer
9. algae
10. fungi
11. herbivore
12. carnivore
13. omnivore
14. detritivore
15. prey
16. predator
17. scavenger
18. saprophyte
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Living Environment – High School
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19. 食物链
20. 食物网
21. 互惠共生
22. 共栖
23. 寄生
24. 寄生虫
25. 寄主
26. 能量金字塔
27. 生物量金字塔
28. 负载能力
29. 竞争
30. 顶极群落
31. 栖息地
32. 生态位
33. 物质循环
34. 碳-氧循环
35. 水循环
36. 氮循环
37. 硝酸盐
38. 氨
39. 固氮细菌
40. 氮化细菌
41. 脱氮细菌
19. food chain
20. food web
21. mutualism
22. commensalism
23. parasitism
24. parasite
25. host
26. energy pyramid
27. biomass pyramid
28. carrying capacity
29. competition
30. climax community
31. habitat
32. niche
33. cycles of materials
34. Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen cycle
35. water cycle
36. nitrogen cycle
37. nitrate
38. ammonia
39. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
40. Nitrifying bacteria
41. Denitrifying bacteria
内容：
Contents:
8.2.1
稳定生态系统的要求
生态系统是生态学家用来研究环境的基本单元。
当下列的条件满足时，一个生态系统可以自给自立和
保持稳定：

必须有一个持续不断的能量来源。太阳是地球上
生命的主要能源。

在这生态系统中必须有生物能将这能源合成为有
机化合物。绿色植物，水藻，和其它能起光合作
用的自养生物就是例证。

在生物和物理环境之间必须有物质的循环。例如
植物利用二氧化碳进行光合作用而放出氧气给动
物，动物则需要氧气进行有氧呼吸而放出二氧化
碳给植物。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
8.2.1
Requirements For Stable Ecosystems
Ecosystems are the basic units used by ecologists in
the study of the environment. An ecosystem can
support itself and is stable when the following
requirements are met.
 There must be a constant supply of energy. The
sun is the primary source of energy for life on
Earth.
 There must be organisms with the ecosystem
that can use the energy for the synthesis of
organic compounds. Green plants, algae, and
other photosynthetic autotrophs are examples.
 There must be a cycling of materials between
organisms and physical environment. An
example is that plants use carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and release oxygen to animals,
while animals use oxygen for aerobic
respiration and release carbon dioxide.
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8.2.2 非生物因素
8.2.2
在环境中没有生命的部分被称之为非生物因素。
这些因素包括土壤，水，光，温度，空气，矿物质和
其它无机物，以及土壤和水的 pH 值（酸碱度）。
The nonliving parts of the environment are known as
abiotic factors. These factors include soil, water,
light, temperature, air, minerals and other inorganic
substances, and the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of the
soil or water.
非生物因素因地区而异。它们直接影响到生物的
生存和繁殖能力，因而起到了限制因素的作用。限制
因素决定了有多少和哪种生物能够在某个特定的区域
生存。例如在沙漠地区，只有极少量的水以及昼夜温
差悬殊。只有能够适应这些环境条件的植物，例如仙
人掌，可以生存。而其它植物，例如玉米，橡树，就
不能在沙漠生存。
Abiotic factors vary from one environmental area to
another. They directly affect the ability of organisms
to live and reproduce, and therefore they may act as
limiting factors. Limiting factors determine the
numbers and types of organisms can survive in a
particular environment. For example, in deserts there
is very little available water, and temperature varies
daily from very hot to cold. Only plants that are
adapted to these conditions, such as cactus, can
survive. Other types of plants, such as corn, oak
trees, cannot survive.
]
8.2.3 生物因素
所有直接或间接影响到生态系统的生物称为生物
因素。生物因素和其它生物相互作用，也和他们的物
理环境相互作用。在一个生态系统里生物因素主要划
分为下列三种：

生产者。生产者指任何可以通过光合作用来制造
自身所需食物的植物。绿色植物，水藻属于生产
者。

消费者。消费者吃生产者和/或其它消费者。所
有的动物都是消费者。

分解者（腐生生物）。分解者将植物和动物的
尸体分解并送还至环境中，以供其它生物再利
用。通过这种方式，许多重要的物质在生态系统
中得以再循环。分解者的种类包括细菌、腐生真
菌、以及异养植物（如猪笼草）。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
8.2.3
Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors
All the living things that directly or indirectly affect
the ecosystem are the biotic factors. Biotic factors
interact with other living organisms and with their
physical environment. The major divisions of biotic
factors in an ecosystem are:

Producers. A producer is any plant that
manufactures their own food by photosynthesis.
Green plants, algae are producers.

Consumers. Consumers eat producers and/or
other animals. All animals are consumers.

Decomposers (Saprophyte). Decomposers
break down dead plants and animals and make
their materials available to other organisms. In
this way many important substances are
recycled in an ecosystem. Types of
decomposers include bacteria, saprophytic
fungi, and heterotrophic plants (e.g. Pitcher
plant).
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8.2.4
Nutritional Relationships
8.2.4. 营养关系
营养关系关系到营养素从生态系统中的一种
生物转移到另外一种生物。
自养生物是指那些生物，牠们可以利用水，
二氧化碳，和阳光进行光合作用来制造牠们自己
的食物 （有机化合物）。生产者，例如绿色植
物，水藻，是自养生物。
异养生物不能合成牠们自己所需的食物，因
而必须从其它生物中获取营养。消费者是异养生
物。取决于牠们的食物来源，异养生物分为食草
动物，食肉动物，杂食动物，食屑动物，以及腐
生生物。
食草动物是只吃植物的动物。兔、牛、马、
羊、以及鹿是食草动物。食肉动物是吃其它动物
的动物。食肉动物中，有些是猎食者，有些是食
腐动物。猎食者，例如狮子、老鹰、以及狼，猎
杀和吃掉牠们的猎物。食腐动物，例如秃鹫和土
狼，吃死亡的动物。杂食动物是既吃植物也吃动
物的动物。人、乌鸦、以及熊是杂食动物。食屑
动物，例如、蚯蚓、蜗牛、以及螃蟹，吃植物和
动物的残余物，或其它统称为碎屑的死亡物质。
腐生生物吃死亡并腐烂的生物。牠们是指前面的
章节讲叙过的分解者。
Nutritional relationship involves the transfer of
nutrients from one organism to another within the
ecosystem.
Autotrophs are organisms that can use the process of
photosynthesis to make their own food (organic
compounds) with water, carbon dioxide, and
sunlight. Producers, such as green plants, algae, are
autotrophs.
Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own food and
must obtain nutrients from other organisms.
Consumers are heterotrophs. Depending on their
source of food, heterotrophs are classified as
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, detritivores, and
saprophytes.
Herbivores are animals that feed only on plants.
Rabbits, cattle, horses, sheep, and deer are
herbivores. Carnivores are animals that feed on
other animals. Among the carnivores, some are
predators and some are scavengers. Predators, such
as lions, hawks, and wolves, kill and eat their prey.
Scavengers, such as vultures and hyenas, feed on
dead animals. Omnivores are animals that feed on
both plants and animals. Humans, crows, and bears
are omnivores. Detritivores, such as mites,
earthworms, snails, and crabs, feed on plant and
animal remains and other dead matter, collectively
called detritus. Saprophytes feed on dead and
decaying organisms. They also called decomposers
as described in previous session.
8.2.5
8.2.5. 共生关系
共生关系是指不同的物种紧密地生活在一
起，而且至少其中一种生物获益。共生关系分为
三类：互惠共生、共栖、和寄生。
Symbiotic Relationships
Symbiotic relationships are those in which different
species live together in a close association that
benefits at least one of them. Symbiotic relationships
are classified into three types: mutualism,
commensalisms, and parasitism.
