A review of the potential constraints to crop
production on sandy soils in low rainfall southeastern Australia and priorities for research
A report for the GRDC Low Rainfall Zone Regional Cropping Solutions Network
31 July 2014
Murray Unkovich
School Agriculture, Food and Wine
The University of Adelaide
Citation;
Unkovich, MJ (2014) A review of the potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils in low
rainfall south-eastern Australia and priorities for research. A technical report for the Grains Research and
Development Corporation. Mallee Sustainable Farming, Mildura NSW.
Mallee Sustainable Farming Inc
152 Pine Avenue, Mildura, Vic, 3500
Phone: (03) 5021 9100
Email: [email protected]
PO Box 5093, Mildura, Vic, 3502
ABN: 99 557 839 332
This review has been written through funding provided by Grains Research & Development Corporation.
Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to the large number of people who have very kindly assisted with input for this report
in the form of the provision of data or their expertise. In no particular order I would like to thank the
following
Craig Liddicoat (Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, SA), Stephen Davies, Chris
Gazey (Department of Agriculture and Food, WA), Therese McBeath, Rick Llewellyn, Phil Ward, Mike
Wong, Margaret Roper (CSIRO), Richard MacEwan (Department of Environment and Primary
Industries, Vic,), Bob Holloway (Mintaro, South Australia), Sean Mason, Ashlea Doolette, Ann McNeill,
Cameron Grant, Fien Degryse, David Chittleborough (University of Adelaide), Alan MacKay, Nigel
Wilhelm (South Australian Research and Development Institute), Michael Moodie (Moodie Agronomy),
Rob Norton (International Plant Nutrition Institute), Brian Hughes, Dave Davenport and Amanda Schapel
(Primary Industries and Regions, SA), Neil Fettell (NSW). I would also like to acknowledge the
enthusiastic input from all of the attendees at the Sandy Soils workshop.
Foreword
The GRDC Low Rainfall Zone Cropping Solutions Network represents grain grower stretching from the
Central West of NSW, across the Victorian and South Australian Mallee, the Upper North region of
South Australia and across to the upper Eyre Peninsula. The group identified crop yields on sandy soils
across their regions to be well below water-limited yield potential, more so than for their finer textured
soils. The group determined that identifying the key yield limiting factors specific to representative sandy
soil types in the low-rainfall zone, and then to develop or extend commercially viable management
practices to improve production and water use on sandy soils was a high priority. This document begins
to tackle the first of these two issues, identifying key yield limiting factors on sandy soils, by collating
and analysing as much of the relevant information available in solution of sub optimal growth of crops
on coarse textured (sandy) soils across this low rainfall environment. The problems of sandy soils have
been apparent since agricultural lands were first cleared, but have perhaps been somewhat neglected in
favour of other soils which are easier to manage and are typically more productive. This initiative has
now put the considerable problems of farming sandy soils on the agenda, and with it great hope and
expectation for identification of new farming practices and technologies which will lift production on
these difficult soils and provide an incentive for more certain investment and returns on these soils. The
gap between potential and current yields achieved highlights an opportunity which if realised, will make a
substantial contribution to improved whole farm productivity. This report provides the foundation stone
for this journey.
Respectfully submitted
Murray Unkovich
31 July 2014
A review of the potential constraints to crop
production on sandy soils in low rainfall southeastern Australia and priorities for research
Contents
1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1
2
Sandy soils, general properties and challenges..................................................................................... 3
2.1
3
Where do they occur in the target region? .................................................................................... 5
Potential limitations to crop growth in coarse textured soils ................................................................ 8
3.1
Water repellency ........................................................................................................................... 9
3.2
Soil pH ........................................................................................................................................ 12
3.3
Soil erosion ................................................................................................................................. 13
3.4
Crop root growth and water extraction ....................................................................................... 14
Deep ripping to increase rooting depth of crops ................................................................................. 19
3.5
Soil amelioration with clay or organic matter ............................................................................ 22
3.6
Crop nutrition ............................................................................................................................... 1
Nitrogen and sulphur ............................................................................................................................ 1
Phosphorus ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Potassium.............................................................................................................................................. 7
Micronutrients ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Deep placement of nutrients ................................................................................................................. 9
Nutrition summary.............................................................................................................................. 10
3.7
Soil carbon and biological fertility ............................................................................................. 10
3.8
Pests and diseases on sandy soils ............................................................................................... 11
3.9
Weeds and herbicides ................................................................................................................. 13
4
Water use efficiency as a measure of productivity ............................................................................. 14
5
System effects ..................................................................................................................................... 17
6
Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 19
7
References .......................................................................................................................................... 22
8
Appendix 1 – Workshop summary ..................................................................................................... 27
Phil Ward ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Neil Fettell .......................................................................................................................................... 34
Jeff Braun ........................................................................................................................................... 34
Andy Bates ......................................................................................................................................... 34
Workshop outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 35
9
Appendix 2 - Example soil descriptions ............................................................................................. 38
9.1
Murray Mallee ............................................................................................................................ 39
9.2
Eyre Peninsula ............................................................................................................................ 51
Index of Figures
Figure 1
Cropping zones of Australia. The region of interest in the present study is labelled in the figure as the “SA
Vic Mallee”. .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Figure 2
Relatively recent erosive forces have shaped many of the sandy rises in the Mallee regions. Here one can
see a second fence erected on top of the earlier fence, the barbed wire stand at the bottom being the top
strand of the earlier fence. In some cases a third fence has been erected. This erosion and deposition has
created soils extremely low in organic matter. ............................................................................................ 3
Figure 3
Areas in western Victoria where the soil is (A) predominantly sand (<15% clay), or (B) where sand occurs
but is is subdominant in the soil profile. The Victorian Mallee is defined within the upper solid black
boundary. Maps courtesy of Department of Environment and Primary Industries Victoria. ....................... 5
Figure 4
Areas of agricultural land in western Victoria indicated in yellow. The Victorian Mallee is defined within
the upper solid black boundary. Maps courtesy of Department of Environment and Primary Industries
Victoria. ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 5
Occurrence of sands over clays in South Australian agricultural lands. Map courtesy of Dept Environment,
Water and Natural Resources SA. ................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 6
Occurrence of deep sands in South Australian agricultural lands. Map courtesy of Dept Environment,
Water and Natural Resources SA. ................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 7
A sandy soil profile from Rankins Springs in central western NSW (photo courtesy of Michael Pfitzner).... 8
Figure 8
Comparison of the crop lower limit of water extraction and the drained upper limit in a toposequence
within a single field at Karoonda South Australia. The plant available water capacity of the soil ranged
from 31mm on the dune crest (A) to at least 116mm on the clayey soil on the adjacent flat (C). Figure
courtesy of Therese McBeath, CSIRO. ........................................................................................................ 15
Figure 9
A sandy soil from Rankins Springs in central western NSW where water has been onserved remaining in
soils after crop harvest (photo courtesty of Michael Pfitzner). .................................................................. 17
Figure 10 Change in penetration resistance of a sandy soil with depth, following deep (0.6m) ripping at Loxton in
South Australia (from Sadras et al. 2005). ................................................................................................. 20
Figure 11 Exposure of an impenetrable layer in a sandy soil at Corrigin in Western Australia. The furrows in the
compacted layer are from earlier deep ripping. Photo courtesy of Dr Chris Gazey, Department of
Agriculture and Food Western Australia.................................................................................................... 20
Figure 12 Clay delving (left) and (right) a spading machine for clay incorporation into a sandy surface soil .......... 22
Figure 13 Total nitrogen (%) in the top 10 cm of dune and swale soils at three sites in north west Victoria. The soil
at the Karawinna site is a sandy across the whole site (From Moodie 2012b). ........................................... 2
Figure 14 Mineralisable nitrogen in dune and swale soils at sowing of a second wheat crop in 2012, following a
range of of break crops two years previous at Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee. The
toposequence runs up a slope from a clay flat (Swale) to a sandy rise (Dune) . (from McBeath et al.
2013c). ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 15 Crop grain yield response to N fertiliser application for a fifth (A) or seventh (B) consecutive wheat crop in
a toposequence at Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee (from McBeath et al. 2011 and McBeath et
al. 2013b). .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 16 Fixation of soil P as a function of soil pH. (Adapted from Glendinning 1999) .............................................. 6
Figure 17 Variation in proportion of available Phosphorus with depth as a function of landscape position and soil
type in a single field at Karoonda, South Australia (data courtesy of S. Mason, University of Adelaide). ... 7
Figure 18 Organic carbon (%) in the top 10 cm of dune and swale soils at three sites in north west Victoria. The
Karawinna site is a sandy across the whole field. Data from Moodie (2012b). ........................................ 11
Figure 19 Change in Rhizoctonia (R. solani AG8) DNA density in soil under different crop rotations over the summer
fallow period at Waikerie in the Murray Mallee. Clouds indicate rain events and arrows tillage events
(from Gupta et al. 2010). ........................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 20 Rhizoctonia solani (AG8) inocula concentrations under a range of crops (following wheat) across the
toposequence at Karoonda (from Gupta et al. 2012b). ............................................................................. 12
Figure 21 Average weekly open pan evaporation and average weekly rainfall totals for Walpeup, in the Victorian
Mallee. ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 22 Relationship between (A) evaporation from soil, plant transpiration and seasonal dry matter (DM)
production, and (B) transpiration efficiency and dry matter production or grain yield (GY), and (C)
introduction of radiation limited growth at luxury water supply. ............................................................. 15
Figure 23 Break crop effects (t/ha) reported by farmers in the Victorian Mallee following canola or pulse crops on
dunes (sand), mid-slope (loam) or heavy (swale) soils. ............................................................................. 18
Figure 24 Opportunities for mitigating current constraints and bringing crop yields closer to water limited yield
potentials on sandy soils, and for soil reformation through more radical amelioration strategies........... 35
Index of Tables
Table 1
Approximate physical properties of some soil classes based on sand and clay content (adapted from
Brady and Weil 1999) ................................................................................................................................... 4
Table 2
Areas of sandy soils (ha) in South Australian agricultural lands of the Murray Darling Basin and the Eyre
Peninsula ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 3
Comparison of wheat anthesis shoot dry matter and grain yield for crops grown on sandhill or interdune
soils at Walpeup, Victoria (from Walsh 1995).............................................................................................. 9
Table 4
Water repellency as a function of landscape position and soil type in a single field at Karoonda, South
Australia. (data courtesy of T. McBeath CSIRO). ........................................................................................ 10
Table 5
Soil bulk density and pH as a function of soil depth and landscape position for a single field at Karoonda,
South Australia. (Data courtesy of T. McBeath CSIRO) .............................................................................. 12
Table 6
Shoot and root dry weights for barley grown in pots containing unamended soils sourced from different
depths from a sandhill profile at Walpeup, Victoria (from Walsh 1995) ................................................... 13
Table 7
Plant available water capacity (mm) for wheat crops across a paddock toposequence at different sites in
the SE Australian Mallee. Data from Moodie 2010). ................................................................................. 16
Table 8
Analysis of non-wetting soils prior to clay addition (A) or after clay addition (B) in the south Australian
Murray Mallee. (from Eldridge and Hughes 2006) ....................................................................................... 1
Table 9
Macronutrients in a sandhill soil profile at Walpeup, Victoria. from Walsh (1995) ..................................... 1
Table 17 Anthesis dry matter and grain yield for barley grown in different landscape position at Walpeup, Victoria
(from Walsh 1995) ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 10 Plant available (mineral) nitrogen (kg/ha) at sowing of a seventh consecutive wheat crop in 2012 at
Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee (from McBeath et al. 2013b). ..................................................... 3
Table 11 Plant available (mineral) nitrogen (kg /ha) in the top 1m of soil at sowing for consecutive wheat crops at
Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee. Annual N fertiliser rates applied after soil sampling are given in
parentheses. (data from T McBeath, CSIRO). ............................................................................................... 4
Table 12 Soil nitrate-N (kg N/ha) in a toposequence at Karoonda at sowing of a wheat crop in 2010(from McBeath
et al. 2011) ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Table 13 Soil fertility indicators as a function of landscape position and soil type in a single field at Karoonda,
South Australia. (data courtesy of T. McBeath CSIRO). ................................................................................ 6
Table 14 Variation in Phosphorus buffering index with depth as a function of landscape position and soil type in a
single field at Karoonda, South Australia (data courtesy S. Mason, University of Adelaide). ...................... 7
Table 15 Risk of micronutrient deficiency for Australian soil orders. From Norton (2013). ........................................ 8
Table 16 Shoot dry matter and grain yield of wheat as a function of landscape position and soil type in a single
field at Karoonda, South Australia (from Whitbread et al. 2010) .............................................................. 16
Table 18 Percentage of cropping area sown to cereals, grain legumes or canola in the 2011 agricultural census . 19
Table 19 List of attendees at the workshop on potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils in low
rainfall south-eastern Australia and priorities for research. ................................................................... 27
Table 20 Comments on original scoping paper primary recommendations as follows ......................................... 29
Table 21 Research questions raised by workshop participants in relation to mitigation of problems of crop
production on sandy soils ......................................................................................................................... 30
Table 22 Extension questions raised by workshop participants in relation to mitigation of problems of crop
production on sandy soils ......................................................................................................................... 31
Table 23 Questions raised by workshop participants in relation to amelioration of sandy soils with clay and/or
organic matter amendments .................................................................................................................... 32
Executive summary
Coarse textured (sandy) soils which by definition have a very low clay content represent approximately
30% of cropping soils in the low rainfall SE Australian cropping region. An area which is characterised
by low rainfall and low fertility soils. Opportunities for increasing crop production are probably
substantial on these soils because crop yields appear to be well below the water-limited potential.
Significant soil constraints might be overcome with judicious management informed by solid science.
The primary opportunities lie in a better understanding of soil water extraction by crop roots, and the
nutrient dynamics associated with water movement within the crop root zone. Crop nutrition and crop
rotations will also play a key role in lifting crop root growth in time and in space and thereby increase
total crop water and nutrient use. Soil compaction, either natural or traffic induced may be a significant
limitation, the extent and causes of which need to be ascertained. If these opportunities can be realised
then soil organic matter may be raised on sands, providing significant whole system benefits.
The primary challenges on coarse textured soils in low rainfall SE Australia are thus:

ensuring that crops grown have deep rooting capacity and deep rooting opportunity

ensure that nutrients are accessible within the crop rooting zone

that crop rotations include more frequent broad leaf species

the movement of water and nutrients down the soil profile are understood to the extent that they
can be predicted

the extent of non-wetting and high soil resistance to root growth across the region are better
defined