In mutualism, both organisms benefit from their
association. For example, nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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Living Environment – High School
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在互惠共生中，两种生物都从牠们的共生关
系中获益。例如，固氮细菌生活在豆科植物根部
的根瘤里。豆科植物是指像豌豆和苜蓿的植物。
固氮细菌制造重要的含氮化合物供给植物，而植
物则提供细菌有机营养及很良好的生活场所。
某些能消化纤维素的微生物（鞭毛虫）生活
在白蚁的消化道中。白蚁吃进去的木碎由这些微
生物来消化。而由此释放出来的营养则供给这两
种生物。牛和生活在牠们消化道中的微生物有着
类似的关系。蜜蜂和花也是互惠共生的一个好例
子。
另一个互惠共生的例子则发生在青苔中。青
苔由藻类细胞和菌类细胞组成。藻类细胞通过光
合作用为自己及菌类细胞提供食物，而菌类细胞
则为藻类细胞提供湿度，矿物质，和生长场所。
在共栖（关系）中，其中一种生物从这共生
关系中获益而另一种生物则不受影响。例如，印
鱼是一种小鱼，牠靠小吸盘吸附在鲨鱼上和鲨鱼
一起生活。印鱼吃鲨鱼的食物残渣，鲨鱼看来并
没有因此而受害。生活在鲸鱼身上的藤壶（注：
一种附着甲壳动物）则是另一类似的例子。兰花
可能生长在热带的大树上。兰花从这稳定的生长
环境获益，同时树并不受影响。
在寄生（关系）中，其中一种生物获益而另
一种生物则受害。获益的生物称之为寄生物，而
受害的生物叫寄主。例如，跳蚤、虱子，以及蚊
子生活在哺乳动物身上，靠寄主的血和皮肤为
生。寄主因失血及寄生物携带的疾病而受害。其
它例证包括生活在人体上的香港脚霉菌，以及生
活在狗体内的绦虫和犬恶丝虫。
live in nodules (little knobs) on the roots of legumes.
Legumes are plants such as peas and clover plants.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria make import nitrogen
compounds for the plant, while the plant provides the
bacteria with organic nutrients and a good place to
live.
Certain cellulose-digesting microorganisms
(flagellates) live in the digestive tracts of termites.
Wood eaten by the termites is digested by the
microorganisms. The nutrients released supply both
organisms. Cows have a similar association with
microorganisms in their digestive tracts. Bee-flower
relationship is also a good example of mutualism.
Another example of mutualism is found in lichens,
which consist of both algal and fungal cells. The
algal cells produce food for themselves and the
fungal cells by photosynthesis and the fungal cells
provide moisture and minerals and attachments sites
in which the algae grow.
In commensalism, one organism benefits from a
symbiotic relationship and the other is not affected.
For example, the remora is a small fish that lives
attached to a shark with little suction cups. The
remora eats the scrapes of uneaten food from the
shark and the shark doesn’t seem to be harmed by the
relationship. Barnacles living on whales is another
similar example. Orchids may live on large tropical
trees. The orchid benefits from a stable growing
environment on the tree, while the tree is unharmed.
In parasitism, one organism benefits and the other
organism is harmed. The organism that benefits is
called the parasite, while the organism that is
harmed is the host. Fleas, lice, and mosquito, for
example, live on the bodies of mammals, feeding on
the blood and skin on the host. The host is harmed
through loss of blood and the diseases the parasites
carry. Other examples include the athlete’s foot
fungus living on humans, and tapeworms and
heartworms living in dogs.
8.2.6
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Energy Flow Relationships
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8.2.6. 能流关系
对一个能自给自立、稳定的生态系统，在生物之
间必须存在一个能量的流动。食物中的化学能流
经生态系统中生物的途径用食物链和食物网来表
示。
食物链 – 食物的能量以一条叫食物链的单向路线
流经生态系统。一条食物链包括食物从生产者传
导到消费者，再从消费者到下一个消费者。食物
链的基本模式如下：
生产者  初级消费者  次级消费者  更高级
消费者
[注：箭头的方向代表食物能量的流动方向。]
绿色植物及光合生物是生态系统中的生产者。生
产者将太阳能转换为食物中的化学能。消费者吃
生产者，反过来又被其它消费者吃。这一系列重
复的吃与被吃的阶段就导致了能量在生态系统中
的传导。
下图（图 8-1）代表了一条简单的食物链。这生
产者是绿色植物。生产者和其它光合生物制造有
机营养素（食物），间接或直接地提供能量给群
落中的其牠成员。在此图中，草蜢吃绿色植物。
草蜢被称为第一级或初级消费者。初级消费者总
是食草动物。
在图中的青蛙被称为第二级或次级消费者。次级
消费者（食肉动物）是吃其牠动物的动物（消费
者）。这些包括猎食动物，牠们猎杀并食用猎
物，以及那些靠吃牠们找到的死亡动物的食腐动
物。（杂食动物可以是初级或是次级消费者。）
那些吃次级消费者的生物被叫做更高级消费者。
因为蛇吃青蛙，因此牠是第三级消费者。鹰是第
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
For an ecosystem to be self-sustaining or stable, there
must be a flow of energy between organisms. The
pathways of chemical energy from food through the
organisms of an ecosystem are represented by food
chains and food webs.
Food Chains. Food energy passes through an
ecosystem in a certain one-way path called a food
chain. A food chain involves the transfer of food
materials from producer to consumer, and from one
consumer to the next. The general pattern for a food
chain is as follows:
Producer  Primary Consumer  Secondary
Consumer  Higher-level consumer
[Note: The direction of the arrows stand for the
direction of food energy flow.]
Green plants and other photosynthetic organisms are
the producers in an ecosystem. Producers change the
energy of sunlight into the chemical energy of food.
Consumers eat the producers and in turn are eaten by
other consumers. A series of repeated stages of
eating and being eater results a transfer of energy
throughout an ecosystem.
The following diagram (Figure 8-1) represents a
simple food chain. The producer is the green plant.
Producers and other photosynthetic organisms make
the organic nutrients (food) that supply energy
directly or indirectly to other members of the
community. In this diagram the grasshopper is eating
the green plant. The grasshopper is called the first
level or primary consumer. Primary consumers are
always herbivores.
The frog in the diagram is called the secondary or
second level consumer. Secondary consumers
(carnivores) are animals that eat other animals
(consumers). These include predators, that kill and
eat their prey and scavengers that feed on dead
animals they find. (Omnivores can be primary or
secondary consumers.) Organisms that eat secondary
consumers are higher-level consumers. Because the
snake is eating the frog, it is considered a third level
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四级消费者因为牠吃蛇。
分解者出现在食物链的各级别中。这是因为所有
的生物最终都会死亡和被化学分解。分解后的化
学物质又回到环境中供其牠生物所利用。
食物网。在一个自然的群落里，存在着许多相互
连接的食物链。这是因为大部分的生物都吃不止
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
consumer. Hawk is the fourth level consumer
because it is eating the snake.
Decomposers are found at all levels of a food chain.
This is because all organisms eventually die and are
broken down chemically. The chemical materials are
returned to the environment for use by other living
organisms.
Food Webs. In a natural community, there are many
interconnecting food chains. This is because most
organisms eat more than one type of food. In
addition, most organisms are consumed (eaten) by
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一种食物。而且大部分生物也不止被一种生物所
吃。所以，在一个群落里的各条食物链相互交错
连接，形成了一个生物网。食物网有着和食物链
相同的生物层次（生产者，消费者，以及分解
者），但能量和物质的流动却要复杂得多。
营养级。在一食物链或食物网中的每一步被称为
营养级。生产者组成第一营养级，消费者组成第
二、第三、或更高的营养级。每个消费者依靠比
牠低的营养级获取能量。
more than one species of organism. Thus, the various
food chains in a community are interconnected,
forming a food web (Figure 8-2). Food webs have the
same levels of organisms (producers, consumers, and
decomposers) as food chains, but the flow of energy
and materials is much more complicated.
Trophic Levels. Each step in a food chain or food
web is called a trophic level. Producers make up the
first trophic level. Consumers make up the second,
third, or higher trophic levels. Each consumer
depends on the trophic level below it for energy.
Ecological Pyramids
生态金字塔
一个生态系统中能量或物质的量可以用生态金字
塔来表示。一个生态金字塔是一种图形，它显示
出在一食物链或食物网中包含在每一营养级的能
量或物质的相对数量。生态学家公认两种主要的
不同类别的生态金字塔：能量金字塔和生物量金
字塔。
A) 能量金字塔。食物的一个重要用途就是为了
能量。在食物网的每一个环节中，能量被传递到
后一级更高的营养级。例如，来自于太阳的能量
从生产者传递到初级消费者，再从初级消费者传
递到次级消费者。
然而，能量传递的效率并不高。储存于每一个营
养级的能量，只有部分传递给了下一个营养级。
这是因为生物所获得的能量，很大一部分被用于
自身新陈代谢的生命活动，如呼吸、运动、消
化、繁殖等。剩余的能量部分作为热量释放到环
境中。每一个营养级中只有大约百分之十的能量
能够传递给后一个营养级的生物。这就是“百分
之十定律”。例如，草所吸收的太阳能，十分之
一最终储存在牛和其牠吃草动物的组织里。而十
分之一的那些能量--十分之一的十分之一，或总
共百分之一的能量被传递给了吃牛的人们。这种
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
The amount of energy or matter in an ecosystem can
be represented by an ecological pyramid. An
ecological pyramid is a graphical model that shows
the relative amounts of energy or matter contained
within each trophic level in a food chain or food web.
Ecologists recognize two major different types of
ecological pyramids: pyramid of energy and pyramid
of biomass.
A) Pyramid of Energy. An important use of food is
for energy. At each step of a food web, energy is
transferred to the next higher level. For example,
energy from the sun is transferred from producer to
primary consumer and from primary consumer to
secondary consumer.
This energy transfer, however, is not efficient. Only
part of the energy that is stored in one trophic level is
passed on to the next level. This is because
organisms use much of the energy that they consume
for life processes of metabolism, such as respiration,
movement, digestion, and reproduction. Some of the
remaining energy is released into the environment as
heat. Only about 10 percent of the energy
available within one trophic level is transferred to
organisms at the next trophic level. This is called
―10 percent rule‖. For instance, one tenth of the
solar energy captured by grasses ends up stored in
the tissues of cows and other grazers. Only one tenth
of that energy—10 percent of 10 percent, or 1
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概念经常用一个金字塔来表示。在一个食物网
内，最大量的能量在生产者这一级。这就是为什
么生产者是在金字塔的底部。可提供的能量随每
一更高的喂养级而逐级递减，形成了一个能量金
字塔（图 8-3）。
B) 生物量金字塔。在一生态系统中的有机物质的
量叫生物量。生物量是以单位面积有机物质的克
数来表示。一个生态系统可供养的生物量的数量
随每一喂养级而逐级递减。这是因为可提供的能
量是逐级递减的。据有最多生物量的是在生产者
这级，然后逐级递减。以下列简单的食物链为
例：草  羊  人：需要上千磅的草供养一只羊
的一生，而一个人的一生却要吃掉上百只羊。这
种生物量随每一更高的喂养级而逐级递减可用生
物量金字塔来显示（图 8-4）。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
percent total—is transferred to the humans that eat
cows. This concept is often represented by a
pyramid. In a food web, the greatest amount of
energy is at the producer level. This why the
producer level is at the bottom of the pyramid. The
amount of usable energy decreases with each higher
feeding level, forming a pyramid of energy (Figure
8-3).
B) Pyramid of Biomass. The amount of organic
matter in an ecosystem in its biomass. Biomass is
usually expressed in terms of grams of organic matter
per unit area. The total amount of biomass an
ecosystem can support decreases at each higher
feeding level. This is because there is less available
energy at each level. The greatest amount of biomass
is found at the producer level, and decreases with
each higher feeding level. For example, in the
following simple food chain: Grass  Sheep 
Human; thousands of pounds of grass are needed to
support one sheep over its lifetime, and hundreds of
sheep would be needed to feed one human for a
lifetime. This decrease in biomass at each higher
feeding level is illustrated by a pyramid of biomass
(Figure 8-4).
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8.2.7. 负载能力与竞争
8.2.7
负载能力
在每一个生态系统中，可利用的资源是有限的。
这些资源包括食物、水、能量、矿物质、空间
等。即使某些资源有可能通过细菌和霉菌的作用
来循环，但循环的速度赶不上对这些物质的需
求。可用资源的量限制了这个生态系统可供养的
生物数量。一个地区能够负担的某种特定生物的
最大数量叫做负载能力。在一个稳定的生态系
统，一种生物的种群将会有些小波动，如图 8-5
所示。如果种群的增加大大高于负载能力，很多
个体生物将会因为没有足够的资源供养而死亡。
Carrying Capacity
In every ecosystem on Earth, there are limited
amounts of available resources. These resources
include food, water, energy, minerals, and space.
Even though some of these resources may be
recycled through the actions of bacteria and fungi,
the pace of recycling may not keep up with the
demand for these materials. The amount of resources
available limits the number of organisms that an
ecosystem can support. The maximum number of
organisms of a particular type that can be supported
in an area is known as the carrying capacity. In a
stable ecosystem, a population of organisms will
fluctuate slightly, as shown in Figure 8-5. If the
population increases significantly above its carrying
capacity, many individuals will die off because there
are insufficient resources available to support them.
竞争
不同的物种生活在相同的环境或栖息地，有可能
为了牠们自身的生存而需要某些相同的资源。由
于资源（例如食物、水、地方、光、矿物质等）
通常是有限的，不同的物种之间存在着竞争。竞
争是指不同生物之间争夺相同的有限资源。
Competition
Different species living in the same environment, or
habitat, may require some of the same resources for
their survival. Since resources (such as food, water,
space, light, and minerals) are usually limited,
competition occurs among the various species.
Competition is the struggle between different
organisms for the same limited resources.
物种间相似的需要更多，牠们之间的竞争就更激
The more similar the needs of the species, the more
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Carry Capacity and Competition
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烈。例如，狮子、豹、可能会争夺相同的羚羊。
另外，因为有着最相同的需求，所以同类之间为
争夺资源而发生的竞争最为激烈。例如，为了羚
羊（或水、配偶、地盘，等等）的争夺在相邻的
狮子之间较狮子与其它掠食者之间更为激烈。
intense the competition. For example, lions, leopards,
and hyenas may compete to consume the same type
of antelope. In addition, because their requirements
are most similar, the strongest competition for
resources often occurs among members of the same
species. For example, competition for antelope prey
(or water, mates, territory, and so on) may be more
intense between neighboring prides of lions than
between lions and other nearby predators.