the specific causes of high soil resistance to root growth are identified

to increase soil organic matter and thereby improve chemical, biological and physical fertility
Further opportunities in revolutionary soil amelioration, involving additions and incorporation of clay and
organic matter to soils have been trialed by many farmers and offer the possibility of a more elevated crop
yield plateau. Considerable research would be required to provide predictive capacity with respect to the
efficacy of these practices and thus the returns on the substantial investment required to deploy these onfarm. In the meantime the challenges listed above can be progressed with a combination of basic,
strategic and applied research, and adaptation and extension of existing technology from elsewhere in
Australia.
Raised Soil Potential
Establishment
Nutrition
Weeds
Disease
Rotations
AMELIORATION BY
$
Claying
Delving
Deep ripping
Soil reforming
Deep nutrients
Inherent Sand Potential
$
MITIGATION OF
Poor root growth
Water repellency
Low fertility
Declining soil C
Rotational crops
AMELIORATION
Ongoing
management
Reduced Sand Potential
For each of these recommendations it is important that research questions are carefully framed, and
relevant material thoroughly examined, prior to any experimental work being planned. Much can be
learnt and adapted from Western Australian research into water-repellency on sands and extended to low
rainfall SE Australia. Many of the other questions can be answered with specifically targeted research,
rather than large scale programs incorporating many treatments and few measurements. This document
provides a background not a plan for action. The opportunities are significant but will only be realised
through the prosecution of experiments based on specific, well informed, clearly framed hypotheses.
Page 1
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
1 Introduction
This review is concerned with the coarse textured soils of the low rainfall grain cropping zone in north
western Victoria (and adjacent NSW), the South Australian “Murray Mallee”, Upper North of South
Australia, and the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia (Figure 1). This target region is characterised by a
very high evaporative demand relative to rainfall, making it one of the driest cropping environments in
Australia. In addition to a sparing and erratic water supply, another characteristic of the region is a range
of soils which are inherently low in fertility and organic matter, making it one of the most fragile
cropping environments on the continent (Coventry et al. 1998). The landscape is made up of a mosaic of
soils, coarse textured soils of neutral to alkaline pH which are either deep, or shallow and overlay calcrete
rubble or clays. Sodicity, salinity and or phytotoxic boron may be associated with the clays in some cases.
While the region features a range of sandy soils, the soils of interest are primarily deeper sands with the
great majority of the seasonal plant available water and annual crop root growth in the sandy layer.
Texture contrast soils with shallow sands over clays, clay loams or calcrete layers, which are also
common in the region, are not the focus of this review. Some of the problems with texture contrast soils
were investigated in an earlier GRDC initiative on “subsoils” (see Price 2010).
Figure 1
Cropping zones of Australia. The region of interest in the present study is labelled in the
figure as the “SA Vic Mallee”.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 2
Newell (1961) describes the agricultural development of the soils at Walpeup in the Victorian Mallee in
the first part of the 20th century, this probably reflects what has happened elsewhere…
“Agricultural practices have been a marked impact on the soils of the Mallee. Clearing of the more
favoured parts for wheat-growing commenced about 1890 and, by the turn of the century this was the
main agricultural pursuit. The then current practices of bare fallowing and stubble-burning, assisted by
the activities of rabbits, were conducive to blowing of the light surface soils. This was accelerated as
settlement immediately following the 1914-1918 war pushed cultivation into margin areas. Soil erosion
reached disastrous proportions by 1930. Its effects are evident on the Research Station. The narrow
shelter belt in paddock No. 6 has given rise to a north-south sand dune about 15 ft high. Subsoil is
exposed in many places as in paddock No. 3 while surfaces have been altered elsewhere. Sand sheets in
paddock Nos 1, 2, 3, 7 and 9 appear to date from this erosive period.”
Soil erosion has now been largely arrested, although this position is still precarious in some situations.
The great improvement is due to the amalgamation of properties into larger farming units with greater
emphasis on grazing sheep, assisted by a succession of favourable seasons, and in part to changes in
farming methods developed on the Research Station since 1939. Principally these are the use of barrel
medic pasture in rotation with cereals, and trash fallowing in place of stubble burning.
……..There is usually a well defined zone of organic darkening 4 to 8 in. deep, in both virgin and
cropped areas, though this may be blown away in some cases, or in others covered by recently drifted
sand. Sand sheets in extensive, uncleared areas have apparently originated from wind action on
neighbouring fallows….exceptional drifts up to 15 ft deep, are mapped…”
Thus while the sandy soils of low rainfall SE Australia may not be of aeolian (wind deposited) origin
(Pell et al. 2001), many of them have been reformed by wind following agricultural development (see
Figure 2). This has effectively resulted in new soils beginning to form at a local scale, on top of the
regional land systems and soils. While the earlier erosive processes have been very much reduced by
contemporary practices (Cooke et al. 1989), they cannot be completely eliminated on these soils.
Pell et al. (2001) recognised two dune systems in the SE Australian Mallee, the Lowan Sands and the
Woorinen Formation. The Lowan Sands are characterised by a lack of bonding clay and carbonate and the
absence of soil development, where dunes occur they tend to be west-south west facing. They often have
bleached layers. In contrast the Woorinen formation sands are calcareous in nature and contain some clay,
they are typically found in closely spaced east-west dunes. Lowan sands are also found on the upper Eyre
Peninsula. “Moomba”, (calcareous red) sands have also been defined in South Australia, these are more
fertile and less water repellant than Lowan Sands (Jeffrey and Hughes 1995).
Page 3
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Figure 2
Relatively recent erosive forces have shaped many of the sandy rises in the Mallee regions.
Here one can see a second fence erected on top of the earlier fence, the barbed wire stand at the bottom
being the top strand of the earlier fence. In some cases a third fence has been erected. This erosion and
deposition has created soils extremely low in organic matter.
2 Sandy soils, general properties and challenges
Sandy soils are characterised by their grain size, typically having low clay content and being dominated
by coarse particles (Table 1). This coarse texture confers certain physical properties on the soils which
influence the ability of the soil to hold water (Table 1), and therefore its biological activity. The low clay
content associated with sandy soils also has several physical, chemical and biological drawbacks. The
lack of clay reduces the physical protection of organic matter in soils, increasing the rate of organic
matter breakdown. While this can have a positive effect in increasing mineral nutrient availability in soils,
sandy soils have a very limited capacity to “hold” these elements in the soil because sands tend to have a
low ion exchange capacity, ions can thus be readily leached down the soil profile and out of the reach of
plant roots and microbes. Thus compared to finer textured soils, sands generally have lower physical,
chemical and biological fertility.
In terms of water holding capacity, sandy soils have larger pores than finer textured soils, making it more
difficult to hold soil water against gravity and consequently sandy soils have a lower capacity to store soil
water for plant uptake. Conversely, sandy soils have a lower surface area which means that less water is
tightly bound to soil particles (hygroscopic water) and plants can extract a higher proportion of the total
water from the soil (a lower, lower limit of extraction. Table 1). In a mallee sand in Victoria only about
20% of the soil pore space was occupied by water at field capacity, providing a maximum of only 63mm
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 4
of plant available water in the top 2m of soil ((Walsh 1995).Coarse textured soils sometimes support
better crop growth in strongly water limited seasons because when the soil water content is low plants can
extract a greater fraction of the water in the soil from sands than clays. Furthermore, many crops are able
to root deeply on some sandy soils (Tennant and Hall 2001), thus the total available water capacity can
sometimes be higher in sandy soils than adjacent finer textured soils.
Table 1
Approximate physical properties of some soil classes based on sand and clay content
(adapted from Brady and Weil 1999)
Sand content
Clay
Drained upper
Lower limit of
Available water
(%)
content
limit
extraction
capacity
(%)
(% water w/w)
(% water w/w)
(mm/m soil depth)
>75
5
14
4
100
Sandy loam
55-65
10
18
7
120
Loam
30-55
10-30
30
13
220
Clay loam
<30
30-40
34
18
210
Clay
<30
>40
42
25
160
Sand
The lack of organic matter, low water holding capacity and low clay content mean that sandy soils do not
tend to “aggregate” and thus are very susceptible to wind and water erosion if there is no surface cover
from living plants or from plant residues. Erosion of sandy soils has been an ongoing problem across
much of low rainfall southern Australia and in a recent assessment (Smith and Leys 2009) was rated as
widespread on sandy soils across the Mallee systems in NSW, Victoria and South Australia, including the
Eyre Peninsula. In some areas within this zone it was rated as severe. The region was considered the
highest priority for wind erosion control in the national assessment of Smith and Leys (2009).
These coarse textured soils may be derived from siliceous, or carbonaceous parent material. The siliceous
soils in the region can be mildly acidic but are primarily neutral-alkaline in pH, while the carbonaceous
soils are by nature alkaline, often strongly so. The differing pH of these soils confers different inherent
soil fertilities and nutrient toxicities. Nutrient deficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, zinc,
manganese, copper, cobalt, boron, molybdenum and selenium have been recorded for sandy soils across
low rainfall south eastern Australia. If carbonate is also present in these soils, it can greatly reduce the
availability of phosphorus, manganese, zinc and iron (Holloway et al. 2001).
One advantage of coarse textured soils is that they tend not to suffer from primary salinity because excess
salts are readily leached down the soil profile and into the groundwater systems. Conversely, they can
suffer from secondary salinity where groundwater rise brings salt with it to the surface, or near surface,
where it can be concentrated through evaporative water losses.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 5
2.1
Where do they occur in the target region?
The main soil orders across this region are Calcarosols (Typically EP, SA Mallee Vic Mallee), Sodosols
(Typically eastern EP, Northern Vic Mallee) Tenosols (Typically western EP, northern Mallee) ,
Vertosols (Typically Wimmera), and Chromosols (scattered, typically Upper North, east of Burra Hills to
Robertstown in South Australia, and parts of western Victoria, see McKenzie et al. 2004). The primary
soils of interest in the present analysis have various classifications, depending on the level to which each
of these orders can be subdivided. Most are within the Tenosol, Calcarosol or Sodosol groups. In the
central Mallee of Victoria sandy dunes make up about 30% of the landscape (Rowan and Downes 1963).
Siliceous sand hills occur in dune-swale systems right across the low rainfall SE Australia from northwestern Victoria to the Eyre Peninsula. These dune overlay heavier textured soils, often with a strong
texture contrast. At Karoonda McBeath et al. (in prep) describe a “Kandosol (deep sand) on a dune crest,
a Calcarosol- mid-slope (sand over clay loam) and a clay loam over clay, Chromosol, in the swale. There
are however significant variations in the development of these sandy soils and the dune swale systems
across the region and many local variants can be recognised (see e.g. Hall et al. 2009). Calcarosols make
up almost 60% of the soils of the Eyre Peninsula, and Tenosols a further 20%. Examples of a few sandy
soil profiles from South Australian low rainfall cropping areas are given in Appendix 2, but there are too
many variants to be able to be defined in the present analysis. A general overview of the occurrence of
sandy soils in the cropping areas of Victoria and South Australia is given below.
A
B
Figure 3
Areas in western Victoria where the soil is (A) predominantly sand (<15% clay), or (B)
where sand occurs but is subdominant in the soil profile. The Victorian Mallee is defined within the upper
solid black boundary. Maps courtesy of Department of Environment and Primary Industries Victoria.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 6
Figure 4
Areas of agricultural land in western Victoria indicated in yellow. The Victorian Mallee is
defined within the upper solid black boundary. Maps courtesy of Department of Environment and
Primary Industries Victoria.
The area sown to crops in 2010 within the intersection of the Mallee area in Figure 3 was 388,000 ha,
21% of the total cropped area in the region, however, the total area of sandy soils used for agriculture in
the region would be much higher than this because this figure does not include land under pasture or
fallow.
The Atlas of Key Soil and Landscape Attributes (Rowland 2001) records 3.6 mill. ha of sands in the 10
mill. ha of agricultural lands of SA, and 1.4 mill. ha of sand over clay. Deep sands thus make up 36% of
the agricultural soils of South Australia (Table 2 and Figures 5 and 6).
Table 2
Areas of sandy soils (ha) in South Australian agricultural lands of the Murray Darling Basin
and the Eyre Peninsula
Soil Group
Description
G1
Sand over sandy clay loam
G2
SA Murray-Darling Basin
Eyre Peninsula
9,421
97,734
Bleached sand over sandy clay loam
41,562
59,337
G3
Thick sand over clay
92,831
65,675
G4
Sand over poorly structured clay
97,167
76,951
G5
Sand over acidic clay
0
5,673
H1
Carbonate sand
395
75,903
H2
Siliceous sand
148,510
328,091
H3
Bleached siliceous sand
91,215
170,347
I1
Highly leached sand
0
1,220
I2
Wet highly leached sand
0
1,117
556,608
806,539
Total ha
Page 7
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Figure 5
Occurrence of sands over clays in South Australian agricultural lands. Map courtesy of Dept
Environment, Water and Natural Resources SA.
Figure 6
Occurrence of deep sands in South Australian agricultural lands. Map courtesy of Dept
Environment, Water and Natural Resources SA.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 8
Figure 7
A sandy soil profile from Rankins Springs in central western NSW (photo courtesy of
Michael Pfitzner).
3 Potential limitations to crop growth in coarse textured soils
The potential key limitations to crop production on sandy soils in the region are highlighted in this
section. While some of these problems are not restricted to coarse textured soils, the report attempts to
focus on those aspects which relate more specifically to such soils. Many of the constraints are
inextricably linked, such that there is considerable overlap between some of the headings, especially in
the opportunities for management.
Yields on sandy soils are often lower than on adjacent finer textured soils because of lower physical,
chemical and biological fertility. The report leans heavily on a few study sites on what are known as
dune-swale systems where there have been direct comparisons between the sandy dune soils and the
adjacent finer textured soils on the “swales”. These are very useful, because they have the soil types as
the primary contrast, with climate being identical (except perhaps for frost) and management being as
close to the same as is practical. Such studies thus allow a definition of processes and properties unique to
the sandy soils of the region. It is however recognised that not all relevant sandy soils in the target region
are situated in such dune-swale systems. An illustration of the relatively poor performance of coarse
textured (sandhill) soils relative to finer textured (interdune) soils is shown in Table 3. Here it can be seen
that crop shoot dry matter, grain yield and harvest index were all consistently lower on the sand than the
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 9
interdune soil. Based on the in-crop rainfall it can be seen that the efficiency of water use was very much
lower on the sand than the finer textured soil. Based on the rainfall use efficiency one would thus
anticipate that the potential for yield improvement would be significantly greater on the sands than the
finer textured soil. Within a single season in a single field, the gross margin on the more sandy parts of
the field was less than half of that on the soils elsewhere in the field with a higher clay content (Karoonda,
SA, McBeath et al. 2013a).
Table 3
Comparison of wheat anthesis shoot dry matter and grain yield for crops grown on sandhill
or interdune soils at Walpeup, Victoria (from Walsh 1995).
Year
In-crop
rainfall
Sandhill soil
Anthesis DM
(mm)
Grain yield
Interdune soil
Anthesis DM
(t/ha)
Grain yield
(t/ha)
1988
273
1.30
0.20
4.59
2.68
1989
243
1.91
0.20
4.45
2.57
1990
234
1.12
0.11
1991
226
0.70
0.11
1992
384
1.74
0.47
mean
247
1.35
0.22
2.44
4.38
2.06
4.01
4.47
2.75
Coventry et al. 1998 described the (mainly calcareous) sandy soils of the Eyre Peninsula and the primary
challenges facing farmers cropping on these soils as phosphorus, manganese and zinc deficiency, root
pests and diseases and water repellency. Problems associated with fine textured subsoils were also
considered widespread.
3.1 Water repellency
In water repellent (non-wetting) soils water does not infiltrate the soil surface in an even manner,
resulting in dry patches and increased water run-off. For crops this often causes poor germination and can
also reduce nutrient availability because crops cannot access nutrients in dry soil patches. Poor crop
establishment subsequently increases the risk of wind erosion and increased run-off can also cause soil
erosion. The problem is primarily caused by waxes produced in the soil during breakdown of crop and
pasture residues. The low surface area of soils with low clay contents results in these waxes coating a
larger fraction of the soil surfaces and/or filling soil pores more easily, resulting in water repellency. This
is primarily a problem for soils with a clay content of <3%. In such sandy soils only 1-3% of the sand
grains need be coated with hydrophobic compounds to induce water repellency (Steenhuis et al. 2005).
Table 4 highlights the difference in water repellency within a single field at Karoonda as a function of
changing soil texture
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 10
In South Australia >900,000 ha of agricultural land are thought to be susceptible to strong water
repellency (Rowland 2001). These areas are primarily on sands in the Murray Mallee, south of Kimba on
the Eyre Peninsula, and in the south east of the State. The Tenosols are particularly susceptible to water
repellency (Jeffrey and Hughes 1995).
Table 4
Water repellency as a function of landscape position and soil type in a single field at
Karoonda, South Australia. (data courtesy of T. McBeath CSIRO). In this case repellency is taken as the
time (seconds) it takes for a drop of deionised water, placed on the soil surface, to infiltrate the soil.
Values above ca 200 seconds would indicate moderate water repellency.
Topography
Soil Description
Water Repellency
(seconds)
Swale
Clay-loam over clay
1
Swale
3
Mid-slope
31
Mid-slope
Sand over clay loam
Mid-slope
Crest
205
246
Deep sand
201
Dune
224
Dune
260
Uneven wetting at the break of the season resulting from water repellency can also cause staggered weed
germination with consequences for herbicide efficacy. Furthermore, if a non-wetting soil wets up only to
dry out again, the non-wetting nature of the soil returns, and thus a series of weak rainfall events can be
very ineffective for germination on water repellent soils (Roper 2005). This has great implications for
both sown crop emergence and weed control.
A comprehensive review of the management of water repellency in Australian soils has recently been
completed (Roper et al. 2014). That review details amelioration strategies, practices which remove the
water repellency, and mitigation practices which try to minimise the effect of the repellency on crop
production. Low cost mitigation options tend to result in short-term, single season, responses, but options
for longer term amelioration are more expensive. We focus here on mitigation practices. Since
amelioration strategies involve a raft of changes to soil properties in addition to water repellency, these
are discussed in Section 3.5.
Crop establishment is the major problem. Sowing of crops into the previous year’s row can assist as
biopores provide very important water infiltration channels in minimum tillage systems. While
channeling of water into furrows carries the risk of excessive preferential flow and leaching of mobile
nutrients and pesticides (Blackwell 2000) and also carries the risk of movement of herbicides into the