每个物种在群落中占居一个特定的生态位。一个
生态位是指这个物种在其栖息地所扮演的角色。
物种的生态位包括牠们所需求的食物或营养的种
类、何处及如何生存、何处及如何繁殖、和在此
地区的其它物种之间的关系。当两种生物争夺相
同的生态位时，能更成功地利用已有资源的生物
将获胜，因此在群落中每个生态位只存在一个物
种。
Each species occupies a particular ecological niche in
a community. A niche is the role that the species fills
in its habitat. A species’ niche includes the type of
food, or nutrients, it requires; where and how it lives;
where and how it reproduces; and its relationship
with other species in the area. When two species
compete for the same niche, the one that is more
successfully at utilizing the available resources will
outcompete the other, thereby maintaining just one
species per niche in the community.
8.2.8. 物质循环
8.2.8
在一个自供自给的生态系统，各类物质在生物与
非生物环境之间是循环的。这种循环过程使得物
质被生物不断利用。
In a self-sustaining ecosystem, various materials are
recycled between the organism and the abiotic
environment. The recycling process allows materials
to be used over and over again by living things.
碳—氧循环
碳、氢、氧元素通过环境中的有氧呼吸和光合作
用过程循环（图 8-6）。在光合作用中，植物利
用大气中的二氧化碳及环境中的水合成葡萄糖
（C6H12O6），同时放出作为光合作用附产品的氧
回到大气中。在有氧细胞呼吸中，植物和动物利
用大气中的氧气，同时通过分解葡萄糖而释放二
氧化碳和水。这两种过程通常保持平衡，使得大
气中的二氧化碳维持在一个稳定的水平。但是，
石化燃料（油、煤、以及天然气）的燃烧也释放
二氧化碳。还有，分解者分解死亡植物和动物的
尸体及动物的排泄物的同时也释放出二氧化碳。
Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
The elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are
recycled through the environment by the processes of
aerobic cellular respiration and photosynthesis
(Figure 8-6). During photosynthesis, plants use
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and water
(H2O) from the environment in the synthesis of
glucose (C6H12O6) and release oxygen (O2) back to
the atmosphere as a by-product of photosynthesis. In
aerobic cellular respiration, plants and animals use
oxygen from the atmosphere and release carbon
dioxide and water via the breakdown of glucose.
These two processes are normally in balance,
maintaining a relatively constant level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. However, the burning of
fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) also releases
carbon dioxide. Finally, the remains of dead plants
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Cycles of Materials
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and animals and animal wastes are broken down by
decomposers, releasing carbon dioxide.
水循环
所有生物需要水才能生存。所有这些水又来自哪
里？它在海洋、大气、以及陆地之间行走。与水
循环有关的主要过程是蒸发、凝结、以及降雨。
蒸发自地球表面的水被凝结成雨、雪、露水、等
降落（降雨）回到地球。在蒸发中，水被变成水
蒸气；在凝结中，水汽再变回水。部分水蒸气通
过动、植物的有氧呼吸以及植物的蒸腾加入到大
气中（图 8-7）。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Water Cycle
All living things require water to survive. Where
does all this water come from? It moves between the
ocean, atmosphere, and land. The main processes
involved in water cycle are evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation: the evaporation of
water from the surface of the earth and the
condensation of rain, snow, dew, etc. falling back to
Earth (precipitation). During evaporation, water is
changed into water vapor and during condensation
water vapor is changed back into water. Some water
vapor is added to the atmosphere by aerobic
respiration in plants and animals and by
transpiration in plants (Figure 8-7).
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氮循环
氮在所有生物中是一种重要的元素，因为它是氨
基酸的主要成分，而氨基酸被用来制造蛋白质。
地球大气中百分之七十八是氮气。但是，绝大多
数生物不能直接利用这游离氮气，而需要含氮化
合物。植物从土壤中吸收含氮化合物，动物从牠
们吃的食物中的蛋白质获取氮。这些蛋白质通过
消化被分解为氨基酸，随后氨基酸被用于合成动
物蛋白质。
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an important element in all living things
because it is a basic component of amino acids,
which in turn are used to build protein. Nitrogen gas
(N2) makes up 78 percent of Earth’s atmosphere.
However, most of organisms are unable to make use
of the free nitrogen directly but nitrogen-containing
compounds instead. Plants absorb nitrogencontaining compounds from the soil; animals obtain
nitrogen in the form of proteins in the foods they eat.
These proteins are broken down by digestion to
amino acids, which are then used in the synthesis of
animal proteins.
氮循环包括分解者和其它土壤细菌。图 8—8 标明 The nitrogen cycle involves decomposers and other
soil bacteria. Figure 8-8 shows the various
氮循环的各个环节，具体描述如下：
components of the nitrogen cycle, which are
described below.
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
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固氮细菌生活在豆科植物的根瘤内（根瘤菌），
把大气中的游离氮（N2）转化成被称为硝酸盐
（NO3）的含氮化合物。硝酸盐供植物吸收，合
成植物蛋白质。以植物为食料的动物，摄取植物
的蛋白质，经消化改造成为动物的蛋白质。活的
动物的含氮废物（氨、尿素、尿酸等），以及
动、植物的尸体中的蛋白质、核酸等含氮化合
物，被分解者分解和转化成氨或氨盐（NH3）。
土壤中的硝化细菌通过硝化作用把氨变成硝酸
盐，供植物吸收。脱氮（反硝化）细菌也可将部
分硝酸盐分解成为游离的氮，作为气体进入大气
中。
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which live in nodules inside
the roots of legumes, convert free nitrogen (N2) from
the atmosphere into nitrogen-containing compounds
called nitrates (NO3). Nitrate are absorbed from the
soil by plants and used in protein synthesis. Animals
that eat plants convert the nitrogen-containing plant
proteins into animal proteins. The nitrogenous wastes
of living animals, and the nitrogen compounds in the
remains of dead plants and animals, are broken down
by decomposers and converted to ammonia (NH3).
Nitrifying bacteria in the soil convert ammonia into
nitrates, which can be used again by plants.
Denitrifying bacteria break down some nitrates into
free nitrogen, which is released into the atmosphere
as a gas.
州统考题目：
Questions in Regents:
[2004 年 6 月]
[ June 2004 ]
Base your answers to questions 47 through 49 on the food
web and graph below and on your knowledge of biology.
The graph represents the interaction of two different
populations, A and B, in the food web.
请根据以下食物网和图表以及你的生物学知识回答第47 題
至第49 題 下图代表了兩个不同种群A和B在食物网中的相
互作用
O
O
47 Population A is made up of living animals. The
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
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47 种群A 由动物組成，种群B的成员以这些动物为食。 种
群B 的成员最可能是
(1) 腐食动物
(2) 自养生物
(3) 捕食者
(4) 寄生物
members of population B feed on these living animals.
The members of population B are most likely
(1) scavengers
(2) autotrophs
(3) predators
(4) parasites
48 从食物网中确定一种可能是种群A成员的异养生
物。
48 Identify one heterotroph from the food web that could
be a member of population A.
49 一个能量金字塔如下所示
49 An energy pyramid is shown below.
O
指出食物網中可能存在於等級 X 的一種生物體 o
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Identify one organism shown in the food web that would
be found at level X.
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8.3 生态演替
8.3 Ecological Succession
主要目的：
Key Objectives:
1. 解释下列术语：生态演替，优势种，顶极群落，
原生演替，及次生演替。
1. Define the following terms: ecological
succession, dominant species, climax
community, primary succession, and secondary
succession.
2. Describe primary succession on land leading to
development of a forest community.
3. Describe succession in lakes and ponds leading
to development of a forest community.
4. Describe a typical series of succession stages in
New York State.
Science Vocabulary:
2. 描述在陆地的原生演替导致了森林群落的发展。
3. 描述在湖与池塘的演替导致了森林群落的发展。
4. 描述在纽约州的特定系列的演替阶段。
科学词汇：
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
演替
原生演替
次生演替
火山爆发
大灾难
先驱物种
优势种
地衣
苔藓
灌木
针叶树
落叶林地
橡树
山核桃树
山毛榉
枫树
顶极群落
生物多样性
内容：
8.3.1
生态演替
尽管生态系统看上去没有变化，但它们的确随时
间而改变。当一个生态系统改变时，在这个生态
系统内原有的生物逐渐地被其牠种类的生物所取
代。原有的群落逐渐地被另一群落所替换的过程
叫做生态（或生物）演替。生态演替最终会导致
形成一个成熟的、稳定的群落。这种群落被称之
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
1. succession
2. primary succession
3. secondary succession
4. volcanic eruption
5. catastrophe
6. pioneer species
7. dominant species
8. lichen
9. moss
10. shrub
11. conifer
12. deciduous woodland
13. oak
14. hickory
15. beech
16. maple
17. climax community
18. biodiversity
Contents:
8.3.1
Ecological Succession
Although ecosystems appear unchanging, they do
undergo change with time. As an ecosystem changes,
the original organisms in the ecosystem are gradually
replaced by other types. The process by which an
existing community is gradually replaced by another
community is called ecological, or biological,
succession. Ecological succession eventually leads to
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为顶极群落。
the formation of a mature, stable community. Such a
community is called a climax community.
演替若发生在原来没有生物的地区，例如，在光
秃的岩石上，则被称之为原生演替。演替若发生
在这样一个地区，在此地区内原有的群落被部分
摧毁，平衡遭到破坏，这类演替则被称之为次生
演替。原生演替是一个很缓慢的过程，因为它必
须从形成土壤开始，这要经过几千年。次生演替
则发生在顶极群落被摧毁的地方。例如，在森林
大火，洪灾，及火山爆发摧毁了原有的顶极群落
后，一个新的演替将开始，最终结束于另一个森
林顶极群落。在次生演替中，该地区已经有了现
存的土壤。由于这顺序不必从形成土壤开始，此
过程比原生演替要快得多。一个顶极群落的重新
建立可能只需要几百年，不像原生演替那样要几
千年。
Succession that occurs in an area that has no existing
life, for example, on bare rock, is called primary
succession. Succession that occurs in an area in
which an existing community has been partially
destroyed and its balance upset is called secondary
succession. Primary succession is a very slow
process because it must begin with the formation of
soil over thousands of years. Secondary succession
occurs in areas in which the climax community has
been destroyed. For example, after forest fires,
floods, and volcanic eruptions that destroyed an
existing climax community, a new succession will
begin, ending eventually in another forest climax
community. In secondary succession, the area
already has existing soil. Since the sequence does not
begin with soil formation, the process is much faster
than primary succession. A climax community may
become reestablished after a few hundred years,
rather than the thousands originally needed for the
primary succession.
生态演替通常是一个发生许多年的、经过一系列
步骤或阶段的很长的过程。在每一生态演替的阶
段中，少数物种对环境及其他群落的成员起了巨
大的影响。这些物种叫做优势种。
8.3.2
陆地上的演替
陆地演替的第一阶段可从光秃的岩石开始。地衣
因为能够生长在光秃的岩石上，往往是第一批出
现的生物。第一批在给定地方居住的生物被称为
先驱物种。演替的每一阶段改变了环境。在东北
部包括纽约州陆地演替的一个特定序列的阶段很
可能是：
地衣  苔藓  草丛  灌木  针叶林地  落叶
林地
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Ecological succession is usually a long-term process,
happening over many years and occurs in a series of
steps or stages. During each stage of ecological
succession, a few species exert the greatest effect on
the environment and on other members of the
community. These species are called the dominant
species.
8.3.2
Succession on Land
The first stage in a land succession can begin with
bare rock. Lichens are usually one of the first
organisms to appear because they can live on bare
rock. The first organisms to populate a given location
are called pioneer organisms. Each stage in a
succession changes the environment. A typical
sequence of land succession stages in northeaster
area including New York State (see Figure 8-9)
might be as follows:
Lichens  Mosses  Grasses  Shrubs 
Coniferous woodlands  Deciduous woodlands
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8.3.3
湖与池塘中的演替
湖和池塘也可能经历生态演替的序列阶段，最终发展
成为一个森林顶极群落。这过程始于当沉淀物、落
叶、以及其它碎片逐渐积聚在湖底，使其变浅。环绕
湖边，根生植物长入浅水，牠们逐渐将湖岸往湖里延
伸，进一步缩小了湖面。经过漫长的时间，湖最终被
填满，形成了旱地。陆地群落取代了水生群落 （图
8-9）。
8.3.3
Succession in Lakes and Ponds
Lakes and ponds may also pass through stages of
ecological succession, eventually developing into a
forest climax community. The process begins when
sediment, fallen leaves, and other debris gradually
accumulate on the lake bottom, decreasing its depth.
Around the edges of the lake, many of the rooted
plants grow out into the shallower water. They
gradually extend the banks inward, further
decreasing the size of the lake. Over a long period of
time, the lake becomes filled, forming dry land. Land
communities replace the aquatic forms (Figure 8-9).
州统考题目：
Questions in Regents:
[2002 年 1 月]
31 生态系统被大火破坏之后最困难出现的是哪一
种情况？
(1) 生态系统将最终恢复其原来的状态。
(2) 生态系统将即刻恢复到其原来的状态。
(3) 生态系统将演化成一个完全不同于原来的新生
态系统。
(4) 生态系统将变成一个不断变化的不稳定的环
境。
[January 2002]
31 What would most likely occur after an ecosystem is
disrupted by fire?
(1) The ecosystem would eventually return to its
original state.
(2) The ecosystem would return to its previous state
immediately.
(3) The ecosystem would evolve into a new ecosystem
that is totally different from the original.
(4) The ecosystem would become an ever-changing
environment with no stability.
[2002 年 6 月]
下图表示演替阶段，请根据下图和你的生物学知识
回答 59 题到 62 题。
[June 2002]
Base your answers to questions 59 through 62 on the
diagrams of stages of succession below and on your
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Page 20
Draft_10_1_2010
knowledge of biology.
59 这些阶段的正确顺序是什么？
(1) B A D C
(3) C B A D
(2) A D C B
(4) D A C B
60 下列哪项陈述有助于说明这种类型的演替？
(1) 物种将取代物种，直至确立一个不稳定的生态
系统。
(2) 物种将被取代，直至确立一个稳定的生态系
统。
(3) 人类将取代所有物种，并填充所有生态位（小
生境）。
(4) 植物物种的改变只受该地区动物种类的控制。
61 上述阶段之间发生的变化最有可能使哪种生物
受到最大伤害？
(1) 树木
(3) 鱼
(2) 浣熊
(4) 兔
62 请指出一个可能破坏这个生态系统最终阶段的
因素。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
59 What is the correct sequence of these stages?
(1) B A D C
(3) C B A D
(2) A D C B
(4) D A C B
60 Which statement helps to explain this type of
succession?
(1) Species will replace species until an unstable
ecosystem is established.
(2) Species are replaced until a stable ecosystem is
established.
(3) Humans replace all species and fill all niches.
(4) Changes in plant species are controlled only by the
types of animals in an area.
61 Which organisms would most likely be harmed the
most by the changes that occurred between these
stages?