Page 11
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
seed row, furrow sowing technology has been successfully developed for non-wetting sands in Western
Australia (Blackwell et al. 2014), using winged points or boots, wetter formulations and sowing near or
between previous crop rows. In other studies in Western Australia (Roper et al. 2013) the combination of
stubble retention and minimum tillage resulted in good soil water infiltration despite persistent nonwetting of the surface soils. This may be a result of preferential flow of water. Thus while increased
organic matter input was associated with the production of more hydrophobic compounds in soils, this
may not necessarily result in decreased water infiltration.
Water repellency of sandy soils can be reduced through the addition of clays, sourced either externally,
and spread on the surface, or “delved” from the subsoil in situ in some cases. Interestingly, in studies in
Western Australia, the clay itself was only able to explain about 20% of the variance in reduced water
repellency following addition (McKissock et al. 2000) and so the mechanisms are not entirely clear.
Spreading of clay on to the acid sands of the south-east of South Australia has generally doubled crop
yields (Cann 2000). Studies on acid sands in Western Australia (Hall et al. 2010) indicated that a clay
content above 3% was required to alleviate water repellency and improve crop yield. Yields were
improved by a combination of increased seedling establishment, better plant nutrition (especially K which
came with the clay), and greater water infiltration and more even wetting of the soil. All of these
mechanisms are likely to apply to sandy soils in low rainfall SE Australia, although K deficiency is yet to
be demonstrated there.
Water repellency of soils may exhibit temporal variation, but not merely as a function of soil water
content. Evidence for hydrophobic compounds moving down the soil profile through leaching, and for
microbial activity breaking down waxes have been presented (Hardie et al. 2012; Roper 2005). On acid
soils addition of lime and increasing soil pH may stimulate the activity of wax degrading microbes and
reduce repellency (Roper 2005). Promoting microbial activity should thus reduce water repellency. While
strains of wax-degrading bacteria have been isolated and found to reduce the repellence from severe to
low in laboratory experiments under ideal conditions, reducing repellence by inoculating paddocks with
these wax degrading organisms is limited by competition from other soil micro-organisms and
insufficient soil moisture to maintain effective populations and activity of the introduced organisms
throughout the year. Attempts to introduce microorganisms to the soil to assist in breakdown of
hydrophobic compounds have not been as successful in the field as in the laboratory. Only marginal
improvements in wettability were observed in field experiments in Western Australian acid sands (Roper
2006). Whether such organisms would persist in soil over time and be able to maintain improved
wettability is yet to be ascertained.
Management options for water repellency are available and are being implemented in Western Australia
where there has been considerable research investment. Soils affected in WA are mostly deep pale sands,
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 12
sandy duplex soils and sandy gravel soils. The problem may affect some 3.3 mill ha of soils in WA. In a
recent review of management of water repellent soils Roper et al. (2014) stated that the primary questions
which remained unanswered in relation to mitigation of repellency were the interaction between dry
seeding and water repellency, and the possible role of biological soil amendments in management.
3.2 Soil pH
Acidity is generally not a major problem across the zone but high soil pH is likely to influence
availability of nutrients. Calcareous soils usually have some (1 to 90%) carbonate associated with them,
primarily as calcium carbonates and these sparingly soluble salts result in a soil a pH of 8.0–8.2 which is
generally not a severe problem for plant growth or agricultural production. However, problems are
encountered in alkaline soils when sodium accumulates and forms salts such as sodium bicarbonate and
sodium carbonate. These are highly soluble and increase the soil pH above 8. When the pH is more than
9, the soils are considered highly alkaline and often have toxic amounts of bicarbonate, carbonate,
aluminium and iron (Rengasamy 2013).
Table 5
Soil bulk density and pH as a function of soil depth and landscape position for a single field
at Karoonda, South Australia. (Data courtesy of T. McBeath CSIRO)
Relative position
Swale
Mid-slope
Crest
Depth (cm)
Bulk density
pH (1:5 H2O)
0-10
1.37
7.44
10-20
1.35
8.78
20-40
1.41
9.33
40-60
1.65
9.58
60-80
1.72
8.45
80-100
1.72
6.42
0-10
1.59
8.12
10-20
1.56
9.41
20-40
1.85
9.70
40-60
1.76
8.79
60-80
1.71
6.32
80-100
1.71
7.24
0-10
1.58
6.32
10-20
1.62
7.24
20-40
1.62
8.00
40-60
1.80
8.71
60-80
1.54
9.20
80-100
1.73
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 13
The pH (H2O) of four non-wetting sands from the southern SA Mallee ranged from 6.7 – 7.2 (Eldridge
and Hughes 2006). High soil pH at depth in sandy Mallee soils may be an impediment to root growth and
water uptake. While it is also high in swale and mid-slope soils (Table 5) crops do not need to root as
deep in finer textured soils because more water and nutrients are typically held nearer the surface. Walsh
(1995) reported soil pH (CaCl2) on a Mallee sand to range from 8 at the surface to 9 at 1m and 9.5 at 2m
depth, and in a pot experiment growing barley in each 20cm soil increment, plants grew well in the layers
with pH>9 (Table 6). He concluded that nutrition rather than pH or salinity were likely candidates for
poor growth on sandhill soils. However, in the same pot experiments barley seedlings responded to acid
addition alone, and this was interpreted to be a possible response to bicarbonate toxicity.
Table 6
Shoot and root dry weights for barley grown in pots containing unamended soils sourced
from different depths from a sandhill profile at Walpeup, Victoria (from Walsh 1995)
Depth (cm)
pH
Shoot DW
Root DW
(CaCl2)
(mg)
(mg)
0-20
7.9
15.6c
106
20-40
8.2
16.3c
120
40-60
8.3
25.0a
110
60-80
8.4
22.6ab
106
80-100
8.6
25.1a
102
100-120
8.7
25.1a
94
120-140
8.8
27.4a
104
140-160
8.8
22.3a
88
160-180
9.0
25.1a
86
180-200
9.1
18.4bc
92
It is clear from the above that many sandy soils in low rainfall SA Australia have high pH, what is not
clear is whether pH per se could restrict root growth, or whether the primary effects might relate to
nutrient deficiencies and nutrient toxicities. It should be noted that soils with a pH >5 should be measured
in water because with CaCl2 as an extractant some of the carbonate and bicarbonate in the soil will
become bound to the Ca from the extract and thus lower the measured pH.
3.3 Soil erosion
An assessment of soil susceptibility to erosion in the Mallee rated coarse sands less susceptible to wind
erosion than fine-medium sands and sandy loams/loamy sands (Anon 2011a). The east-west dune system
in the central Victoria Mallee was rated the highest risk of wind erosion. Wind erosion risk in the region
is primarily a function of soil cover, especially during the period between crop harvest and establishment
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 14
of the following crop the next winter (Anon 2011b; Anon 2013a). There was no greater risk of erosion on
sand dunes than on slopes or swales in recent studies of break crops (Anon 2013a). The highest erosion
risk was following fallow or hay crops. The wind erosion risk of sandy soils is primarily early in the life
of the crop when both leaf area and groundcover are low. In extreme cases crop establishment might be
compromised, however, the impact of sandblasting on final crop yield for an established crop may be
greater later in the life of a crop than earlier (Bennell et al. 2007).
Problems with establishment of canola on sandy soils in the region have been documented (Anon 2013b)
but are not restricted to sands. Establishment is compromised by a weak seasonal break (low soil water
content) which leads to poor establishment and subsequent greater susceptibility to wind erosion. Water
repellency would also lead to poor germination and increase the risk of wind erosion. The erosion risk
following grain legume crops such as field pea and chickpea, is very high on coarse textured (dune) soils
of the Mallee (Moodie 2012a). However, for other broad leafed crops the risk of erosion can be managed
by sowing break crops at recommended densities and retaining all stubble. The erosion risk on coarse
textured soils was greatest under fallow and hay systems where there was lower stubble cover (Clough
2012).
3.4 Crop root growth and water extraction
In deep sandy soils many crops have been shown to root to well over 1m depth (Tennant and Hall 2001),
and some annual crops such as lupin (Hamblin and Hamblin 1985; Unkovich et al. 1994), wheat (Incerti
and O'Leary 1990) and cereal rye (Hamblin and Tennant 1987) can develop roots and extract water to
more than 2m depth. There is however substantial evidence to show that root growth of crops in sandy
soils in low rainfall SA Australia may be much more limited.
Water extraction on a sandy rise was restricted to ca 45cm at Karoonda, whereas water extraction
continued to at least 1m on the adjacent mid-slope and associated flat (Figure 8). This resulted in a
potential plant available water storage of only 31mm for crops on the crest of the sandy rise. Clearly the
inability of crops to extract water below 30cm greatly reduces the yield potential in these coarse textured
soils. The depth of this layer (30-35cm) is similar to the compacted layer observed in earlier studies in the
South Australian Mallee (Sadras et al. 2005). However, factors other than resistance to root penetration
may also contribute to poor root growth at depth, including accumulation of ions or organic chemicals
hostile to plant roots, or a lack of nutrients in soil. Investigation of why roots do not penetrate below these
subsurface layers is warranted. Similar observations have been made on sandy soils in a different land
system in western NSW (Barry Haskins pers. comm.).
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 15
Volumetric water content (%)
Depth (cm)
(A) Dune crest (31 mm)
(B) Mid slope (>110 mm)
(C) Flat (>116 mm)
Crop lower limit
Drained upper limit
Figure 8
Comparison of the crop lower limit of water extraction and the drained upper limit in a
toposequence within a single field at Karoonda South Australia. The plant available water capacity of the
soil ranged from 31mm on the dune crest (A) to at least 116mm on the clayey soil on the adjacent flat (C).
Figure courtesy of Therese McBeath, CSIRO.
How widespread compaction might be needs to be ascertained, it is certainly not evident everywhere on
sands in the region. For example in only three of eight dune/swales investigated in South Australia and
Victoria (Table 7)was the plant available water capacity in dune soils drastically lower than in associated
swales. Restricting root growth to such a shallow zone very much restricts plant available water. On a
sand at Walpeup in Victoria, Walsh (1995) found that the plant available water capacity in the top 1m of
soil was only 23mm, with another 40mm in the next 1m. In this case cereal crops were shown to root to
2m depth. Associated root measurements showed that 80% of cereal roots were in the top 20cm but this
only contained 8% (5mm) of the PAWC.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 16
Table 7
Plant available water capacity (mm) for wheat crops across a paddock toposequence at
different sites in the SE Australian Mallee. Data from Moodie 2010).
Location
Dune
Mid-slope
Swale
Paringa
142
110
144
Loxton
72
118
128
Lameroo
78
Ouyen
134
Natya
134, 75
167
71
95
Millewa
179
142
240
Root growth is typically impeded at resistances of 1MPa and ceases at 5 Mpa (Passioura 2002). High soil
strength restricts root growth, with the effects very much exacerbated in drier soils, thus roots would not
be expected to extend beyond the wetting front in high strength soils. Wheat was shown to penetrate wet
soils with high bulk density (>1.6 kg/m3) at 1m depth in the Victorian Mallee (Incerti and O'Leary 1990).
While inhibited root growth will obviously lead to reduced uptake of water and nutrients and therefore
lower crop productivity, high resistance to root growth can also constrain plant growth independent of the
effects of reduced water and nutrient uptake. High resistance to plant root growth is reflected in smaller
plant shoots due to a reduced number of cells (Passioura 2002).
Wheat, barley and ryegrass had the least root penetration into a compacted soil layer in field experiments,
lower than a range of broad-leafed species (Materechera et al. 1992). Continuous cropping with cereals
such as wheat is thus likely to exacerbate problems with the development of hard pans because cereal
roots might be less likely to produce useful biopores. Root thickness not root density is the key plant
property in relation to ability to penetrate hard soil layers (Clark et al. 2003), and because broad leaf
species have thicker roots (Materechera et al. 1992) these are likely to be more effective in penetrating
compacted soils and be beneficial to following cereal crops.
Soil bulk density can be readily increased by heavy wheeled traffic, especially when soils are wet (Hamza
and Anderson 2005), but it can also occur naturally in sandy soils if they have a particular combination of
fine and coarse sand particle sizes such that the finer particles settle down between the coarse particles.
This can lead to very high bulk density layers regardless of wheeled traffic. Newell (1961) refers to a
“hard pan variant” of a Kattyoong sand in the Mallee, …”characterised by an extremely hard-drying
sand or sandy loam horizon within 12 in of the surface…The pan is 2 to 6 in. thick, soft when moist.” and
describes the soils as having coarse and fine sand, with little silt.
Some of the Mallee sands may thus have a natural tendency to form impenetrable layers just below the
surface. A natural sorting and movement of soil particles can occur such that they become more tightly
packed over time, with fine sands, clays and silts settling further from the soil surface. This can result in
Page 17
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
increased bulk density in this zone. Within such zones in sandy soils Fe and Mn oxides, and CaCO3 can
form and cause cementing of the soil particles, resulting in a thin cemented layer of high strength,
independent of a change in bulk density. Such cemented layers typically appear as a thin yellow/red (Fe)
or black (Mn) zones in the soil. An example can be seen in Figure 12, the abrupt colour change perhaps
indicating a natural high strength layer rather than a traffic induced compacted layer.
Figure 9
A sandy soil from Rankins Springs in central western NSW where water has been observed
remaining in soils after crop harvest (photo courtesy of Michael Pfitzner).
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 18
Figure 10 A sandy soil profile at Karoonda in the South Austrian mallee, displaying Fe oxide formation
which could result in high penetration resistance to root growth independent of soil bulk density. (image
courtesy Therese McBeath CSIRO).
Crop roots may be inhibited by high bulk density or high soil strength. It should be noted that bulk
density and soil strength are not the same, bulk density reflects the closeness of the packing of soil
particles, and while this influences soil strength, the latter may be increased independent of bulk density
through cemented layers etc which do not increase bulk density. Bulk density is thus not a reliable
measure of the resistance to plant root growth. To ascertain whether bulk density or soil strength are a
limitation to root growth requires measurement of bulk density, soil strength (penetration resistance) and
pore size distribution. With information on all three of these it might be possible to ascribe the relative
contributions of bulk density and strength to compromised root growth. Effective management responses
to compromised root growth can only be formulated with a knowledge of the process one is trying to
tackle and so an untangling of bulk density and soil strength will likely be required.
Page 19
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Soil compaction induced by wheeled traffic is typically apparent at ca 15 cm depth (Holloway and Dexter
1991; Materechera et al. 1992) but can be deeper in sandy soils (Sadras et al. 2005). Although soil
pressures from sheep hooves can be as high or greater than for tractors (Proffitt et al. 1993), the
compaction of soils due to sheep is very much restricted to the surface and is readily penetrated by normal
tyned seeding implement depths (Bell et al. 2011). With the widespread adoption of reduced tillage
systems, the number of machinery passes per crop have decreased in recent years (Llewellyn and
D'Emden 2009). However, this has also been associated with an increase in crop intensity, replacing
fallow and pasture systems, and may mean that the total number of passes by machinery may not have
decreased where pasture phases have been replaced with continuous cropping. Even under minimum
tillage systems it is thought that 60% of the field will still receive wheeled traffic in any given year
(Hamza and Anderson 2005).
While conservation agriculture practices (reduced tillage stubble retention) are known to increase the
conductivity of the soil and storage of soil water, the relative effects of no till and stubble retention may
be different. There is ample evidence that biopores from previous crops increase infiltration of soil water
and soil water content, and that tillage destroys these biopores (Roper et al. 2013). Furthermore, soils of
low organic matter content are likely to have much lower densities of invertebrates such as earthworms,
ants and termites which are important for creating macropores and enable roots to penetrate soils
(Passioura 1991).
Deep ripping to increase rooting depth of crops
Hard pans need to be disrupted to improve root growth, whether the use of disc seeders, which result in
minimal soils disturbance, compared to tyned implements, makes any difference is unclear. Disc
implements may be friendlier to soil biopores but this will be of little value if there are none in the soil.
Impacts of wheeled traffic is also exacerbated by low organic matter content of soils (Hamza and
Anderson 2005), a feature of sandy soils in low rainfall southern Australia. In trials in Western Australia
(Hamza and Anderson 2008), sandy soils were more responsive to deep (>30cm) ripping than adjacent
finer textured soils.
Increased penetration resistance of soils tended to be deeper on sands (ca 30cm) than on finer textured
soils (ca 15 cm) in studies at Loxton and Caliph in South Australia (Sadras et al. 2005). In ripped soils
plants were able to extract more soil water at depth. Grain yield response to ripping was up to 43%, with
responses still evident in the second crop after ripping. The response to ripping was greater on sands than
finer textured soils. Under ripped soils crop transpiration accounted for a greater fraction of ET than in
control soils and thus crop biomass and grain yield were higher. Responses to ripping will be evident
when deep soil water is critical for crop yield. In seasons with regular rainfall responses to ripping may
not be evident because deeper soil water is less important.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Depth (m)
0
Page 20
Control
0.3
Ripped
0.6
0
1
2
3
4
Penetration resistance (MPa)
Figure 11 Change in penetration resistance of a sandy soil with depth, following deep (0.6m) ripping at
Loxton in South Australia (from Sadras et al. 2005).
Figure 12 Exposure of an impenetrable layer in a sandy soil at Corrigin in Western Australia. The
furrows in the compacted layer are from earlier deep ripping. Photographer Chris Gazey © Western
Australian Agriculture Authority, 2003.
In a summary of deep ripping trials on Eyre Peninsula from 2006-2008, Paterson and Sheppard (2008)
concluded that (i) sandy soils were more responsive to deep ripping than finer textured soils, (b) that
responses did not persist past 2 years, and (iii) responses did not appear to provide an economic return on
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 21
the cost of the deep ripping practice. Also on the Eyre Peninsula, Mayfield and Trengove (2007) observed
a wheat growth and yield response to ripping on sandhill tops and slopes but not on the adjacent flats. The
yield response was also matched by an increase in crop N and P uptake.
In Western Australia Tennant and Hall (2001) felt that deep sands had a higher potential for yield
improvement through removal of compacted layers and increased water uptake, than did finer textured or
texture contrast soils.
There is some evidence that increased growth of crops following ripping results from the extraction of
additional soil water which is otherwise unavailable (e.g. Holloway and Dexter 1991; Sadras et al. 2005).
A wheat crop at Loxton on a ripped sand hill soil had 17mm more water available than a crop in adjacent
unripped soil (Sadras et al. 2005). Ripping must thus increase root penetration in soils, giving access to a
greater volume of soil, and soil water if it is available. The legacy of the ripping will depend on the
frequency of soil profile rewetting, and the relative dependence of the crop on that fraction of the soil
water, although the general experience has been that the effects are only apparent for 1-3 years (Hall et al.
1989; Paterson and Sheppard 2008)
Roget et al. summarised earlier work on deep ripping in the SE Mallee as follows