(1) trees
(3) fish
(2) raccoons
(4) rabbits
62 Identify one factor that could disrupt the final stage
of this ecosystem.
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8.4 人类与环境
8.4 Humans and the Environment
主要目的：
Key Objectives:
1．讨论人口控制对改善人们生活质量的重要性。
1. Discuss the importance of human population
control in improving the quality of human life.
2. Describe the human activities that have negative
effects on the environment.
3. Describe how urbanization and poor farming
practices have damaged the environment.
4. List the major types of air pollutants and describe
the ways in which they damage the environment
and/or human health.
5. List the major types of water pollutants and
describe the ways in which they damage the
environment and/or human health.
6. Discuss the problem of land pollution.
7. Describe the problems due to using chemical
pesticides and from the importation of organisms
into new environments.
8. Describe the human activities that have positive
effects on the environment.
Science Vocabulary:
2．描述人类对环境造成负面影响的活动。
3．描述城市化与低劣的耕作方式如何已经损害了
环境。
4．列举空气污染物的主要类别以及它们破坏环境
和人们健康的途径。
5．列举水污染物的主要类别以及它们破坏环境和
人们健康的途径。
6．讨论土地污染的问题。
7．描述由于使用化学杀虫剂以及将生物引进新环
境所造成的问题。
8．描述人类对环境造成正面影响的活动。
科学词汇：
1． 限制因素
2． 负载能力
3． 农业
4． 绿色革命
5． 单一栽培
6． 可再生资源
7． 不可再生资源
8． 可持续的使用
9． 土壤侵蚀
10． 肥料
11． 砍伐森林
12． 重新造林
13． 沙漠化
14． 城市化
15． 水产业
16． 烟雾
17． 污染
18． 污染物
19． 酸雨
20． 磷
21． 重金属
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
1. limiting factor
2. carry capacity
3. agriculture
4. green revolution
5. monoculture
6. renewable natural resource
7. nonrenewable natural resource
8. sustainable use
9. soil erosion
10. fertilizer
11. deforestation
12. reforestation
13. desertification
14. urbanization
15. aquaculture
16. smog
17. pollution
18. pollutant
19. acid rain
20. phosphate
21. heavy metal (e.g. lead)
22. PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyl)
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22．
23．
24．
25．
26．
27．
28．
29．
30．
31．
32．
33．
34．
35．
36．
37．
38．
39．
40．
41．
42．
43．
44．
45．
46．
47．
48．
49．
50．
51．
52．
53．
54．
55．
聚氯联苯
毒素
热污染
污水
矿物燃料
硫磺酸
一氧化碳
碳氢化合物
野生生物
濒危物种
绝种
过渡打猎
过渡捕鱼
过渡放牧
开采
日本甲壳虫
舞毒蛾
斑马贝
象牙
耗竭
臭氧保护层
二氧化硫
温室效应
全球暖化
喷雾剂
杀生物剂
杀虫剂
除草剂
残余
滴滴涕（一种化学杀虫剂）
有害废物
保存
物种保护
生物防治
23. toxin
24. thermal pollution
25. sewage
26. fossil fuels
27. sulfuric acid
28. carbon monoxide
29. hydrocarbon
30. wildlife
31. endangered species
32. extinction
33. overhunting
34. overfishing
35. overgrazing
36. exploitation
37. Japanese beetle
38. Gypsy moth
39. zebra mussel
40. ivory tusk
41. depletion
42. ozone shield
43. sulfur dioxide
44. green house effect
45. global warming
46. aerosol
47. biocide
48. pesticide
49. herbicide
50. residue
51. DDT
52. hazardous waste
53. conservation
54. species preservation
55. biological control
内容：
Contents:
人类像所有生物一样，是地球自然生态系统中的
一部分。我们依赖我们的生态系统提供给我们吃
的食物，饮的水，和我们呼吸的空气。只有我们
的生态系统正常运作，这些基本的资源是可以得
到的。然而，又不像任何其他生物，人类有能力
去改变环境。在过去的几个世纪中，不断增加的
人口的活动已经对自然环境有了巨大的影响。人
Like all living things, humans are part of Earth’s
natural ecosystems. We depend on our ecosystem to
supply the food we eat, the water we drink, and the
air we breathe. As long as our ecosystem functions
normally, those essential resources will be available.
However, unlike any other living things, human have
the ability to change the environment. The activities
of a growing human population have had a
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Page 23
Draft_10_1_2010
类为了自身的利益有系统地改变了环境。在过
去，绝大多数的这种改变有着负面的影响。然而
近年来，人们试图纠正过去的滥用。
tremendous impact on the natural environment over
the past several centuries. Human beings have
systematically altered that environment for their own
ends. In the past most of this alteration have had
negative effects. In recent years, however, there has
been an attempt to correct some of the abuses of the
past.
8.4.1 负的方面
8.4.1
某些人类的活动已经打破了生态系统的自然平
衡。这些活动已经对一个或更多个生物或非生物
的因素带来了不良的和长期的改变，祸害人类以
及其牠生物。
Some human activities have upset the natural balance
of ecosystems. These activities have brought about
undesirable and lasting changes in one or more of the
biotic or abiotic factors in some ecosystems, harming
humans and other living things.
A． 人口的增长
地球上的人口正在快速增长（图 8-10）。这增长
的主要因素是由于医学的进步增加了人类的存活
率和延长了人的平均寿命。在世界的大部分，人
口增长不再象以往那样受到疾病的限制。然而，
在许多地方，人口的增长远超过食物的生产能
力，从而导致了饥饿与饥荒。另外，随着人口的
增长，更多人迁入和改变了荒野地方，导致野生
生物自然栖息地的流失。
B．人类的活动
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Negative Aspects
A. Human Population Growth
The human population of Earth is increasing at a
rapid rate (Figure 8-10). A major factor in this
increase involves medical advances that have
increased human survival rates and the average life
span. In most parts of the world, population growth is
no longer limited by disease to the extent that it was
in the past. However, in many places, the population
has grown faster than the food-producing capacity,
resulting in hunger and starvation. In addition, as the
human population grows, more people move into and
alter wilderness areas, resulting in a loss of natural
habitat for wildlife.
B. Human Activities
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有些人类活动已经导致了许多种类的动物和植物
的濒危和灭绝，也给很多的物种带来不利的生活
条件。这些活动包括过度捕猎、生物引进、野生
生物的开采、低劣的耕种行为，以及科技上的疏
忽。
Some human activities have led to the endangerment
or extinction of numerous species of plants and
anima1s, and also have produced less favorable
living conditions for many species. Such activities
include over-hunting, importation of organisms, and
exploitation of wild organisms, poor land-use
practices, and technological oversights.
现在还发生在世界许多地方的无限制的捕猎、渔
猎、诱捕，已经使得某些物种的绝种以及其它物
种的濒危。几种脊椎动物，例如候鸽和斯特勒海
牛，已经被捕杀至绝种，数以百计的动物目前被
列为濒临灭亡或濒临灭绝，就是由于这些人类活
动的结果。
Uncontrolled hunting, fishing, and trapping, which
still occur in many parts of the world, have resulted
in the extinction of some species and the
endangerment of others. Several vertebrate species,
such as the passenger pigeon and Steller's sea cow,
have been hunted to extinction already; hundreds of
other animals are currently listed as threatened or
endangered as a result of such human activities.