soil compaction occurred and reduced access to water and nutrients, while at the same time
increased water loss through drainage

ripping increased crop water and nutrient uptake and yield
They also highlighted that there remained a large number of questions around this problem, namely

how widespread is compaction in the region?

is it a consequence of management, soil properties or both

how would different soils respond to ripping?

what is the relationship between response to ripping and rainfall?

would ripping improve grain quality?

how would ripping interact with subsoil constraints?

how long will the ripping effects last?

what is the optimum ripping depth?

how does it stack up economically?
Deep ripping breaks up massive soil structure and provides vertical zones of reduced soil strength,
enabling crop roots to penetrate the soil easier. Where impenetrable layers occur in the soil this provides
the opportunity for crops to extract additional soil water and/or nutrients from deeper in the soil profile.
Trials which investigate responses to ripping of soils should include an investigation of the rooting
response of crops, and the associated extraction of water and nutrients. In the absence of such
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 22
measurements it is not possible to ascertain whether the deep ripping has been effective in achieving the
desired amelioration, regardless of crop yield responses. In other words, deep ripping trials which only
report yield responses are not very enlightening because one does not know whether there has been any
change in root growth, or water and nutrient uptake.
3.5 Soil amelioration with clay or organic matter
In some cases amelioration of physical and chemical problems of sandy soils can be effected by
increasing the clay content of the soil. This can be achieved using an external source of clay, spreading it
on the soils surface, and possibly incorporating it by spading to ca 30 cm, or, where there is a suitable
layer of clay beneath the sand, by “delving” it up through the soil. The latter by default also includes deep
ripping.

Clay spreading - clay is applied to the surface of sandy soils and incorporated to 10-15 cm

Spading - a technique used to incorporate clay into the sand surface to a depth of 30-40 cm

Delving - using very deep tillage to bring subsurface clay to a sandy soil surface
Incorporating deep tillage along with combinations of clay delving and/or deep placement of organic
includes a raft of changes to the soil-plant system, and can have substantial effects on crop yields (e.g.
Masters and Davenport 2012). However there remains a need to untangle the specific role of some of
these effects so that the use of these practices can be better managed and outcomes made more
predictable. Farmer guidance on clay spreading and delving technology is available in Leonard (2011).
Figure 13 Clay delving (left) and (right) a spading machine for clay incorporation into a sandy
surface soil
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 23
There is substantial grey literature on deep ripping, spading and claying, much of it reporting yield
responses but not the underlying causes of yield response. At times this makes it difficult to untangle
some of the possible interactive effects of the treatments and limits the usefulness and transferability of
the information. May (2006) summarised a wide range of case studies trials of clay spreading and delving
from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. Addition of clay was thought to decrease water repellency
and wind erosion and increase soil (chemical and physical) fertility but inconsistent results had been
observed by farmers. A summary of the primary observations from the Eyre Peninsula are as follows.
The clay content of “clays” used by farmers for amelioration of sandy soils ranged from 16-59%, greatly
impacting on the efficacy of the clay added. Clays brought to the surface with a high calcium carbonate
content, such as those from eastern Eyre Peninsula, may result in reduced availability of nutrients.
Manganese deficiencies following application of such clays have been reported, and phosphorus
precipitation is also a significant risk under these conditions. If surface soils are sandy the addition of
sodic clays should not represent a significant problems because the salts should still be readily leached.
Where clays are spread on the surface of damp soils significant compaction problems can be created. In
this case deep ripping will also be required. Leaving large quantities of clay on the surface of the soil can
result in surface sealing and poor water infiltration. Incorporation is generally recommended. Clay
delving has the advantage of deep ripping and addition of clay at the same time. Generally it is more cost
effective than clay spreading and incorporation. However, it is very much restricted to soil with a clay
layer 30-80 cm deep, substantially limiting its application in most areas and even then may only be
effective in parts of paddocks. Delving needs to be done when the soil is relatively dry, and well before
crop sowing because major trafficability problems may arise on wet, recently delved soils.
Eldridge and Hughes (2006) provides a draft review of clay spreading experiences in the southern Murray
Mallee of South Australia. Soil analyses from non-wetting and clay spread soils are given in Table 8.
Their summary notes are as follows.
Generally the water repellent sands in their “natural” state, on paddocks that have not been clay spread
had

a clay content between 4 and 6 %,

a pH (CaCl2) 6 to 6.5

a very low carbonate content, <0.34% or nil to slight,

a low cation exchange capacity (CEC), 2.7 to 4.6 meq

soil organic carbon content from 0.57 to 1.13%.

adequate N &P although one showed very low P.

of the 4 samples had less than optimum extractable K (i.e. less than 100 ppm), and all showed
low exchangeable K (<3meq)
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 24

low extractable S (<6ppm) with 2 showing very low (<3ppm)

generally adequate trace elements (Cu, Zn and Mn), although one sample was low in Cu and Mn,
and another low in Zn. However two samples had marginal Mn of 5.2 and 6.5 ppm (below 5ppm
Mn is considered low), while one sample showed high Zn with 4.8ppm (cf 0.7ppm) and Mn with
16ppm (cf 5ppm)

acceptable (low) exchangeable sodium percentages (ESP) and electrical conductivity (ECe) and
Cl, indicating no salinity or sodicity problems.

marginal (less than 3ppm) B in 2 samples

a ratio of cations (Ca, Mg, K) to CEC that are acceptable (i.e. about 65% Ca, 15% Mg, and 3%
K).
The paddocks that had been clay spread were found to have

clay contents in the top 10 cm of 6.8% to 22.3%, with most in the range 6 to 10%

pH(CaCl2) between 6.5 and 8.1

carbonate contents of 0.32 to 2.84%, with 6 samples above a critical limit of 0.5% CaCO3.

generally adequate Cu, although 3 samples showed low Cu (less than 0.3ppm).

high / adequate Zn in all except one sample, which showed low Zn of 0.3ppm (cf more than
0.4ppm considered acceptable). Most contained between 1 to 3ppm Zn.

adequate Mn in approximately 50% of the samples, however 3 of the paddocks had very low Mn
levels in the range 2.5 to 2.9ppm, while 3 had marginal about 5 to 6.5ppm.

increases in CEC in the majority of samples (to between 7.5 and 9.5meq), which correspond to
clay contents between 6.8 and 10.7%. One sample from a poorly incorporated area with clay
content of 22% had CEC of 20.82meq.

appreciable increases in Exchangeable Ca, Mg, and Na,

approximately 33% of samples contained less than adequate exchangeable K (ie <0.3meq), while
20% (3 samples) showed low extractable K (ie <100ppm)

some samples showed somewhat elevated level of ESP, but were still below levels that would
cause problems (ie <6). However on the poorly incorporated area of 22% clay the ESP increased
significantly to 27%. This area had ECe of 18.4dS/m, exchangeable Na of 5.63meq and Cl of
2116ppm, indicating a possible salinity and sodicity problem

generally increased B ranging from 0.3 to 3.8, but still well below toxic levels of 15ppm.
Interestingly two showed marginal soil B of 0.3ppm.
On the sandy coastal soils of Western Australia the effects of deep ripping and clay addition were additive
(Hall et al. 2010). The effects of deep ripping alone were very much reduced over time with recompaction
observed within three years of ripping.
Page 25
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
One unintended but useful benefit of delving for clay that has been observed is a reduction in frost
damage of crops (Rebbeck et al. 2007). Canopy temperatures were higher in the crops on delved soil than
undelved soil and this was thought to be due to increased soil water storage and therefore increased heat
storage in delved soils. Clay additions or management practices which change the soil surface albedo
could also play a role in soil heat storage and thus susceptibility to frost but since crop leaf area index
would typically be near maximal during the frost sensitive stage of crop growth, there might be
insufficient radiation reaching the ground surface to make much of an impact. How widespread frost
incidence responses might be to delving and in how many seasons it may occur are yet to be ascertained.
Using delving as a reliable management tool to minimise frost may require a better understanding of the
relative effects of soil water content and albedo to the crop energy balance in the region.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 1
Table 8
2006)
Analysis of non-wetting soils prior to clay addition (A) or after clay addition (B) in the south Australian Murray Mallee. (from Eldridge and Hughes
Clay CaCO3 pH
(A) Non-Wetting
%
%
pH Ext P Ext K Ext S OC
water CaCl ppm
ppm
ppm
%
ECe
Exch
Exch
Exch Exch K CEC ESP Ext Cu Ext Zn Ext Mn Ext Fe Ext B Ext Cl
(est) Ca meq Mg meq Na meq meq
meq
%
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
dS/m
1
MO1 No clay
3.9
0.34
6.7
6.3
31
88
2.2
0.69
0.6
1.96
0.5
0.03
0.22
2.71
1.1
1
2.6
5.2
45
0.3
3
4
No clay
4.6
sl
7.2
6.5
37
87
4.4
1.13
0.7
3.70
0.7
0.03
0.19
4.6
0.6
0.6
4.8
16.1
50
0.5
12
5
Schwartz No clay
5.8
nil
6.7
6.1
11
102
2.2
0.57
0.6
2.75
0.73
0.03
0.26
3.77
0.8
0.7
0.3
6.5
47
0.5
5
6
No clay
2.94 0.18
6.8
6.1
34
67
5.4
0.71
0.9
1.75
0.43
0.04
0.17
2.39
1.7
0.33
1.32
3.75
43.17
0.2
18
(B) Clayed
Result
1
MO1 Clayed
Poor 8.8
2.84
8.6
8
35
232
2.8
0.78
1.4
7.12
1.8
0.05
0.57
9.54
0.5
0.7
3.1
2.7
24
1.1
3
1
S42 Clayed
Good 6.8
1.52
8.2
7.5
31
136
3.5
0.81
1.4
6.99
1.34
0.05
0.32
8.7
0.6
0.7
1.4
5.7
21
0.7
4
2
Clayed (Clayey sand)
Good 10.7 0.61
8.2
7.7
24
239
2.8
0.58
1.4
5.81
2.68
0.09
0.59
9.17
1
0.7
4.6
6
25
1
4
2
Clayed
Poor 14.4 1.82
8.7
8
23
221
3.5
0.46
1.8
6.34
3.1
0.49
0.53
10.46 4.7
0.6
1.9
2.9
24
3.8
7
3
Clay rise 1
Poor 7.8
1.92
8.5
7.8
50
120
4.6
0.73
1.2
5.45
1.79
0.05
0.3
7.59
0.7
0.6
2.5
2.5
18
1.1
4
3
Clay rise 2
0.32
7.6
7
44
151
4.6
0.75
1.1
3.25
2.47
0.16
0.37
6.25
2.6
0.8
2.9
6.4
23
1.7
7
5
Clayed 250 t/ha & delved
10.6 Mod
8.8
7.6
8
123
2.8
0.48
1.4
5.45
1.8
0.27
0.3
7.8
3.5
0.9
0.3
9.6
56
1.7
17
6
120 t/ha
2.91
0.2
7.1
6.5
31
52
2.5
0.44
0.8
1.62
0.39
0.03
0.13
2.17
1.4
0.25
2.36
3.14
81
0.3
5
7
200 t/ha
5.86 0.38
8.7
7.9
26
114
5.4
0.39
1.2
4.38
1.24
0.18
0.29
6.09
3.0
0.44
1.38
8.2
79
0.8
5
4
250 t/ha
8.2
7.1
29
84
3.2
0.38
1.1
3.30
0.9
0.03
0.2
4.4
0.7
0.6
0.9
11.8
42
0.6
10
6
250 t/ha
8
7.2
90
107
3.4
0.54
1.5
3.25
1.27
0.06
0.27
4.85
1.2
0.34
1.51
3.45
83
0.8
5
8
Clayed Good
good 7.93 0.28
7.7
7.3
8
149
19.8 0.62
1.7
6.44
1.26
0.15
0.4
8.25
1.8
0.68
0.99
7.87
39
0.9
35
8
Clayed Poor
poor 8.86
8.3
7.8
29
138
14.5 0.74
2.4
10.69
0.98
*0.24
0.36 *12.27 *1.9
0.13
0.8
7.14
26
0.7
110
9
Irrig Lucerne (Hard Area)
8.5
8.1
105
618
142
0.96 18.4
7.63
5.91
*5.63
1.64
*20.8 *27.0 0.55
1.02
15.21
109
3
2116
10
South Dam
8.2
7.5
13
50
2.5
0.51
2.75
0.78
0.05
0.13
3.71
1.03
5.46
45
0.3
36
OK
8.7
Good 8.6
mod
5.82 0.26
3
22.3 0.88
poor 4.9
0.22
1.1
* indicates Exch Na, CEC and ESP have been recalculated to account for high Cl present due to no prewashing of samples
1.3
0.14
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 1
3.6 Crop nutrition
The combination of low organic matter and low cation exchange capacity of sandy soils results in low
natural fertility for these soils. The surface layer is often frightfully low in macronutrients and in
subsequent layers nutrients may only be present in trace amounts (Table 9). Bleached soil layers are also
common on sandy soils and these have sometimes been termed “nutrient deserts”.
Table 9
Depth (cM0
Macronutrients in a sandhill soil profile at Walpeup, Victoria. from Walsh (1995)
Total N
Olsen P
Available S
Skene K
Exchangeable
(%)
(ug/g)
(ug/g)
(ug/g)
K (cmol/kg)
0-20
<0.05
5.48
<3
169
0.70
20-40
<0.05
<0.01
<3
150
0.76
40-60
<0.05
<0.01
<3
203
1.00
60-80
<0.05
<0.01
<3
246
1.30
80-100
<0.05
<0.01
<3
292
1.40
100-120
<0.05
<0.01
<3
273
1.60
120-140
<0.05
<0.01
<3
250
1.46
140-160
<0.05
<0.01
<3
290
1.60
160-180
<0.05
<0.01
<3
345
0.78
180-200
<0.05
<0.01
<3
332
0.80
Nitrogen and sulphur
The organic fertility of coarse textured soils is less than adjacent finer textured soils in the same fields.
Total nitrogen concentrations on dune soils are usually much less than 0.1% (Figure 14), and Walsh 1995
measured no change in total soil N (< 0.05%) or available sulphur (<3 ug/g) down to 2m depth in a sand
profile at Walpeup in Victoria (Table 9). Roget and Gupta (1999) noted that while increased nutrition led
to a profitable increase in yield and grain protein, the additional N taken up by crops in the Mallee
exceeded that added in fertiliser, and thus the long term fertility trend would probably be down with
intensive cereal crop rotations. Declining yields on sands could thus be due to declining N fertility with
the removal of pasture/fallow systems. Coventry et al. (1998) suggested that the move away from pasture
phases to continuous cropping would carry with it the risk of further eroding soil organic matter stocks
and reduce the already low soil fertility. The low organic N on the dune soils translates to lower
mineralisation of N in these soils, regardless of rotational crop (Figure 15). Interestingly differences
between the mineralisation potential of the different rotation crops remain >18 months after harvest of the
rotational crop, but this did not translate into differences in the total available N in the top 1m of soil.
Indeed all treatments and landscape positions had high available N.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 2
Figure 14 Total nitrogen (%) in the top 10 cm of dune and swale soils at three sites in north west
Victoria. The soil at the Karawinna site is a sandy across the whole site (From Moodie 2012b).
Figure 15 Mineralisable nitrogen in dune and swale soils at sowing of a second wheat crop in 2012,
following a range of break crops two years previous at Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee. The
toposequence runs up a slope from a clay flat (Swale) to a sandy rise (Dune) . (from McBeath et al.
2013c).
At Karoonda, even after two annual applications of 80 kg N/ha to wheat, the available N to 1m on a sand
(69 kg/ha) was less than half of that on adjacent fine textured soil in the same field (144 kg N/ha, Table
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 3
10), and the sand but not the finer textured swale remained responsive to N (Figure 16). In another
sequence of four wheat crops at the same site, available N at sowing (Table 11) was less variable on the
sandy dune (33-71 kg N/ha) than on the associated swale (31 – 167 kg N/ha). After four years of
continuous wheat in a wet year at Karoonda (2010), there was a greater grain yield response to N
application up to 80 kg N/ha on the sands than the flat (Figure 16A), and in a dry year (2012, Figure 16B)
after the seventh consecutive wheat crop, the sand and mid slope but not the swale remained responsive to
N fertiliser.
B
A
Figure 16 Crop grain yield response to N fertiliser application for a fifth (A) or seventh (B) consecutive
wheat crop in a toposequence at Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee (from McBeath et al. 2011
and McBeath et al. 2013b).
Table 10
Plant available (mineral) nitrogen (kg/ha) at sowing of a seventh consecutive wheat crop in
2012 after three years of different N input at Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee (from McBeath et
al. 2013b).
N Rate
kg/ha
Swale
Mid-slope
Dune
0-60cm
60-100cm
0-60cm
60-100cm
0-60cm
60-100cm
0
58b
23c
36b
19
36
11b
20
98a
50a
44ab
21
45
24a
80
108a
36b
60a
17
47
22a
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 4
Table 11
Plant available (mineral) nitrogen (kg /ha) in the top 1m of soil at sowing for consecutive
wheat crops at Karoonda in the South Australian Mallee. Annual N fertiliser rates applied after soil
sampling are given in parentheses. (data from T McBeath, CSIRO).
Soil
2009
2010
2011
2012
Description
(25kg N)
(7 kgN)
(9 kg N)
(9 kg N)
Swale
33
167
124
101
Mid-slope
38
115
86
65
Dune
35
57
47
68
It would thus appear that crops on sandy soils are constantly N responsive. A tempting possibility is that
mineral N moves downward with soil water on the dune soils, beyond the crop rooting zone, and possibly
laterally, providing additional N and nutrients at the break of slope. The available data are equivocal in
respect to this possibility.
Table 12
Soil nitrate-N (kg N/ha) in a toposequence at Karoonda at sowing of a wheat crop in
2010(from McBeath et al. 2011)
Depth (cm)
Dune
Mid-slope
Swale
0-10
15
29
33
10-20
8
12
38
20-40
11
22
42
40-60
7
10
21
60-80
8
13
16
80-100
7
14
18
These nitrogen data from Karoonda present somewhat of an interpretation conundrum and demonstrate
our inability to be able to effectively predict N dynamics in cropping systems. Further drilling down into
the data might provide some answers but from the summaries which are currently available it is not clear
what is driving the N responses on the sandy soils and whether leaching of NO3-N is occurring. One year
break crops would appear to provide additional available N above that being achieved with continuous
cereals.
Soil S analysis on Mallee sands (Porker and Wheeler 2013a) demonstrated that there was substantial
movement of plant available sulphur below the top 10 cm of soil, the analysis depth from which fertiliser
recommendations were often made. More reliable fertiliser S guidance was provided by deep soil (060cm) analysis. Recent trials on responses of barley to N and S on sandy soils in the South Australian
Mallee (Porker and Wheeler 2013b) indicted that more crops were N than S responsive, and that where
Page 5
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
they were S responsive, sulphate of ammonia fed crops yielded more than crops supplied with gypsum or
urea. Furthermore, at Karoonda, highest yields were obtained where trace elements (Zn, Cu and Mn) were
added as well as N, with yields 77% higher than control (no fertiliser) treatments and more than 40%
higher than N (urea) only treatments. In a survey of clayed soils in the southern SA Mallee (Eldridge and
Hughes 2006) available S was low in nearly all soils surveyed, and Walsh 1995) found that the sulphur
concentration in barley shoots grown on sandhill soil at Walpeup was lower than the recommended
critical value, at all of a range of S additions up to 24 kg S/ha.
Walsh (1995) suggested that decreases in crop yields as one moved up a sandhill soil were due to
declining fertility across the dune. Crops were responsive to the combination of both N and P. Organic
carbon, total nitrogen and Olsen P declined as one moved up the dune slope to the crest, although he did
not provide a statistical analysis or correlation between yield and soil fertility. Although Walsh (1995) did
not show a decline in available S across the sand dune he presented substantial evidence that sulfur was
likely to be limiting on the sandhill soils, and was likely to be leached and/or the S applied was not
oxidised.
Phosphorus
In the 2001 audit of nutrient balances in Australian agriculture (Reuter 2001), the low rainfall cropping
region of South Australia was considered at highest risk of phosphorus deficiency. It is generally
considered that much of the phosphorus fertiliser added to soils is adsorbed on to soil particles or
precipitated as insoluble compounds, iron below pH 5 and calcium above pH 8 (Figure 17). Phosphorus
responses appear to have been difficult to predict although McBeath et al. 2013b) found it more profitable
to apply P fertiliser to sand dunes rather than swales at Karoonda.
In studies on 31 acid sandy soil sites in south east South Australia, on average, 28% of phosphorus
fertiliser was leached below the crop root zone in the year of application (Lewis et al. 1981). Leaching
was higher in soils with low organic matter content and lower concentrations of aluminum and iron.
There is thus the possibility of phosphorus leaching from sandy soils in lower rainfall regions as well.
While the phosphorus buffering index in the coarse textured soil was much lower than on the finer
textured swale at the surface, it was slightly higher at 80cm (Table 14). Differences in the relative
distribution of available P with depth in different soils at Karoonda are somewhat equivocal with respect
to downward movement of P (Figure 18).
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Figure 17
Page 6
Fixation of soil P as a function of soil pH. (Adapted from Glendinning 1999)
Table 13
Soil fertility indicators as a function of landscape position and soil type in a single field at
Karoonda, South Australia. (data courtesy of T. McBeath CSIRO).
Soil
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulphur
Cation exchange
buffering
(Colwell)
KCl-40
capacity
index
(mg/kg)
(mg/kg)
(meq/100g)
Swale
61
457
3.9
14.7
Swale
43
381
4.4
11.0
Mid-slope
21
266
4.2
5.8
Mid-slope
17
227
3.4
4.4
Mid-slope
14
149
3.0
3.2
Crest
12
114
2.2
2.8
Dune
9
122
1.8
2.2
Dune
9
116
1.7
2.3
Dune
10
111
1.7
2.4
Description
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 7
Table 14
Variation in Phosphorus buffering index with depth as a function of landscape position and
soil type in a single field at Karoonda, South Australia (data courtesy S. Mason, University of Adelaide).
Depth
Swale
Mid-slope
Hill
0-10cm
28
7
6
10-20cm
46
2
6
20-40cm
105
12
9
40-60cm
91
34
28
60-80cm
64
88
71
Depth (cm)
Swale
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
Mid-slope
Dune
Zone
Colwell P (total)
Swale
70
Mid-slope
40
Hill
52
0
10
20
30
40
50
Relative proportion of Colwell P - %
60
Figure 18 Variation in proportion of available Phosphorus with depth as a function of landscape
position and soil type in a single field at Karoonda, South Australia (data courtesy of S. Mason,
University of Adelaide).
Extensive research into fluid fertilisers on the Eyre Peninsula, especially P and Zn, have shown that they
are preferable on soils with a pH >8.5 and a calcium carbonate content >10%. These conditions are