人们有意或无意地把一些物种引入到牠们没有天
敌或没有竞争的地区。这些被引进的物种数目大
量增加，导致原有生态系统的破坏。那些已经造
成严重破坏的外来物种包括欧洲星椋鸟、日本甲
虫、舞毒蛾、斑马贻贝，以及不少例如千屈菜等
的植物物种。因为很少动物去吃牠，这类植物生
长异常旺盛，并压抑了本土植物的生长，以至于
生物多样化的破坏。
Humans have both accidentally and intentionally
imported species into areas where they have no
natural enemies or competition. These imported
organisms have increased in numbers, leading to the
disruption of existing ecosystems. Imported
organisms that have caused serious damage include
the European starling, Japanese beetle, gypsy moth,
zebra mussel, and various plant species, such as the
purple loosestrife. This plant thrives in the wild
because few animals eat it; and it out-competes
native plant species, resulting in a loss of
biodiversity.
为了自身的需要，人们已经滥采植物、滥捕动物
已经有好几世纪了，这往往对野生种群有着负面
的影响。例如，对热带雨林的大量砍伐或滥伐森
林，导致了野生生物栖息地的丧失以及表土的流
失；大象和海象被过度捕杀为了获取牠们的象
牙；热带雨林的鹦鹉和猴子被捕获后当宠物来贩
卖。
People have exploited plants and animals for their
own use for centuries, often with negative impacts on
wild populations. For example, the extensive cutting
down, or deforestation, of tropical rain forests has led
to habitat loss for wildlife and erosion of topsoil;
elephants and walrus have been over-hunted for their
ivory tusks; tropical parrots and monkeys have been
captured and sold as pets.
城市与市郊日益增加的建筑物减少了耕地面积和
自然栖息地，严重威胁了各类本土植物和动物物
种的生存。过度放牧与低劣的耕作行为造成了珍
贵的土壤养分和表土的流失和耗竭。
The increased building of cities and suburbs has
reduced the amount of farmland and natural habitats,
threatening the existence of various native plant and
animal species. Overgrazing and poor agricultural
practices have caused valuable soil nutrients and
topsoil to be lost, or depleted.
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Page 25
Draft_10_1_2010
有些科技的发展造成了空气、土地、以及水的污
染。在许多地区，来自家庭、工厂、和农场的化
学废物污染了水。主要的化学废物包括磷、重金
属、以及聚氯联苯（一种工业附属产品）。来自
工厂和废物存储区的放射性材料被丢弃或泄漏到
水源。这些化学和放射性废物是有毒的，会伤害
人类和野生生物。
Some technological developments have contributed
to the pollution of air, land, and water. In many areas,
chemical wastes from homes, factories, and
farmlands have polluted the water. Major chemical
wastes include phosphates, heavy metals, and PCBs
(an industrial by-product). Radioactive materials
have been dumped or have leaked into the water
supply from factories and waste-storage areas. Such
chemical and radioactive wastes are toxins that can
cause harm to people and wildlife alike.
当来自河流的水被用来工厂的冷却后通过排水沟
排回到河流后温度增加，引起热污染。含有害细
菌的未处理过的污水被排放到河流和海洋。水污
染物杀死了鱼和其它动物以及植物。
The increased temperature, or thermal pollution, of
river water occurs when water is taken from a river
and used for cooling in factories and then returned to
the waterway. Untreated sewage, which contains
harmful bacteria, has been dumped into rivers and
oceans. Water pollutants have killed fish and other
animals, as well as plant life.
来自于工厂、汽车、以及其它地方经燃烧矿物燃
料所产生的废气污染了空气。主要的空气污染物
包括二氧化碳、一氧化碳、碳氢化合物、及颗粒
物质。大气中二氧化碳和其它温室气体不断增加
的程度已经关联到全球暖化。（热带雨林的破坏
也使得大气中二氧化碳的增加，因为越来越少的
树吸入二氧化碳。）使用在喷雾剂中的化合物已
经减弱了地球的臭氧保护层，以至于更多的紫外
辐射穿过大气层，造成对植物和动物的伤害。一
氧化氮和二氧化硫是气体污染物，两者与大气中
的水汽结合形成酸。这些酸的降落，叫酸雨，会
杀害植物，降低湖泊和池塘的酸碱度，从而伤害
或杀死水生生物。
用来杀死害虫和防止杂草生长的几种生物杀灭剂
（杀虫剂和除草剂）对环境有着负面的影响。生
物杀灭剂污染了土壤、空气、及水的供应。它们
被使用后的化学残留物还进入了食物链，造成对
某些生物的伤害，从而破坏了整个食物网。例
如，杀虫剂滴滴涕关联到美国白头鹰和游隼生殖
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Exhaust gases from the burning of fossil fuels in
factories, automobiles, and other places have polluted
the air. The major air pollutants include carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and
particulate matter. The increasing levels of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere have been linked to global warming
trends. (The destruction of rain forests also adds to an
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, because
there are fewer trees taking in the gas.) Compounds
used in aerosol sprays have weakened Earth's ozone
shield, allowing more ultraviolet radiation to
penetrate the atmosphere, causing harm to both
plants and animals. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur
dioxides are gaseous pollutants that combine with
water vapor in the atmosphere, forming acids.
Precipitation of these acids, called acid rain, kills
plants and lowers the pH of lakes and ponds, thereby
harming and killing aquatic wildlife.
Several biocides (pesticides and herbicides) that are
used to kill insects and to prevent the growth of
weeds have had negative effects on the environment.
Biocides have contaminated the soil, air, and water
supplies. The residue, or chemical remains, of their
use has also entered food chains and caused harm to
Page 26
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系统功能丧失及种群数量的减少。美国已经禁止
使用这种杀虫剂，白头鹰和游隼的数量现在有所
增加。
some organisms, thereby disrupting whole food
webs. For example, the pesticide DDT was linked to
reproductive failure and population decrease among
bald eagles and peregrine falcons. Its use has been
banned in the United States, and eagle and falcon
populations are now on the increase.
科技的发展导致了固体、化学、及核废料的增
加。处理这些大多数是高毒性的废料，是个主要
的问题。再有，随着垃圾场的爆满与关闭，处理
生活垃圾正成为一个问题。
Technological developments have resulted in the
increased production of solid, chemical, and nuclear
wastes. Disposal of these wastes, many of them
highly toxic, is a major problem. In addition, disposal
of household garbage is becoming a problem, as
more landfills are filled to capacity and shut down.
8.4.2 正的方面
8.4.2
人们对他们的某些活动所造成的对环境的负面影
响正日益觉醒。因此，他们正在做很多努力来纠
正过去所造成的破坏以及消除将来有害的影响。
People are becoming increasingly aware of the
negative effects of some of their activities on the
environment. As a result, they are making many
efforts to correct past damage and avoid future
harmful effects.
人口控制。限制人口高速增长的措施已经在并将
继续在实行。例如在一些国家，限制家庭人口的
政策已经被采纳。同时，很多人做出他们自己的
选择，通过节育措施来避孕，以达到限制后代的
数量。
Population Control. Methods for limiting the high
rate of human population growth have been, and
continue to be, developed. For example, in some
countries, policies have been adopted to limit family
size. Also, many people make their own choice to
limit the number of offspring they have by using
birth -control methods to prevent conception.
资源保护。业已采取措施来保护水、矿物燃料
（油、煤、和天然气），以及其它自然资源（譬
如树与野生生物）。重新造林项目有助于防止树
木的进一步减少。这对环境很利，因为树可以固
定表土以及从大气中吸入多余的二氧化碳。种植
覆盖作物也可以帮助固定表土。人们现在正意识
到回收各种材料的经济与环境的利益。在许多城
市已经实施了法律，让人们回收那些过去被丢弃
和被扔到垃圾场的家庭用品。不遵守这些法律者
会被处以严厉的罚金和惩罚。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Positive Aspects
Conservation of Resources. Measures have been
taken to conserve water, fossil fuels (oil, coal, and
natural gas), and other natural resources (such as
trees and wildlife). Reforestation projects help
prevent further loss of trees. This is good for the
environment because trees hold topsoil in place and
take in excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Planting of cover crops helps conserve topsoil, too.