unlikely to be met for the primary sandy soils of interest, although there are strongly calcareous deep
sands on parts of the Eyre Peninsula where fluid fertilisers provide significant yield advantages over
granular fertilisers (Wheeler et al. 2003) .
Potassium
Potassium deficiency has been documented on acid sands in Western Australia (Brennan et al. 2004). The
problem primarily stems from a combination of parent materials with low K and a leaching environment.
I have not found any reports of K deficiency on sandy soils in the target region for this report.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 8
Micronutrients
Zinc deficiency is well known in sandy soils across the southern Australian cropping zone (Alloway et al.
2008), with 80% of South Australia’s agricultural lands potentially Zinc responsive (Reuter 1988 tech
report). Zinc deficiency is likely on a wide range of alkaline soil types, including the calcareous sands and
sandy loams of the region. The switch from superphosphate to high analysis fertilisers has reduced the
fortuitous zinc application with earlier phosphates (ca 0.04% zinc, Alloway et al. 2008).
A more recent analysis based on Australian soil orders (Norton 2013) indicated that Calcarosols,
Dermosols and (highly alkaline) Vertosols were the highest risk of zinc deficiency (Table 15). In
particular, Zn deficiency was considered most likely on alkaline sands with high phosphorus availability.
Where sands have a poor capacity to buffer added P, the risk of Zn deficiency might therefore be
increased if Zn3(PO4)2 mineral (hopeite) or scholzite (CaZn2(PO4)2) are precipitated. Conditions
conducive to this would be a soil available P concentration of ca ≥0.1 mM and a pH >7.5. Calcarosols
and alkaline Vertosols also considered to be at high risk of manganese deficiency. Copper deficiency has
been observed on sandy soils in the South Australian Murray Mallee o (Braunack-Mayer 2000). King
(1974) reported that copper deficiency was common in wheat grown on deep siliceous sands, calcareous
sand, sand over clay, and soils with ironstone granules in the Eyre Peninsula and Murray Mallee of
South Australia, with Cu fertiliser applications recommended every five years.
Table 15
Risk of micronutrient deficiency for Australian soil orders. From Norton (2013).
Large differences in the efficiency of use of zinc has been observed between cereal cultivars (Graham et
al. 1992; Holloway et al. 2010) and may provide a useful adjunct for infertile sandy soils, and indeed for
other micronutrients (Ma et al. 2009). However, nutrient efficient cultivars cannot provide a solution to
absolute deficiencies which can only be addressed through nutrient addition.
Page 9
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Addition of acid to lower the pH of Mallee sands did not increase the uptake of micronutrients by barley
grown in pots containing soils from each 20cm layer to 2m depth (Walsh 1995), therefore one might
anticipate an absolute rather than pH induced deficiency of micronutrients in these soils.
Boron toxicity is often considered a significant problem in many Mallee soils (Cartwright et al. 1986;
Nuttall et al. 2003a; Nuttall et al. 2003b), however on soils of very low clay content (<5%) boron
deficiency is more probable. In Western Australia B deficiency has been identified on siliceous sands
(Wong et al. 2005). There is a relatively narrow range between deficient and toxic concentrations of B in
soils.
Deep placement of nutrients
Reduced tillage systems tend to be associated with the targeted placement of fertilisers close to the seed,
either beside or under the seed. Compared to previous cultivation systems this can result in stratification
of nutrients in near surface zones (Ma et al. 2009). Since water can move freely down the profile of sandy
soils it can also take mobile nutrients such as N, S and K with it, beyond the reach of crop roots. This can
reduce the residual value of fertilisers and mineralised nutrients.
In a review of deep placement of nutrients topic Ma et al. (2009) concluded that the greatest responses
were to be found on infertile sandy soils in low rainfall regions. The benefits were thought to primarily
arise from having subsoil nutrients available when the surface soil is dry from which plants are generally
unable to extract nutrients. The authors considered that deep placed nutrients should have residual value
for many subsequent years, although there were few examples of this given.
There have been a substantial number of trials of deep placed nutrients, particularly on the Eyre Peninsula
in South Australia. Many of these trials have been on texture contrast soils, with relatively shallow (<50
cm) sands. On a siliceous sand over clay (35cm) at Wharminda, the placement of fluid nutrients (H3PO4,
Urea, ZnSO4, MnSO4, CUSO4, mono-ammonium phosphate, and NH4NO3) to 40cm gave consistently
high yields across four years, and similar results were observed on sandy soils elsewhere across the region
(Doudle and Wilhelm 2002). Similar nutrients placed only near surface were not as effective, nor was
deep ripping alone.
Root growth of crops may be compromised in soils zones with a lack of zinc (Nable and Webb 1993)
such that while the shoot may not be Zn compromised, water uptake will be because roots will not grow
in Zn deficient soil zones. Thus surface applied zinc may not be as effective as deep placed zinc which
might assist in extracting unused water from soil profiles. When surface soils are dry, zinc is unable to
diffuse toward plant roots (McBeath et al. 2012).
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 10
Experiments with deep placement of nutrients across southern Australia has generally resulted in
substantial crop yield improvements (Ma et al. 2009), often with residual value (Wilhelm 2005). The
responses have typically been greater on sandy than finer textured soils (Ma et al. 2009), and particularly
on sands at least 250mm deep (Wilhelm 2005). The South Australian government is currently investing in
such soil enhancement protocols in a bid to improve productivity on sandy soils and may be able to
provide effective guidelines in the medium term (see http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/newhorizons).
Nutrition summary
Soil fertility is inevitably low in the sandy soils of low rainfall SE Australia and will require ongoing,
active management. However, before this can be efficiently achieved there is a need to be able to develop
some predictive capacity in terms of which particular nutrients are likely to be limiting in different sandy
soil types, what forms the nutrients should be added in, and which crops or crop sequences may increase
the efficiency of nutrient use. The importance of leaching of nutrients, not just N, needs to be considered,
along with further investigation of trace element deficiencies, and the likely importance and availability
of nutrients below the A1 soil horizon. Because of the low cation exchange capacity of these soils, the
possibility of interactions between nutrients reducing their availability should also be explored.
3.7 Soil carbon and biological fertility
As indicated in Section 2, coarse textured soils have a poor capacity to protect soil organic matter from
breakdown and thus tend to have lower organic carbon stocks and lower soil biological activity. These
factors reduce nutrient availability, decrease aggregate stability and reduce the ability of the soil to hold
water. In the absence of substantial addition of clays these problems cannot be ameliorated in sandy soils
but they can be mitigated to some extent. Differences between soil carbon density between sands and
finer textured soils within single fields are illustrated in Figure 19 which shows that organic C density in
interdune (swale) soils can be more than double that of sandy dunes in the Victorian Mallee.
Systems with higher plant residue inputs and reduced tillage generally have greater C stocks than parallel
systems with lower residue inputs and greater tillage. Thus soil C stocks can be increased through reduced
tillage and stubble retention relative to cultivated systems with stubble removal. Evidence to support this
is often confused because the C stock in many Australian agricultural soils have not yet reached the usual
lower equilibrium which occurs after initial land clearing, and consequently the soil C stock on many
agricultural soils are decreasing regardless of management (Sanderman et al. 2010). However, in a study
at Waikerie in the Victorian Mallee the data of Gupta et al. (2008) demonstrate that soil C stocks were
maintained after eight years under increased productivity, lower tillage systems, while comparative tilled
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 11
and lower productivity systems showed a greater decline in soil C stock. Thus while soil C stock may not
always increase in absolute terms with conservation cropping systems, they will likely mitigate further C
loss from these soils. In some cases soil C stocks should be able to be increased, resulting in physical,
biological and chemical fertility benefits on these soils.
Soil organic C (%)
1.2
swale Chinkapook
1.0
0.8
swale Cowangie
0.6
0.4
dune Cowangie
dune Karawinna
dune Chinkapook
0.2
0
Figure 19 Organic carbon (%) in the top 10 cm of dune and swale soils at three sites in north west
Victoria. The Karawinna site is a sandy across the whole field. Data from Moodie (2012b).
In studies on soil microbial activity (Roget and Gupta 1999) in the Mallee it was found that overall
activity was low, due to low organic matter and low rainfall. It was considered lower than in other soils
across Australia. Systems with increased crop residue inputs have been shown to have larger microbial
populations, resulting in competitive inhibition of pathogens and increased predatory and parasitic
activity (Roper and Gupta 1995). It has also recently been demonstrated (Evans et al. 2011) that ants and
termites play a vital role in increasing soil water and fertility in arid environments, resulting in substantial
increases in wheat yield above that with depressed populations of these invertebrates. Practices which
reduce their number are likely to decrease water and N availability in soils, and crop yields, in low
rainfall environments.
3.8 Pests and diseases on sandy soils
Impacts of soil borne diseases can be significant in coarse sandy soils because plants need larger root
systems to extract moisture and nutrients. These soils also often have poor soil biology and thus reduced
competition with pathogens. These soils would also favour pathogens that prefer drier conditions e.g.
Rhizoctonia root rot, crown rot, common root rot. As a general rule nematodes also prefer soils with
relatively large pore spaces, as they cannot move well in poorly structured clay soil, so Cereal Cyst
Nematode and Pratylenchus nematodes could also thrive in these soils. Because sandy soils have lower
organic fertility and fewer microsites to protect soil biota, they may have a lower capacity to suppress
pathogens and other pests, this may be exacerbated by low water holding capacity because periods of
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 12
microbial activity over the summer are important for reducing pathogens such as Rhizoctonia (Figure 20)
and probably other fungal pathogens (rots). Coventry et al. 1998) suggested take-all might be a significant
problem on sandy soils on the Eyre Peninsula because of associated poor root growth of crops.
Figure 20 Change in Rhizoctonia (R. solani AG8) DNA density in soil under different crop rotations
over the summer fallow period at Waikerie in the Murray Mallee. Clouds indicate rain events and arrows
tillage events (from Gupta et al. 2010).
Figure 21 Rhizoctonia solani (AG8) inocula concentrations under a range of crops (following wheat)
across the toposequence at Karoonda (from Gupta et al. 2012b).
Page 13
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Evidence from Karoonda (Figure 21) would however indicate that Rhizoctonia inocula concentrations are
lower on sand hill than swale clay soils and so the potential susceptibility of sands to pests and diseases as
described above may not eventuate, but instead other factors may play over riding roles in controlling the
relative intensity of Rhizoctonia propagules on sands and clay soils. While rainfall events may contribute
to short-term reductions in Rhizoctonia inocula, Figure 21 illustrates that the most valuable management
tool in Rhizoctonia control is rotation with non-cereal crops.
This dataset clearly shows that rotation with grass/cereal free breaks is key to reducing rhizoctonia
inocula, and that the coarser textured soils on the dunes and slopes have lower disease loads than the finer
textured soils on the swale. Grass free rotations of Brassicas, chickpea, field pea, vetch, medic and fallow
were shown to increase what yielded by 9 -47% compared to cereals or other grassy phases (Gupta et al.
2013). The problem with this is that non-cereal crops are rarely grown in this region ( see Section 5)
Crops with low nutrient supply tend to suffer more from Rhizoctonia symptoms because of the root
pruning effect of the fungus, and this is why good nutrition can reduce the severity of the disease. This
may illustrate why summer weed control, either complete or partial, has been shown to decrease
Rhizoctonia inoculum in soils and infection of subsequent barley, and increase grain yield of barley at
Karoonda (Gupta et al. 2013). Weeds may reduce both mineral N supply to the subsequent crop and also
the amount of moisture available for microbes, reducing disease suppression. A combination of
measurement and modelling of a wheat-barley rotation on a sand at Karoonda indicated that, without
summer weed control, Rhizoctonia may reduce grain yield of barley by up to 40%, and with summer
weed control the contribution of Rhizoctonia to yield loss could be up to 27% (Gupta et al. 2013). The
impact of Rhizoctonia on cereals is greater for slow growing roots, therefore in dry years with compacted
layers rhizoctonia is likely to be a greater problem.
3.9 Weeds and herbicides
I have identified little research on weed control and herbicide management specifically on sandy soils
within the low rainfall SE Australia which might spotlight particular issues on sandy soils. This section is
thus restricted to observations of consultants in the field which have been recounted and some general
issues which should be considered. The primary concerns specific to sandy soil is crop damage from
movement of pre-emergent herbicides into seed rows or the root zone of emerging crops, water repellency
causing staggered germination of weeds, and potential leaching of soluble, persistent herbicides.
For highly soluble herbicides, such as those in Group B, herbicide translocation across the soil can occur
through movement of water over the surface (Blackwell 2000), or just below the soil surface. Such water
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 14
flow is more common in coarser textured soils and is a feature of non-wetting soils. Furthermore, when
sandy soils are dry, herbicide laden soils can be easily thrown from the inter-row across to the seed row,
again transferring herbicide to the crop row, rather than the inter-rows. These problems are not restricted
to Group B herbicides and have been observed in both cereal and pulse crops in South Australia and
NSW (Jason Sabeeney, Barry Haskins pers comm.). Leaching of soluble herbicides to >50cm has been
observed on loams in the Victorian Mallee (Stork 1995) and can readily occur on sandy soils (Ying and
Williams 2000), especially those displaying preferential water flow (McGrath et al. 2010) as observed on