People are now realizing the economic and
environmental benefits of recycling various
materials, such as paper, metals, glass, and plastic. In
many cities, laws have been enacted to make people
recycle household items that used to be thrown away
and dumped into landfills. Failure to comply with
such laws can result in stiff fines and penalties.
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污染控制。控制空气和水污染的法律已经被通
过。用以限制汽车和工厂污染的新技术、更好的
环境卫生和有害废物的处理，已经被开发。近年
来，被称为混合型的新型汽车被开发出来，这种
车结合汽油和电作为动力。广泛使用这些车辆将
最终减少空气污染以及我们对矿物燃料的依赖。
Pollution Control. Laws have been passed to control
the pollution of air and water. New techniques for
limiting pollution from cars and factories, and for
better sanitation and disposal of hazardous wastes,
have been developed. In recent years, new types of
automobiles called hybrids have been developed that
use a combination of gasoline and electricity for
power. The widespread use of these vehicles could
eventually decrease pollution of the air and our
dependence on fossil fuels.
物种保存。濒危物种正在受到保护，为增加牠们
在野生和人工饲养的种群数量的努力正在进行。
这通过人工繁殖项目、保护野生栖息地、以及建
立野生动物保护区和国家公园来完成。
Species Preservation. Endangered species are being
protected, and efforts are being undertaken to
increase their populations in the wild and in
captivity. This is accomplished through captive
breeding programs, protection of wild habitats, and
the establishment of wildlife refuges and national
parks. Management of various forms of wildlife also
includes laws that regulate hunting and fishing.
Examples of animals that are, or were, endangered
but are now increasing in numbers include the
American bison, alligator, whooping crane, fur seal,
and bald eagle. However, the future of many species
is still very much in doubt.
濒危动物或曾是濒危但现在数量有所增加的动物
的例子包括美国野牛、鳄鱼、美洲鹤、海豹、和
白头鹰。但是，许多物种的将来还是非常令人担
忧。
生物防治。虫害的生物防治减少了使用化学杀虫
剂。生物防治的一个方法包括使用性激素来吸引
和诱捕害虫。生物防治的另一方法则使用能杀死
害虫的自然寄生虫。与化学方法相比，生物防治
方法更少影响到对人类有益的物种、破坏食物
网、或污染土地。
Biological Control. Biological control of insect pests
reduces the use of chemical pesticides. One method
of biological control involves the use of sex
hormones to attract and trap insect pests. Another
method of biological control involves the use of
natural parasites that kill harmful insects. Biological
control methods are less likely than chemical
methods to affect species that are beneficial to
humans, disrupt food webs, or contaminate the land.
州统考题目：
Questions in Regents:
[2002 年 1 月]
32 空气中日益增多的二氧化碳被归就与汽车排出
的废气。有些科学家认为空气中增加的二氧化碳
将导致
(1) 全球变暖
(2) 增加生物多样性
(3) 生境保护
(4) 破坏臭氧层
[January 2002]
32 Car exhaust has been blamed for increasing the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air. Some scientists
believe this additional carbon dioxide in the air may
cause
(1) global warming
(2) increased biodiversity
(3) habitat preservation
(4) ozone destruction
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
Page 28
Draft_10_1_2010
33 下列哪一句陈述说明人类活动能最直接地改变
生态系统的动态平衡？
(1) 飓风使河水泛滥。
(2) 强风使植物的水分加速挥发。
(3) 水质污染使河里的鱼日趋减少。
(4) 臭氧保护层有助于防止有害的辐射射到地球表
面。
34 有些工厂对地球上的生态系统有负面影响，因
为它们
(1) 需要使用矿物燃料和核燃料等巨大能量
(2) 利用农业技术减少土壤侵蚀
(3) 减少对有限资源的需求
(4) 限制每年产生的排放量
[2002 年 6 月]
31 哪一项人类活动将对氧—二氧化碳循环产生最
直接的影响？
(1) 降低生态演替率
(2) 减少用水量
(3) 破坏大片森林
(4) 执行禁止使用含铅汽油的法律
67 请从下面的列表中选择一种生态问题。
生态问题
全球变暖
臭氧层遭到破坏
生物多样性受损
请论述你选择的生态问题。在你的答案中，请务
必说明：
 所选择的问题，以及可能导致该问题的一种人
类行为
 该物体可能对人类产生负面影响的一个方面
 为缓解该问题，可采取的一种积极行动
68 为了控制舞毒蛾(gypsy moth)对城市公园的侵
袭，可采取多种可行方法。以下列出了几种选
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
33 Which statement illustrates how human activities
can most directly change the dynamic equilibrium of an
ecosystem?
(1) A hurricane causes a stream to overflow its banks.
(2) Increased wind increases water evaporation from a
plant.
(3) Water pollution causes a decrease in fish
populations in a river.
(4) The ozone shield helps prevent harmful radiation
from reaching the surface of Earth.
34 Some factories have a negative impact on Earth’s
ecosystems because they
(1) have high energy demands that require the use of
fossil fuels and nuclear fuels
(2) utilize agricultural technology that decreases soil
erosion
(3) decrease the need for finite resources
(4) limit the amount of emissions produced each year
[June 2002]
31 Which human activity would have the most direct
impact on the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle?
(1) reducing the rate of ecological succession
(2) decreasing the use of water
(3) destroying large forest areas
(4) enforcing laws that prevent the use of leaded
gasoline
67 Choose one ecological problem from the list below.
Ecological Problems
Global warming
Destruction of the ozone shield
Loss of biodiversity
Discuss the ecological problem you chose. In your
answer be sure to state:
• the problem you selected and one human action that
may have caused the problem
• one way in which the problem may negatively affect
humans
• one positive action that could be taken to reduce the
problem
68 There are a number of possible methods to control
an invasion of gypsy moths in a city park. Several
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择：
A 可在每棵树的树干周围绑上某种材料，以防止
幼虫爬上树干。每天，可用手摘除幼虫，并将它
们杀死。
B 可用飞机喷洒化学杀虫剂。这种化学药剂非常
有效且能够迅速挥发，尽管其中一部分可能会流
入池塘和湖水中。
C 可用一种含有自生性细菌的液体喷洒树木，这
种细菌以舞毒蛾为食。据信，这些细菌是无害
的，但这种喷剂非常昂贵。
D 不采取任何行动。这种方法任其自然发展，但
这会导致相关地区发生重大变化。所受到的破坏
以后可得到修复。
请写下你想用的方法的字母编号，并提供一个生
态学角度的合理原因，解释你的选择。
ALBETAC Bilingual Study Notes
Living Environment – High School
alternatives are listed below.
A A band of material can be placed around each tree
trunk, preventing the larvae from crawling up the trunk.
The larvae can be picked off by hand each day and
destroyed.
B A chemical insecticide can be sprayed from an
airplane. The chemical is effective and disappears
rapidly, although some may run off into ponds and
lakes.
C The trees can be sprayed with a liquid containing
naturally occurring bacteria that feed on gypsy moths.
These bacteria are believed to be harmless, but the
spray is very expensive.
D No action is taken. This allows nature to take its
course, which results in major changes in the area
concerned. The damage can then be repaired.
Write the letter of the method you would use and give
an ecologically sound reason for your choice.
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