non-wetting sands in Western Australia (Blackwell 2000). It is not known if this would result in problems
for sensitive crops species because of residual herbicide at depth, but one might anticipate some
degradation of the herbicide in moist environments.
Where recropping intervals for herbicides carry a minimum rainfall requirement, this may take some time
to be met in lower rainfall environments and time between recropping intervals may thus exceed 2 years
in some cases. Herbicide residues will also degrade more slowly in dry soils (Hollaway et al. 2006) and
soils with low organic matter, although conversely higher temperatures and low clay content increase the
rate of degradation. Residual herbicides can also make crops more susceptible to root diseases such as
Rhizoctonia (Rovira and McDonald 1986).
Many of the Group B herbicides degrade more slowly in alkaline soils (Hollaway et al. 2005). Legumes
and oilseeds are most vulnerable to Group B (sulfonylureas), especially lentil and medic. Barley can also
be sensitive to some sulfonylureas. A herbicide tolerant variant of barrel medic is available (Peck and
Howie 2012), in addition to being a good adaptation to these low rainfall farming systems, this could also
be a valuable research tool for examining the possible extent and impact of herbicide residues on these
sandy soils, including the possibility of residues at depth.
4 Water use efficiency as a measure of productivity
Figure 22 clearly shows that the demand for water in the region (pan evaporation) greatly exceeds the
supply of water, hence water is often the key limitation to crop growth rather than radiation. Efforts to use
all the water which is available as efficiently as possible is a primary objective for farmers. Figure 23
shows an often used framework for assessing water use efficiency. In this seasonal water use
(evapotranspiration) is split into direct evaporation of water from the soil (the X (horizontal) axis
intercept) and crop transpiration, the area under the sloping line. The slope of the line represents the
“transpiration efficiency”, the ratio of shoot dry matter produced per unit of crop transpiration (crop water
use). Transpiration efficiencies are a fairly conservative parameter, set at the leaf level (Cowan 1984) and
are unlikely to vary significantly within a site since the primary influence is through the atmospheric
demand for water (the vapour pressure deficit). Therefore the main opportunity for increasing crop
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 15
production through the water balance is either through increasing total water use, and/or decreasing the
direct soil evaporation term (X intercept). Where water use efficiency is expressed as grain yield per mm
water transpired (e.g. Figure 23), the slope of the line should not be interpreted as a transpiration
efficiency, but a product of transpiration efficiency for dry matter, flowering capacity and flowering
success, grain development and effects of pests (especially in experimental plots), diseases and frost on
grain weight, and finally, the effectiveness of grain harvest. Shattering losses, particularly for broadleaf
crops, can have a significant impact on apparent crop water use efficiency where grain yield is plotted on
the Y axis. To avoid misleading interpretations it is thus better to examine water use efficiency in terms of
dry matter production, and in this case the X axis intercept equates directly to bare soil evaporation. Grain
yield (harvest index) efficiency analysis is best conducted after an independent water use efficiency
assessment
Average weekly rainfall or
pan evaporation (mm)
70
60
Average weekly
pan evaporation
50
40
30
20
Average
weekly rainfall
10
0
1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
Week of the year
(or grain yield)
Shoot dry matter
Figure 22 Average weekly open pan evaporation and average weekly rainfall totals for Walpeup, in the
Victorian Mallee.
Reduced evaporative
losses would be diverted
to transpiration
(DM production )
Opportunities for increasing
DM/T are generally much
smaller than for increasing T
At some point an upper
limit will be defined by
radiation interception
For GY/T can be through
changes in harvest index
(A)
Evaporation
Transpiration
ET (mm water)
(B)
Evaporation
Transpiration
ET (mm water)
(C)
Evaporation
Transpiration
ET (mm water)
Figure 23 Relationship between (A) evaporation from soil, plant transpiration and seasonal dry matter
(DM) production, and (B) transpiration efficiency and dry matter production or grain yield (GY), and (C)
introduction of radiation limited growth at luxury water supply.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 16
In studies at Karoonda in 2009 (Whitbread et al. 2010) dry matter production of wheat was lowest on the
sandy dune and highest on the mid slope. This was interpreted as a higher efficiency per mm of water
transpired. Using the above framework we might equate it to either less total water used, a lesser fraction
of the total evapotranspiration was transpired, and/or the harvest indices differed. Given the large
difference in dry matter production between the dune and the mid-slope (Table 16) total water use and/or
the fraction as transpiration were likely to have been lower on the dune.
Table 16
Shoot dry matter and grain yield of wheat as a function of landscape position and soil type in
a single field at Karoonda, South Australia (from Whitbread et al. 2010)
Position
Shoot dry matter
Grain yield
Harvest index
Sept. 23 (kg/ha)
(kg/ha)
Dune
2300
800
0.35
Mid-slope
3800
1500
0.39
Swale
2900
1000
0.34
When examining water use efficiency the difference in the efficiency of water use and actual water use
needs to be carefully considered if we are to understand where the opportunities for increasing both are to
be found. Figure 8 is quite telling in this respect, indicating that there is much unused water under crops
on the sandy dunes, it implies that an increase in transpiration might be achieved through an increase in
total water use. Evidence for increasing transpiration as a fraction of total water use is not yet evident but
may be a real possibility. A comparison of crop harvest indices on the different soils within the topo
sequence within the Karoonda dataset might also be quite illuminating in untangling the few components
of Figure 23. Walsh (1995) felt that there was a need to better define water limited potential for the
sandhill soils to better indicate how to close to potential water limited yields the crops are.
In terms of the water balance, the possibility of lateral water movement from the dune crests and
discharge to the mid slope, or even run off should not be discounted in the water balance in low rainfall
SA Australia. The high transmissivity of the sandy soils would readily permit deep percolation and lateral
movement of water, and perhaps nutrients, which could sponsor the additional growth often indicated on
the mid-slope (e.g. Table 16). In this case the water use and efficiency figures would need to be adjusted
for the additional water available to crops in this position. Such possibilities should not be dismissed as
irrelevant, but need to be understood if we are to provide reliable predictive capacity for growers in this
environment. Water movement in sands is very different to that of finer textured soils, with gravity
probably playing a greater role than capillary action. Deep drainage on Mallee soils has been well
documented (Diaz-Ambrona et al. 2005; O'Connell et al. 2003; O'Connell et al. 1995; Sadras et al. 2003).
Infiltration and drainage rates of >200mm per hour have been recorded for Mallee sands (Walsh 1995),
rates at least double those of the interdune soil. A simulated rainfall equivalent to 125mm of water had
Page 17
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
moved to 2m depth in 4 days, and all of it had moved below 2m one week after application on a Mallee
sand (Walsh 1995). This is one of the key differences between sands and clays, water penetrates more
quickly and more deeply, necessitating deeper rooting if crops are to be able to retrieve the soil water.
The speed at which water moves down the profile is directly related to soil texture, consequently crops in
finer textured sols do not need to root as deeply as those on coarse textured soils to encounter the same
amount of water. Given that Figure 8 indicates a lower rooting depth for crops on the sands, these crops
must have a disproportionately lower total water supply, thus promoting deeper root growth on the sands
is critical to improving crop productivity.
5 System effects
It is unclear whether cereal crops are more or less responsive to break crops on sands compared to the
other soils in the toposequence. Although Figure 24 could be interpreted as sands being less sensitive to
break crop effects, without knowledge of the proportional yield increases on the different soil types the
relative responses are uncertain. This should be possible to ascertain from the data underlying Figure 24.
Gupta et al. (2012a) concluded that “The key benefits of the medic-based pasture and grain legume break
crops were increased soil N from fixed N in residues, whereas the benefits from mustard and canola were
from a reduction in Rhizoctonia solani AG8 inoculum while canola, mustard and rye all increased
microbial activity and N mineralisation potential. The reduction in Rhizoctonia solani inoculum and
mycorrhizal fungi after canola and mustard lasted for one following wheat crop only whereas nutrient
related benefits may extend for more than one following cereal crop”. Crop rotation is the key element of
sustainable production from a biophysical standpoint, however, this has probably been the Achilles heel
of farming systems on sandy soils in low rainfall SA Australia. Although there has been great progress,
there is a continuing challenge in obtaining reliable production and erosion protection with non-cereal
crops on sandy soils in low rainfall environments.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 18
Figure 24 Break crop effects (t/ha) reported by farmers in the Victorian Mallee following canola or
pulse crops on dunes (sand), mid-slope (loam) or heavy (swale) soils.
In experiments on a series of sandy soils in the Victorian Mallee (Walsh 1995), wheat yields at one site
were consistently low and found to be unresponsive to management (rotations). This was attributed to
past erosion events decimating soil fertility, whereas as other sand hill soils which had adequate fertility
were very responsive to rotation with legumes. Even low yielding legume rotational crops have been
observed to provide good rotational benefits to following cereals (Coventry et al. 1998) but this alone
does not counter the higher costs and risks of growing legumes in the low rainfall environment. Rotation
sequence had no impact on soil water at harvest of wheat on a sand at Walpeup, suggesting that rotational
crop effects did not include influence on rooting depth or water extraction (Walsh 1995).
Although it has been repeatedly demonstrated that non-cereal rotations are of great benefit to farming
systems, the examples given above appear somewhat academic given the fact that less than 10% of the
cropping area in the SA-Vic Mallee was sown to non-cereal crops in the 2010 calendar year (Table 17).
While pasture/fallow/cereal crops were the backbone of mallee agriculture for many years, there has
always been problems with establishment of pasture legumes on sandy soils of the region (Walsh 1995).
The major challenge is thus to develop suitable broadleaf crop types and technologies for low rainfall
sandy soils, a challenge which has remained somewhat stagnant for a long period of time despite previous
investments. The reasons for the lack of progress in solution of this problem would be worthy of a
thorough review in its own right.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 19
Table 17
Percentage of cropping area sown to cereals, grain legumes or canola in the 2011
agricultural census
Region
Cereals Legumes Canola
Victorian Mallee
90
6
3
Eyre Peninsula
90
4
5
SA Murray Lands
92
3
4
6 Summary and Conclusions
The weight of evidence from low rainfall Se Australia is that productivity on sandy soils is well below
potential and that opportunities for improving productivity in the region are likely to be greater on sands
than finer textured soils.
There has been a shift in the region toward more intensive cereal cropping, primarily at the expense of
fallow and pastures, thus practices which had previously accumulated organic nutrients and water have
been replaced by fertilisers and intensive cropping. While contemporary minimum tillage systems might
result in less wheeled traffic than previous systems which used cultivation to control weeds (Cooke et al.
1989), the higher frequency of cropping may mean that there are as many machinery passes as previous
but without the disruptive tillage. Compaction on sandy soils can occur under drier conditions than for
finer textured soils. The notion that reduced tillage systems have led to less total wheeled traffic over
fields needs to be verified.
Root growth in compacted soils is reduced, this will be a factor when water is limiting but less so when
rainfall is sufficient for growth, as opposed to stored soil water. In most years soils do not wet to field
capacity in the region, and problems of high penetration resistance will thus be exacerbated in drier years
and drier environments. The possibility that rotations which include broad-leaf crop species with thick
roots may assist in reducing the impact of hard pans is worthy of investigation because it is root thickness
rather than density which seems to be the important attribute.
Sandy soils in the region may be more responsive to deep ripping than finer textured soils. Deep tillage,
with combinations of nutrients, organic matter or clay additions with spading could play a role in
ameliorating some of the constraints on sandy soils but are not sufficiently robust at present to be widely
recommended. Such approaches will attack the problem of poor root growth and unused water on a
number of fronts. The use of clay as an ameliorant will most likely be restricted to systems with suitable
in situ sub-surface clays, or clays available within the treatment paddock. However, this is likely to be
restricted in their application to very particular soils profiles and situations. This is a focus of the SA State
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 20
Government “New Horizons” imitative which could be usefully augmented with some additional targeted
science
The potential for drainage and leaching beyond the root zone of crops is very high on these sandy soils.
The coarse texture allows rapid gravitational pull on soil water. Measurement of leaching is somewhat
time consuming, but it can be readily modelled and this should be done, and a simple tool produced
which can be used to identify when leaching occurs on sandy soils across the region in response to
rainfall. This information can then be used to assist in nutrient budgeting, identifying risks of nutrient
deficiency and ways to improve nutrient management. Strategic soil coring and analysis could be used to
confirm the quantities of nutrients leached across the region.
Improving root development on sandy soils is key, not just to increase water extraction, but because
susceptibility to root damage from pathogens and pests and herbicide residues can interact to reduce
nutrient and water uptake, exacerbating problems of low water holding capacity in the near surface.
Cereals are more susceptible to the effects of compaction on root growth than a range of broad leaf
species.
The primary challenges on coarse textured soils in low rainfall SE Australia are thus:

ensuring that crops grown have deep rooting capacity and deep rooting opportunity

ensure that nutrients are accessible within the crop rooting zone

that crop rotations include more regular broad leaf species

the movement of water and nutrients down the soil profile are understood to the extent that they
can be predicted

the extent of non-wetting and high soil resistance to root growth across the region are better
defined

the specific causes of high soil resistance to root growth are identified

to increase soil organic matter
For each of these recommendations it is important that research questions are carefully framed, and
relevant material thoroughly examined, prior to any experimental work being planned. Many of the
questions can be answered with specifically targeted research, rather than large scale programs
incorporating many treatments and few measurements. This document provides a background not a plan
for action. Smart investment would include a more thorough analysis of existing research and research
data, before designing particular experiments in solution of the considerable problems of coarse textured
soils. The opportunities are significant but will only be realised through the prosecution of experiments
based on specific, well informed, clearly framed hypotheses.
Page 21
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 22
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Page 27
8 Appendix 1 – Workshop summary
A one day workshop was held at The Waite Campus Adelaide on 26 June 2014. The purpose of the
workshop was to discuss the findings of the draft report on constraints to crop production on coarse
textures soils of low rainfall south-eastern Australia. The 24 workshop participants included growers,
agronomic consultants and scientists from a range of agencies. Dr Phil Ward from CSIRO Floreat brought
us up to date on research in solution of problems on sandy soils in Western Australia where there has
been increased efforts in recent years.
Table 18
List of attendees at the workshop on potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
in low rainfall south-eastern Australia and priorities for research.
Attendee
Role
Ted Hancock
Farmer (Murray Mallee, SA)
Neil Fettell
GRDC Southern Panel, farmer (Central West, NSW)
Ed Hunt
Consultant agronomist, farmer (Eyre Peninsula, SA)
Lou Flohr
Consultant agronomist, farmer (Murray Mallee, SA)
James Hall
Consultant soil scientist (SA)
Jeff Braun
Consultant agronomist (Mid-north and Murray Mallee, SA)
Andy Bates
Consultant agronomist (Eyre Peninsula, SA)
Ben Jones
Consultant agronomist/scientist (Vic Mallee)
Murray Unkovich
Consultant scientist
Simon Craig
BCG research leader, farmer (Vic. Mallee)
Annie McNeil
Soil scientist (University of Adelaide)
Nigel Wilhelm
GRDC LRZ RCSN coordinator, SARDI ( SA)
Tim Herrmann
Soil scientist (DEWNR, SA)
Naomi Scholz
Project manager, SARDI (Eyre Peninsula, SA)
Melissa Cann
Soil scientist (DEPI, Swan Hill, Victoria)
Amanda Schapel
Soil scientist, (Rural Solutions SA)
Rebecca Tonkin
Consultant agronomist (Rural Solutions, Lenswood SA)
Therese McBeath
Soil scientist, CSIRO (Adelaide)
Gupta Vadakattu
Soil biologist, CSIRO (Adelaide)
Rick Llewellyn
Farming systems scientist, CSIRO (Adelaide)
Phil Ward
Soil water scientist, CSIRO (Perth)
Nigel McGuckian
Consultant ( facilitator)
Michael Moodie
Consultant agronomist (SE Mallee)
Gemma Walker
Executive manager, Mallee Sustainable Farming Inc., farmer (Vic)
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 28
Generally the workshop commended the scoping paper and endorsed the primary elements. The
presentations and discussions were very useful in better defining some issues and also raised some
additional issues.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 29
Table 19
Comments on original scoping paper primary recommendations as follows
Scoping paper recommendation
Workshop comment
 ensuring that crops grown have deep rooting
endorsed as a priority
capacity and deep rooting opportunity
 nutrients are accessible within the crop rooting
zone
 crop rotations include more regular broad leaf
possible problems of nutritional “desert” layers
prohibiting root growth should be considered
lack of suitable crop choices remains a dilemma
species
 movement of water and nutrients down the soil ability to predict N mineralisation would also be
profile are understood to the extent that they
very useful
can be predicted
 the extent of non-wetting and soil compaction
across the region are better defined
 the specific causes of any soil compaction are
identified
can we link actual defined soil type to likely
problems?
extent and impact of natural physically
impenetrable layers in sands needs to be
investigated because some of these do not appear
to be traffic induced.
can we mitigate the effects of naturally
impenetrable layers?
 soil organic matter is increased
external input opportunities discussed
 in assessing the efficiency of these systems and analysis must also include an assessment of grain
any treatments, the focus should be on dry
yield and harvest index
matter production rather than yield in the first
instance as this provides greater insight than
grain yield analysis
Issues raised in addition to those in the original scoping paper
Additional issue
Workshop comment
 Frost problems of light coloured sandy soils
less frost observed with claying. Relative
importance of albedo versus soil water storage
need to be ascertained if advice to be given
 How do you decide whether to mitigate
problems or ameliorate soil with clay and/or
need some decision system/tipping points to
assist in decision making
organic matter?
 How do you decide when to take soils out of
production?
need some decision system/tipping points to
assist in decision making
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 30
Attendees were asked to contribute questions that they had in relation to productivity of crops on sandy
soils, either in their region or more broadly. These questions have been grouped under relevant headings
and classified as either Research questions or primarily Extension questions
Table 20
Research questions raised by workshop participants in relation to mitigation of problems of
crop production on sandy soils
Theme
Questions
Sandy Soils
A series of questions around crop establishment technology, these are placed
under the “Water repellency” heading below
Need better understanding of sandy soil types and properties in NSW
Water
Why don’t crop roots extract water from the subsoil?
Does water repellency reduce yield through effects on the seasonal water
balance as well as through poor crop establishment?
Is there lateral seepage of water from sandy rises and is it causing problems on
nearby mid slopes or break of slopes (e.g. bogging)?
Is bulk density and/or high soil strength implicated in poor root growth and
what is the relative contribution of traffic and compaction to poor root
penetration?
Nutrition
How can we estimate nitrogen leaching and N mineralisation on sandy soils?
How do we get roots to grow into bleached, nutrient (e.g. Zn) deficient soil
layers ?
In non-calcareous sands P is generally available, but can it leach with N, can it
also tie up Zn?
What are the key nutritional constraints?
Does ability to grow through bleached layers differ between plant types?
Water repellency
What is the impact of and options for dry sowing?
How do we define the extent and level of of non-wetting sands and do we
manage differently depending on “level” of non-wetting?
What seeding systems would improve germination (e.g. winged seeders)?
Erosion
Legacy of erosion - what are our soils after movement of soils on to or down
from hills?
Main erosion risk is from having to resort to tillage for weed control for
difficult to control weeds
Rotational
What legume should we grow to provide N, and how do we establish them?
opportunities
How long will rotational benefits be available?
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 31
Need an N fixing crop with sufficient cover after harvest
Pests and Diseases
Are there sub-clinical effects of pests and diseases effecting growth e.g.
Rhizoctonia?
Are crops on sands “weaker” and more susceptible to diseases/pests than on
other soils?
Do sands get colder than other soils and slow crop development?
Weeds/herbicides
Is high chemical use on sandy soils (especially over summer) resulting in subclinical phytotoxicity of crops, especially broadleaf crops?
Is lack of crop vigour a consequence of herbicide residues? (esp. for broadleaf
crops)?
Are herbicides moving on water repellent soils and damaging sown crops?
Table 21
Extension questions raised by workshop participants in relation to mitigation of problems of
crop production on sandy soils
Theme
Questions
Sandy Soils
Can we get better definition around soil types and their properties that give
predictive capacity for likely sandy soil problems?
Frost seems much worse on pale coloured sandy soils, is it reduced by claying?
Nutrition
How well do K soil test interpretations relate to K uptake on sands?
Water repellency
How do I establish pasture legumes and break crops?
How can I improve seed bed moisture for germination?
What is the appropriate measure of water repellency/non-wetting that we
should use?
What seeding systems would improve germination (e.g. winged seeders)?
How can the experience gained from seeding systems development in Western
Australia (no till, in furrow, in row, wetter application) best be transferred to
the Se Australian Mallee?
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 32
Table 22
Questions raised by workshop participants in relation to amelioration of sandy soils with clay
and/or organic matter amendments
Theme
Soil amelioration
Questions
Felt that mitigation strategies were required first, along with an assessment
of when one might opt for amelioration strategies
How can we replicate the “pipeline” effect (i.e. considerable and sustained
responses to major soil disturbances).
Can we better match the management or amelioration to those specific soil
definitions
How can we dissociate the critical factors with soil amelioration? (inversion,
delving, ripping)
What is the effect of amelioration of compaction in wetter years? (EP
research done in dry years)
What is the effect on compaction of ripping with deep placement of organic
amendment?
What is the impact on frost risk? Does it remove the frost risk?
What is the current guidance available to farmers waiting to renovate sandy
soils?
Can delvers be re-engineered to be more efficient and delve deeper? (half
the horse power and another 20 to 30 cm). Clay spreading helps with frost delving is better again. The areas where clay is shallow enough to delve can
be mapped (J Hall).
What is the problem that we are actually trying to solve? We are trying to
increase the surface area of the soil.
The potential role of mouldboard ploughing is yet to be considered. At this stage it is considered part of
the “amelioration” strategy which has not been advanced in the present analysis. Lessons from Western
Australia in this respect will be valuable. A summary of the exposé of Western Australian experience per
Phil Ward (CSIRO) as follows.
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 33
Phil Ward (CSIRO Floreat, recent progress with sandy soil research in Western Australia)
Sandy soils are responsive to management with respect to crop yield increases
Perception that water repellency is becoming worse in Western Australia.
Water repellency is a problem for dry seeding because tillage of dry soil exacerbates repellency, thus the
recent move toward dry sowing makes water repellency a more urgent problem
Mitigation
It has been found that the combination of wetting agent and furrow sowing can
increase water use efficiency. No-till/residue retention also leads to higher soil water content despite
increased water repellency. Inter-row sowing provides two pathways for water infiltration and on-row
seeding is providing good water infiltration.
Amelioration Clay spreading is not very wide spread yet in WA. Mouldboard ploughing (ca 35 cm) is
increasingly popular. This buries water repellent layer yield responses of approximately 0.5 t/ha have
been sustained for 5 years so far but there is a significant risk of erosion which is yet to be realised.
Mouldboard ploughing brings with it the advantage of burial of weed seeds below a depth from which
they can emerge and it is likely that tis has been a big benefit.
Nutrition
•
N - prone to leaching so split application best
•
P - generally okay
•
K, S and micro-nutrients - can often be deficient, so soil tests required
•
Tissue testing - what is the plant drawing from the soil?
•
Where in the soil profile are the nutrients?
Carbon
•
Generally low in sandy soils
•
No-till/residue retention increases soil carbon (relatively) but also increases water
repellency and water holding capacity and nutrient retention
•
Role of perennial pastures still unclear
Knowledge Gaps
•
why don’t roots grow into subsoil?
•
Herbicide efficacy and movement (ridges and furrows)
•
Nutrient availability with subsoil amelioration - need the roots to be active
•
Rotation alternatives
•
Diverse option farming systems are working better so there is a need for non-cereal
options to be developed
Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
Page 34
END OF P WARD SUMMARY
There were three presentations from growers/consultants highlighting what they thought were the primary
issues in their regions, a précis of their main points are as follows
Neil Fettell - sandy soils in south-central NSW (Griffith to south of Cobar)









Sandy soils - 20% of the landscape
Symptoms - poor growth and yield on sandy rises; prominently neutral pH to acid layers at depth;
establishment okay - poor tillering and some leaf tipping; residual soil water after harvest
Growers have tried a number of interventions
Ripping - short term response (may last a year), resettles quickly, difficulty in establishing crops fluffy soil
Deep lime incorporation - limited response
Nitrogen - move fertiliser away from seed row and apply N post emergent
Increase seeding rate (using mapping capacity for variable rates on sandy rises)
Reduce residual herbicide rates (can cut back on sandy rises)
Chicken litter - 2.5 and 5 t/ha, short term response, high rates not economic (farmers are doing
this on their own)
Jeff Braun (Murray Mallee and northern Yorke Peninsula, SA)



Frost and non-wetting a significant issue on white sands in the southern Murray Mallee
Concern about metrubuzen movement/damage to crops
Suggested that boggy patches were appearing between swales due to local water discharge
downslope and becoming a problem for tractability
Andy Bates (Eyre Peninsula)




Soils constraining crop growth, stratification of nutrients needs to be examined
Nutrients are declining in soil tests in the region (e.g. sulphur)
Establishment problems being tackled successfully but growth still not good even when
established
deep ripping effects short term
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Workshop outcomes
The key workshop outcomes were as follows

Our definition of “sandy soils” was refined to “those soils where the primary constraints to crop
production are in the coarse textured part of the profile, not in a finer textured, or texture
contrast subsoil layers”. Thus the soils of interest are primarily deeper sands with the majority of
the seasonal plant available water and annual crop root growth in the sandy layer.
The workshop differentiated between (a) management opportunities which would address reduced
potential of sandy soils due to past and current management practices which might have resulted in
declining yields or declining yield potential of sandy soils used for cropping, and (b) potential
management practices which might radically alter the properties of sandy soils and result in a higher yield
potential than the soils in their “native state”. This distinction and the associated constraints to production
and potential management responses are illustrated in Figure 25, along with management issues which
would cut across all three situations. There was not opportunity to ask the attendees at the workshop to
rank the issues of Table 19 in terms of reaearch priorities, however, the mitigation options (Figure 25)
represent the relatively “low hanging fruit” in terms of research and development and should provide
substantial returns on investment by bringing crop yields to closer to the water limited potential of these
soils. To achieve this will require a combination of basic, stratgeic and applied research, and adaptation
and extension of existing technology from elsewhere in Australia.
Establishment
Nutrition
Weeds
Disease
Rotations
Claying
Delving
Deep ripping
Soil reforming
Deep nutrients
Inherent Sand Potential
$
AMELIORATION
$
AMELIORATION
Raised Soil Potential
MITIGATION
Ongoing
management
Poor root growth
Water repellency
Low fertility
Declining soil C
Rotational crops
Reduced Sand Potential
Figure 25 Opportunities for mitigating current constraints and bringing crop yields closer to water
limited yield potentials on sandy soils, and for soil reformation through more radical amelioration
strategies.
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The amelioration strategies represent somewhat of a revolution for agriculture in the region, but the
efficacy and economics of these new systems are yet to be rigorously evaluated. A new initiative by the
South Australian government, “NEW HORIZONS: A Clean Green Food Revolution For South
Australia”, will focus on applied research and engineering development and provides a potential portal for
developing an understanding of the primary drivers of yield responses in such ameliorated soils through
targeted parallel investment at sites established in the New Horizons program.
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9 Appendix 2 - Example soil descriptions
Following are soil descriptions for some relevant sandy soils from South Australia. These provide a
formal description of some of the types of soils under consideration, selected merely on the basis that they
were readily available from Hall et al. (2009) at the time of writing. Relevant soils are not restricted to
those outlined below and it would be useful to source similar data for a range of target soils across low
rainfall SA Australia.
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Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
9.1 Murray Mallee
The Molineaux sand described here is equivalent to the Lowan Sand of Pell et al. (2001).
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Potential constraints to crop production on sandy soils
9.2 Eyre Peninsula
The origin of the sands on the Eyre Peninsula are not the same as those in the SE Australian Mallee.
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